4

M O D U L E

Emotional Development

Emotions and Individual Performance

ⁿ Dimensions of Emotional Intelligence

ⁿ Emotions in the Classroom

What Is Emotion?

ⁿ Emotions and Temperament

ⁿ How Parents, Gender, and Culture Influence Emotion

Outline Learning Goals

1. Describe the general influences of temperament, parenting practices, gender, and culture on children’s emotional expressiveness.

2. Identify the five dimensions of emotional intelligence outlined in Goleman’s model, and discuss at least one way teachers can facilitate the development of each dimension.
3. Describe two primary ways in which emotions can impact learning.

Summary Key Concepts Case Studies: Reflect and Evaluate

Applications: Emotionally Intelligent Teaching

ⁿ What Is Social-Emotional Learning (SEL)?

ⁿ Benefits of SEL Programs

4. Define social-emotional learning and discuss the three essential principles that underlie SEL interventions.

boh7850x_CL1Mod4.p061-075.indd 61 boh7850x_CL1Mod4.p061-075.indd 61 10/9/08 8:26:26 AM

10/9/08 8:26:26 AM

62 cluster one personal development

WHAT IS EMOTION?

Every day of every school year, teachers witness a broad spectrum of emotional displays by students. They may notice physiological signs such as sweaty palms or flushed cheeks, behavioral signs such as worried facial expressions or fists clenched in anger, or conscious expressions of feelings such as entries in students’ reflective journals or persuasive arguments made during a class discussion. As you will see throughout this module, emotions are complex constellations of physiology, behavior, and feeling that can have a direct impact on students’ performance in school.

Emotions and Temperament

Temperament refers to genetically based individual differences in emotions, activity, and self-control that determine our patterns of response to environmental stimuli and events. It encompasses our capacity for adaptability, persistence, adventurousness, shyness, inhibitedness, irritability, and distractibility (Keogh, 2003; Pfeifer, Goldsmith, Davidson, & Rickman, 2002; Thomas & Chess, 1977). Although temperament includes more than emotions, variations in emotionality are central to modern conceptions of temperament (Lemerise & Arsenio, 2000). Researchers have identified different temperament styles that emerge early in life and seem to be relatively enduring. From the first days of life, some babies are easygoing, cheerful, and relaxed, while others are difficult, reactive, and fidgety. Inhibited and fearful 2-year-olds often are still relatively shy as 8-year-olds, and about half will continue to be introverted as adolescents (Kagan et al., 1994; Kagan, Snidman, & Arcus, 1998). Young children observed to be highly irritable, impulsive, and hard to control at age 3 are more likely to have drug problems, difficulties at work, and relationship conflicts by the time they are 21 (Caspi, 2000). Teachers who recognize some of these persistent patterns can help provide students with tools to understand and manage their emotions in a way that will optimize their chances for life success.

Temperament affects how students engage in and respond to classroom activities and also affects students’ academic achievement (Keogh, 2003). For example, high levels of persistence and low levels of distractibility can facilitate school success. The genetic underpinnings of temperament establish a predisposition for certain kinds of emotional behavior. However, culture plays an important role in shaping how and whether those behaviors ultimately will unfold (Keogh, 2003; Thompson, 1998). For example, European-American families tend to encourage children to be assertive and independent, while families in Mexico, Japan, or India are more likely to encourage children to be reserved and obedient (Joshi & Maclean, 1994; Rothbaum, Weisz, Pott, Miyake, & Morelli, 2000). While no one best temperament guarantees success, teachers may need to consider students’ temperamental characteristics in trying to create an optimal learning environment that meets the needs of every student. For example, students who are highly anxious may be overwhelmed in a noisy, chaotic classroom and may need a calmer space in which to work productively. Students who are shy and sensitive may need help finding supportive peer connections.

How would you describe your own temperament? What examples can you think of that indicate whether your own temperament has been relatively stable over the years? How does your temperament affect the way you approach school activities?

How Parents, Gender, and Culture Influence Emotion

Children first learn to express emotion within a family context, so the degree to which family members express their emotions and the form those emotions take shape the emotional patterns that children adopt (Halberstadt & Eaton, 2002). The influence of family emotional expressiveness declines over the first six years of life (Halberstadt & Eaton, 2002), which suggests that schools may be an appropriate transition point for assisting children with managing their emotions.

Differences in emotional expressiveness by gender may also, in part, be traced back to socialization within the family. Parents typically attempt to encourage emotional expression in girls, with the exception of anger. They are more likely to attempt to regulate boys’ emotional expressiveness, particularly sadness and pain. Hence, boys may be less emotionally expressive when it comes to emotions such as sadness or fear but may be more likely than girls to express feelings of anger or dominance (Eisenberg, Martin, & Fabes, 1996; Fuchs & Thelen, 1988). Achievement situations are more likely to produce anxiety responses in boys, whereas girls are more likely to become anxious in interpersonal situations (Steinberg & Morris, 2001).

,

,

boh7850x_CL1Mod4.p061-075.indd 62 boh7850x_CL1Mod4.p061-075.indd 62 10/9/08 8:26:35 AM

10/9/08 8:26:35 AM

module four emotional development 63

Emotional

Development

Module 4 :

Emotions in the Classroom. Every day, teachers see a broad spectrum of emotional displays by students.

,

Each culture has its own display rules governing the degree of emotional expression considered appropriate in different situations, along with the coping strategies considered acceptable (Elfenbein, 2006; Mesquita & Frijda, 1992). For example, Asians rarely display negative or self-aggrandizing emotions that might disrupt the communal feeling within close-knit groups, but they are more likely than Americans to display emotions of sympathy, respect, and shame that reflect their social connection and interdependence. A teacher’s ability to recognize and respond to students’ emotional states requires awareness of the ways emotions may be expressed by different individuals, as well as awareness of how parenting practices, gender, and culture influence emotional expression.

EMOTIONS AND INDIVIDUAL PERFORMANCE

Research on the connection between emotion and learning suggests that thinking, learning, and emotions are interconnected processes and that teachers need to address multiple goals of cognition and emotions in every facet of classroom learning (Coles, 1998). Let’s examine how emotional competence contributes to personal success in both academic and broader life arenas and how emotions influence learning.

Dimensions of Emotional Intelligence

Psychologists have begun to explore whether students who have a better command of their own emotions and are more attuned to the emotions of others have a social or an academic edge of some kind. Psychologists Peter Salovey and John Mayer first introduced the term emotional intelligence (EI) and defined it as the ability to perceive, express, understand, and manage emotions (Mayer, DiPaolo, & Salovey, 1990; Salovey & Mayer, 1990). With the 1995 publication of psychologist Daniel Goleman’s best-selling trade book Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ, public attention became focused on the construct of emotional intelligence.

The concept of emotional intelligence has shifted the academic emphasis from isolated cognitive abilities as a predictor of school and life success to the contributions of emotional and social factors. IQ accounts for only about 20% of a person’s career success, leaving a large portion of success determined by other factors (Goleman, 2006). Studies have shown that:

n overall emotional intelligence uniquely explains individual cognitive performance beyond the level attributable to general intelligence (Lam & Kirby, 2002);

n emotional intelligence during preschool is related to social competence in elementary school students (Denhem et al., 2003; Hubbard & Coie, 1994);

n children’s high emotional intelligence is associated with bonding to teachers and peers in school, whereas low emotional intelligence is associated with academic outcomes such as dropping out of school (Hawkins, Catalano, Kosterman, Abbott, & Hill, 1999).

Daniel Goleman (1995, 2006) broadened Salovey and Mayer’s definition of emotional intelligence (EI) to include five main dimensions:

boh7850x_CL1Mod4.p061-075.indd 63 boh7850x_CL1Mod4.p061-075.indd 63 10/9/08 8:26:35 AM

10/9/08 8:26:35 AM

64 cluster one personal development

TA B L E 4 .1 Examples of High and Low Emotional Intelligence

Dimension of emotional intelligence High emotional intelligence Low emotional intelligence

Cannot share feelings verbally. Is oblivious to nonverbal communication.

Is not perceptive with regard to others’ feelings.

Emotional understanding Can openly identify and express feelings.

Reads nonverbal language effectively.

Can identify the feelings of others.

Is not accepting of self or others. Uses passive or aggressive communication.

Lacks empathy.

Responding to others’ emotions Accepts self and others.

Can communicate assertively.

Displays empathy.

Emotional regulation Promotes an optimistic point of view.

Reacts to hurt by processing feelings.

Is emotionally resilient.

Lets negative feelings dominate. Reacts to hurt with physical violence. Carries a grudge and is unforgiving.

Self-motivation Usually feels respected and competent.

Is motivated by personal meaning.

Usually feels inadequate and defensive.

Is motivated by rewards and instant gratification.

Emotions in relationships Says “I feel . . .” (“I” message).

Is a good listener.

Talks out problems with others.

Says “You always . . .” (blame statement).

Is a poor listener.

Acts out against others when there is a problem or miscommunication.

Adapted from G. Doty (2001). Fostering emotional intelligence in K–8 students (p. 7). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.

1. Emotional understanding.

2. Responding to others’ emotions. 3. Emotional regulation.

4. Self-motivation.

5. Emotions in relationships.

Table 4.1 contrasts the features of high versus low emotional intelligence by providing specific examples of each of these five dimensions. Let’s consider each dimension of emotional intelligence and explore how a teacher might facilitate the development of students’ skills.

DEFINING EMOTIONAL UNDERSTANDING

How well can students of various ages understand their own emotional reactions and those of others? Emotional understanding, the ability to differentiate and interpret one’s own emotions and to perceive and understand the emotions of others, becomes possible only when certain cognitive milestones have been reached. Between 18 and 24 months of age, the cognitive capacity for self-awareness emerges. This is the ability to recognize our own thoughts and feelings and to observe them in a way that allows us to understand them and make decisions about how to act on them (Goleman, 1995). Children who lack such self-awareness may find it difficult to control impulsive actions, make appropriate decisions, and communicate what they mean (Elias, Tobias, & Friedlander, 1999). Children’s understanding of other people’s emotions is closely tied to their ability to understand their own emotions (Bretherton, Fritz, Zahn-Waxler, & Ridgeway, 1986; Shatz, 1994).

Researchers have noted several developmental trends in the various aspects of emotional understanding, summarized in Table 4.2. As language development occurs, toddlers begin to acquire emotion words like happy and sad to express how they feel (Bretherton & Beeghly, 1982; Bretherton et al., 1986). By their fourth year, they can engage in simple dialogues about the causes and consequences of emotions (Dunn, Brown, & Beardsall, 1991). A child’s ability to evaluate behavior based on external standards emerges between two and three years of age, making emotions such as pride, shame, and

boh7850x_CL1Mod4.p061-075.indd 64 boh7850x_CL1Mod4.p061-075.indd 64 10/9/08 8:26:37 AM

10/9/08 8:26:37 AM

module four emotional development 65

TA B L E 4 . 2

Milestones in Emotional Development

Age Emotional regulation Emotional understanding

Birth–6 months Signs of almost all basic emotions are present. Social smile emerges.

Laughter appears.

Expressions of happiness are greater when interacting with familiar people.

Vocabulary for talking about feelings expands.

Empathic responding appears.

Ability to detect the meaning of others’ emotional signals emerges.

Social referencing develops.

Emotional

Development

Module 4 :

Resonance to the emotional cues of others is present.

7–12 months Anger and fear increase.

Use of caregiver as a secure base emerges.

Emotional self-regulation improves as crawling and walking permit approach and retreat from stimulation.

1–2 years Self-conscious emotions appear but depend on the presence of others.

3–6 years As representation and language improve, active behavioral and cognitive strategies for engaging in emotional self-regulation develop.

Understanding of causes, consequences, and behavioral signs of emotion improves in accuracy and complexity.

As language develops, empathic responding becomes more reflective.

7–11 years Self-conscious emotions become integrated with inner standards for right action. Strategies for engaging in emotional self-regulation increase in variety, become more cognitive, and are adjusted to situational demands.

Conformity to and conscious awareness of emotional display rules improve.

Ability to consider multiple sources of information when explaining others’ emotions appears.

Awareness that people can experience more than one emotion at a time emerges. Empathic responding increases as emotional understanding improves.

12 years and older At this point, adolescents are developing the ability to:

ⁿ regulate intense emotions

ⁿ modulate rapidly vacillating emotions

ⁿ achieve awareness of and successfully attend to their own emotions without becoming overwhelmed by them

Adolescents begin to:

ⁿ understand the consequences to self and others of genuine emotional expression versus dissemblance

ⁿ separate momentary emotional experience from identity and recognize that the self can remain intact and continuous despite emotional fluctuation

ⁿ use cognitive skills to gather information about the nature and sources of emotion

ⁿ negotiate and maintain interpersonal relationships in the presence of strong emotion

Note: These milestones represent overall age trends, but individual differences may exist.

guilt possible (Kochanska, Gross, Lin, & Nichols, 2002; Lindner, 2006). By the middle elementary grades, most children are also capable of feeling shame when they fail to meet standards for moral behavior set for them by adults (Damon, 1988). Guilt comes from within the child, while shame comes from knowing that someone else might see and criticize what the child has done (Tangney, 2001). Although guilt and shame are experienced as unpleasant emotions, they are a good sign that children are developing a sense of right and wrong. Between ages 3 and 6, children’s understanding of causes, consequences, and the behavioral signs of emotion improves in accuracy and complexity. Between ages 7 and 11, individuals demonstrate the ability to consider multiple sources of information

boh7850x_CL1Mod4.p061-075.indd 65 boh7850x_CL1Mod4.p061-075.indd 65 10/9/08 8:26:38 AM

10/9/08 8:26:38 AM

66 cluster one personal development

(e.g., situational and personality factors) in explaining the emotions of others (Gnepp & Gould, 1985). The expectations teachers have of students in terms of emotional maturity in different situations should reflect an awareness of developmental norms and changes.

Students’ ability to understand their emotions is linked to greater self-confidence, because understanding emotions allows them to feel greater control over their inner life (Goleman, 1995; Hama-check, 2000). In a longitudinal study conducted by Izard (2001), even after controlling for verbal aptitude and temperament, 5-year-olds who could most accurately discern others’ emotions became 9-year-olds who easily made friends, cooperated with their teacher, and effectively managed their own emotions.

RESPONDING TO OTHERS’ EMOTIONS

As human beings, we communicate our emotions verbally through emotional language, tone or attitude, and pitch (high or low volume), as well as nonverbally through our facial expressions, posture, and hand gestures. Paralinguistic cues such as changes in speaking rate, pitch level, or vocal quality typically are used to reinforce language content. From the first months of life, babies can pick up on emotional cues in spoken conversation (Cooper & Aslin, 1990; Morton & Trehub, 2001).

Facial expressions, a nonverbal indicator of emotion, seem to be culturally universal (Ekman, 1994; Matsumoto & Ekman, 1989). For example:

n Studies of adults across a wide range of cultures show high levels of agreement on the meaning of facial displays of basic emotions such as happiness, sadness, disgust, anger, surprise, and fear (Ekman, 1994). Try it yourself. Figure 4.1 presents six photographs of facial expressions (Matsumoto & Ekman, 1989). See if you can match the six basic emotions with the faces pictured.

n The facial expressions children use to express various emotions, even among blind children who have never seen another face to imitate, are universal (Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1971; Galati, Scherer, & Ricci-Bitti, 1997).

As children and adolescents improve at reading and interpreting emotions, empathetic responding tends to increase. Empathy is the ability to experience and understand the feelings, situation, or

>><<

Children’s understanding of right and wrong: See page 77.

,

>><<

Empathy: See page 82.

Figure 4.1: Facial Expressions. Facial expressions of basic emotions are culturally universal. See if you can identify the individuals displaying the following emotions: happiness, sadness, disgust, anger, surprise, and fear.

boh7850x_CL1Mod4.p061-075.indd 66 boh7850x_CL1Mod4.p061-075.indd 66 10/9/08 8:26:40 AM

10/9/08 8:26:40 AM

module four emotional development 67

motives of someone else. Children as young as age 2 to 3 are able to understand another’s emotional expressions of distress and to respond with appropriate behaviors (Denham, 1986, 1998). At the early elementary level, children show empathy more frequently toward people they know personally. As they reach the upper elementary grades, their feelings of empathy begin to extend to people they may not know, such as homeless people or children orphaned by war (Eisenberg, 1982; Hoffman, 1991).

EMOTIONAL REGULATION

Children and adolescents vary in the intensity with which they experience and express emotions and in their skills for regulating emotions. Emotional regulation, the ability to tolerate and manage emotions, enables students to prevent stress from overwhelming them and to stay on task and think and work productively (Elias et al., 1997). Students who are poor regulators have a higher risk of mal-adjustment (Eisenberg et al., 1996). Emotional regulation involves, among other things, following certain rules about when and how to display emotions. Children become more proficient at this as they get older and gain a better understanding of what emotions are considered appropriate for display in different contexts (Barnes, 1995). Children and adolescents often use social referencing, a strategy of using other people’s reactions to help them interpret a situation and decide how to respond (Campos & Sternberg, 1981). Teachers can guide students’ emotional reactions by being in tune with their own emotions and by modeling the types of emotional expression that are appropriate in various circumstances.

Some situations involve stimuli that trigger an almost uncontrollable emotional response. The amygdala, a limbic structure within the brain that controls emotions such as fear, anger, and aggression, reacts instantly to stimuli that individuals perceive as threatening and triggers a series of behavioral, physiological, and endocrine responses (LeDoux, 2000; Winston, Strange, O’Doherty, & Dolan, 2002). This quick response pattern has an adaptive function, as in cases where students react to a fire alarm with an increased heart rate, a fight-or-flight reaction, and a search for an exit from the building. The state of arousal created in such situations makes self-regulation, planning, and thoughtful reflection more difficult (Metcalfe & Mischel, 1999). However, by participating in a fire drill (discussing and role playing), students can learn what behavior is expected and practice it without the increased emotional arousal and potential cognitive interference that may accompany an actual emergency.

Emotional

Development

Module 4 :

Fire Drill. Teachers help students prepare for a fire emergency by discussing what to do, and by practicing how to exit the building.

boh7850x_CL1Mod4.p061-075.indd 67 boh7850x_CL1Mod4.p061-075.indd 67 10/9/08 8:26:44 AM

10/9/08 8:26:44 AM

68 cluster one personal development

Emotional regulation allows the individual to move from an automatic, hot emotional response to a cooler, well-reasoned, reflective response that gives access to a wider range of cognitive resources (Mischel, Shoda, & Rodriguez, 1989). Early in their development, children have difficulty regulating and inhibiting hot responses (which often involve some form of impulsiveness or aggression). A preschooler might hit another child when provoked by teasing (hot response) rather than considering other possible options such as using words to ask the child to stop or to ask the teacher to intervene (cool responses). Cool responses may include dialogue and negotiation, conflict resolution skills, or self-calming actions such as deep breathing. Cool system processes begin to emerge around age four and become increasingly dominant over the lifespan (Rothbart, Ellis, & Posner, 2004).

SELF-MOTIVATION Self-motivation refers to the ability to generate feelings of enthusiasm, zeal, confidence, and persistence, especially during challenges and setbacks (Goleman, 1995). Students who have an optimistic attitude toward learning motivate themselves to expect success. To be motivated, students need to set goals that they value and to feel that, with effort, their goals are attainable. According to Nicki Crick and Kenneth Dodge (1994), emotions can serve to facilitate the achievement of particular goals, and goal selection or attainment can modify an individual’s emotional state. Children who have deficits in reading the emotions of others or in expressing empathy may pursue more destructive goals because they are unable to “feel other children’s pain” (Cohen & Strayer, 1996). When children are involved in a conflict with a peer, friendship ties can motivate them to work hard to pursue social-relational goals that maintain the bonds of friendship. If the children are not friends, they may focus on very different goals (e.g., revenge or avoidance).

EMOTIONS IN RELATIONSHIPS

In day-to-day classroom interactions, peers provide one another with various forms of emotional support necessary to accomplish social and academic tasks (Schunk, 1987). Positive, supportive peer relationships translate into greater social adjustment and academic success (Zins, Bloodworth, Weiss-berg, & Walberg, 2004). Children who do not express positive feelings, who have difficulty regulating their emotions, or who are unable to understand others’ emotional states are likely to experience peer difficulties (Denhem et al., 2003; Wilson, Fernandes-Richards, Aarskog, Osborn, & Capetillo, 2007). The process of initiating, building, and maintaining social relationships involves a merging of social and emotional competencies. Consider the following skills:

n Greeting ability: Greeting a friend involves more than just saying hello. Our facial expressions, body language, and tone of voice all communicate a certain attitude toward the person we are greeting and send a message about whether we are happy to see that person.

n Timing and staging: When a friend tells you that her beloved pet has just died, it may not be the appropriate time to tell a joke or ask for fashion advice.
Friends need to be able to read emotional contexts and make good judgments about how to respond.

If you were asked in a job interview to describe five ways you would promote emotional intelligence within your classroom, how would you respond?

>><<

Goal theory: See page 280.

Making Connections. Building teacher-student relationships can begin with something as simple as greeting students each day as they arrive for class.

Emotions in the Classroom

Emotions can impact how students learn as well as what students learn. The emotions students bring to a classroom can potentially help or hinder their performance. Students learn and perform more successfully when they feel secure, happy, and excited about the subject matter (Boekaerts, 1995). Negative emotions, in contrast, can hamper performance on cognitive tasks (Izard, 2001). Students whose minds are cluttered with distracting thoughts and emotions may find it more difficult to focus their limited attentional resources on learning tasks within the classroom (Ellis, 2001; Hertel, 1994). Some distractions, such as a fight with a friend on the school

boh7850x_CL1Mod4.p061-075.indd 68 boh7850x_CL1Mod4.p061-075.indd 68 10/9/08 8:26:46 AM

10/9/08 8:26:46 AM

module four emotional development 69

Emotional

Development

Module 4 :

TA B L E 4 . 3 Ways Teachers Can Help Foster Emotional Intelligence in Students

Dimension Ways to foster emotional intelligence

Emotional understanding

ⁿ Model the use of self-reflective language in the classroom (e.g., “I felt embarrassed when . . .”).

ⁿ Create opportunities to talk about positive and negative feelings (e.g., classroom meetings, journal exercises, creative writing).

Emotional regulation

Responding to the emotions of others

ⁿ Give students the language to express how they are feeling (e.g., the use of “I” statements such as “I feel frustrated when . . .” rather than blaming statements).

ⁿ Show students how to maintain a sense of emotional balance so that destructive emotions do not flare out of control in the first place. This approach involves teaching students to monitor and identify their own positive and negative feelings, accept emotions as a normal part of human experience, practice perspective-taking skills, and develop patience. Managing emotions requires learning to redirect disruptive impulses and to “shake off” negative moods.

ⁿ Use modeling, direct instruction, or coaching to help students acknowledge and fully experience emotions when they do arise, while encouraging students to refrain from acting out in a way that adversely affects others. This step requires teaching students strategies to stop, collect their thoughts, and consider multiple alternative responses to the emotional situation.

ⁿ Provide training in conflict resolution and problem-solving skills.

Self-motivation n Provide students with specific, concrete feedback so that they can learn from their mistakes.

ⁿ Identify strengths on which students can build.

ⁿ Encourage students to keep trying their best.

ⁿ Share your own enthusiasm for a topic with students.

ⁿ Model perseverance in the face of challenges.

ⁿ Develop meaningful lessons that connect with students' lives.

ⁿ Provide opportunities for students to be successful.

Emotions in relationships

ⁿ Guide students in learning to identify complex emotions (e.g., through role playing, storytelling, case studies, discussing emotional themes in novels).

ⁿ Help students recognize the emotions that others are feeling.

ⁿ Develop perspective-taking skills so students can better understand what kind of support the other person may need.

ⁿ Acknowledge and positively encourage instances of empathetic responding.

ⁿ Model ways to be caring and considerate of others’ feelings.

ⁿ Build effective communication skills (listening and communicating accurately and clearly).

ⁿ Help students view an emotional disruption as a learning experience and help them identify ways to handle the situation more effectively in the future.

ⁿ Foster a set of attitudes and skills that strengthen student-student relationships, including
(1) effective communication skills, (2) emotional self-control and appropriate expression,
(3) empathy and perspective taking, (4) optimism and sense of humor, and (5) nonviolent conflict resolution and problem-solving skills.

ⁿ Select activities that involve cooperation and collaboration rather than competition.

ⁿ Create rituals that involve all members of the class, such as class meetings.

ⁿ Provide students with the opportunity to get to know one another better and to practice many of the skills through well-chosen classroom experiences.

bus, may be temporary. Others, such as dealing with parents’ divorce, may require more intensive intervention to provide students with the necessary coping skills and enable them to keep their intellectual resources focused on learning. In these situations, students may need extra prompts to help them stay on-task, or one-on-one time with a teacher or counselor to help them talk through their feelings or resolve a problem.

boh7850x_CL1Mod4.p061-075.indd 69 boh7850x_CL1Mod4.p061-075.indd 69 10/9/08 8:26:47 AM

10/9/08 8:26:47 AM

70 cluster one personal development

Classroom factors also affect students’ emotional well-being. Students can become upset by an event such as a failed test or a negative comment from a peer and may react in a way that impedes further learning. Their reactions can unfold in different ways depending on how the student perceives the problem (Weiner, 1994) or whether the situation triggers emotional memories (LeDoux, 2000). If two students watch the same movie in class about a skyscraper collapsing, one might say that the film is entertaining, while the other finds it quite disturbing. Knowing that the latter student lost a close family member in the 2001 terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center may help the teacher understand the differences in how the students process and react to the same movie.

Can you recall a classroom experience of your own that triggered an emotional response? How did that response influence your attentiveness to the lesson?

APPLICATIONS: EMOTIONALLY INTELLIGENT TEACHING

Psychologist Robert Sternberg (1996) argues that traditional schooling neglects practical skills that prepare individuals to deal with real-life problems and challenges. Ideally, the skill sets students learn should prepare them to face social and emotional challenges that arise over the course of their lives. Several studies conducted by Rutgers psychologist Maurice Elias and his colleagues have emphasized the need for social and emotional learning in public education across the grade levels (Elias et al., 1997; Elias & Weissberg, 2000). Paulo Lopes and Peter Salovey (2004) suggest that the best approach may be to focus on a broad array of skills learned through personal experience, modeling, and observation. Some skills cannot be learned through direct instruction alone. Children need opportunities to practice and refine these social and emotional skills in the classroom.

What Is Social-Emotional Learning (SEL)?

The concept of social and emotional learning emerged in a systematic way with the publication of Promoting Social and Emotional
Learn ing: Guidelines for Educators (Elias et al., 1997). The ter m social-emotional learning (SEL) was developed for use in research and practice in the area of emotional intelligence as applied to school settings. The term reflects a strong recognition of the role of both social and emotional factors in successful academic learning (Elias, 2004). Three essential SEL principles were articulated to guide classroom interventions (National Center for Innovation and Education, 1999):

1. Caring relationships are the foundation of all lasting learning.
2. Emotions affect how and what we learn.
3. Goal setting and problem solving provide focus, direction, and energy for learning.

These principles emphasize the importance of the learning environment and the teacher’s role in establishing caring relationships with students and helping students develop the skills they need to develop positive relationships with others.

The social-emotional challenges facing students vary depending on developmental level and environmental context (Payton et al., 2000).
Teachers may not be able to eliminate all sources of frustration, anxiety, or conflict in the class-Emotional Triggers. Incidents in the classroom can trigger emotional memories that influence how students process information. Viewing a film clip in history class about the collapse of the World Trade Center twin towers on 9-11 might be especially disturbing for a student who lost a family member in the terrorist attacks.

boh7850x_CL1Mod4.p061-075.indd 70 boh7850x_CL1Mod4.p061-075.indd 70 10/9/08 8:26:49 AM

10/9/08 8:26:49 AM

module four emotional development 71

room, but they can take steps to minimize these negative emotions and provide students with the skills necessary to manage difficult emotions when they arise. Important attitudes and skills to foster include (Collaborative for Academic,
Social, and Emotional Learning, 2003):

n effective communication skills (listening and communicating accurately and clearly),

n emotional self-control and appropriate expression,

n empathy and perspective taking,

n optimism and a sense of humor,

n nonviolent conflict resolution and problem-solving skills, and

n respect for others and oneself and an appreciation of differences.

In the United States, many districts and even entire states currently make SEL a curriculum requirement. In Illinois, for instance, specific learning standards in SEL abilities have been established for every grade from kindergarten through the last year of high school (Goleman, 2006). SEL initiatives in classrooms vary widely, but the best designed programs share two important features:

1. They match social and emotional learning (SEL) skills to particular intervention goals. For example, if violence prevention is a top priority, a teacher might prioritize conflict resolution skills.

2. They focus attention on teaching skills that can be generalized across multiple settings, for example, the ability to delay gratification and persist in the face of difficulties.

As teachers, we may be skeptical about how we can help students develop emotional competencies. With all of the academic content we are expected to teach, how can we take on the extra tasks required by an SEL curriculum? The integration of SEL content into the curriculum need not be burdensome. Table 4.4 shows how social and emotional skills can be integrated into academic content without compromising academic instruction. SEL skills can be taught by taking advantage of impromptu teachable moments (reflecting and coaching), modeling, and building opportunities for skill development into the curriculum.

Benefits of SEL Programs

The implementation of classroom, school-level, or district-level programs targeted at developing social and emotional competence is a relatively new undertaking. The effectiveness of SEL programs has not been determined, because rigorous evaluations of their results over time are relatively limited (Lopes & Salovey, 2004). However, based on evidence from some of the best designed programs, the outcomes are very encouraging (Hawkins et al., 1999; Kusche & Greenberg, 2001; Weissberg & Greenberg, 1998). One study of SEL programs for children and adolescents from preschool through grade 12 found that teaching social-emotional skills led to improvement in both behavior and academic performance (Durlack & Weissberg, 2005). In participating schools, other benefits have included (Goleman, 2006):

n up to 50% of children showing improved achievement scores;

n up to 38% of students improving their grade-point average;

n a drop in incidents of misbehavior by an average of 28%, in suspensions by 44%, and in other disciplinary actions by 27%, with 63% of students demonstrating significantly more positive behavior; and

n a rise in attendance rates.

One-on-One Time. Sometimes students need to meet with a teacher or counselor to talk through their feelings or resolve a problem.

Emotional

Development

Module 4 :

>><<

Teacher-student and student-student relationships:
See page 334.

boh7850x_CL1Mod4.p061-075.indd 71 boh7850x_CL1Mod4.p061-075.indd 71 10/9/08 8:26:51 AM

10/9/08 8:26:51 AM

72 cluster one personal development

How would you respond to a parent who claimed that teachers who promote social-emotional skills are wasting valuable learning time? Do you think that SEL interventions are a worthwhile undertaking? Why or why not?

Reading Cause and effect The teacher reads various passages from well-known stories. Students determine the cause and effect. The class discusses how the characters could have solved their problems more appropriately.

Writing Personal narrative During an essay-writing exercise, students have the opportunity to share a time in their lives when they reacted appropriately in a bad situation.

Social studies Understanding the Confederate point of view in the Civil War

In cooperative groups, students discuss the feelings and emotions of the Confederate soldiers.

Health Smoking cessation Students engage in a class discussion in which they are given the chance to discuss the loss of a loved one because of conditions resulting from tobacco use.

Reprinted from G. Doty (2001). Fostering emotional intelligence in K–8 students (p. 14). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.

TA B L E 4 . 4 Planning Lessons That Integrate Emotional Intelligence

Subject Lesson objective Emotional intelligence benefits

boh7850x_CL1Mod4.p061-075.indd 72 boh7850x_CL1Mod4.p061-075.indd 72 10/9/08 8:26:53 AM

10/9/08 8:26:53 AM

key concepts 73

Summary

Describe the general influences of temperament, parenting practices, gender, and culture on children’s emotional development. Temperament refers to genetically based individual differences in emotions, activity, and self-control that determine our patterns of response to environmental stimuli and events. Socialization practices within the family shape the way patterns of emotional expressiveness develop in children. Parents are more likely to attempt to regulate boys’ emotions, particularly sadness and pain, whereas girls are encouraged to express emotions, with the exception of anger. Cultural differences are also seen in emotional expressiveness. Some cultures rarely display negative emotions but more often display emotions of sympathy, respect, and shame that reflect their social connection and interdependence.

Identify the five dimensions of emotional intelligence outlined in Goleman’s model, and discuss at least one way teachers can facilitate the development of each dimension. Emotional intelligence can be described in terms of five major dimensions: (1) emotional understanding, (2) responding to others' emotions, (3) emotional regulation, (4) self-motivation, and (5) emotions in relationships. Approaches for developing these dimensions include, but are not limited to, (1) giving students the language to express how they are feeling,
(2) guiding students in learning to identify complex emotions, (3) teaching students how to calm themselves down and think through nonviolent solutions to problems, (4) providing conflict resolution training,
(5) selecting activities that involve cooperation and

collaboration rather than competition, and (6) creating rituals that involve all members of the class, such as class meetings.

Describe two primary ways in which emotions can impact learning. Emotions can impact how students learn as well as what students learn. Students perform more successfully when they feel secure, happy, and excited about the subject matter, and they perform more poorly when they are experiencing negative emotions such as anger or depression. Students’ perceptions of classroom events (e.g., receiving a low grade on a test) can cause them to react in a way that impedes further learning or that motivates them to try harder. Aspects of classrooms situations can trigger strong emotional memories that influence the ways students attend to, process, and react to information.

Define social-emotional learning and discuss the three essential principles that underlie SEL interventions. The term “social-emotional learning” (SEL) was developed to recognize the role of both social and emotional factors in successful academic learning. Three essential SEL principles guide interventions: (1) Caring relationships are the foundation of all lasting learning;
(2) emotions affect how and what we learn; and
(3) goal setting and problem solving provide focus, direction, and energy for learning. Well-designed SEL programs match social-emotional-learning (SEL) skills to particular intervention goals and focus attention on teaching skills that can be generalized across multiple settings.

Key Concepts

display rules emotional expressiveness emotional intelligence (EI) emotional regulation emotional understanding

emotions empathy paralinguistic cues self-awareness

self-motivation social-emotional learning (SEL) social referencing temperament

boh7850x_CL1Mod4.p061-075.indd 73 boh7850x_CL1Mod4.p061-075.indd 73 10/9/08 8:26:55 AM

10/9/08 8:26:55 AM

74 case studies: reflect and evaluate

Case Studies: Refl ect and Evaluate

Early Childhood: “Cry Baby”

These questions refer to the case study on page 22.

1. Erica begins to cry when Tyler yells at her. What if Erica had been a boy? Would you expect a boy in this situation to react by crying? Why or why not?

2. Tyler and Tanner are both very quick to express their anger when the block tower gets knocked over.

Based on what you read about cultural differences in emotional expressiveness, how might their reactions have been different if they had been raised in an Asian culture rather than an American culture?

3. When Eddy talks with the boys about the falling tower incident, he asks, “How do you think she

[Erica] feels when you make fun of her like that?” At what age are children developmentally capable of understanding and interpreting the feelings of others? What cues do they use to identify how others are feeling?

4. At the beginning of the case study, Joe is described as a very considerate child, always willing to help others. Is empathy a trait a person is born with, or is it something learned? Support your answer with evidence from the module.

5. Annie and Zada are both extroverted girls whom Eddy describes as “natural leaders.” According to temperament research, do these characteristics have a genetic basis? What kind of temperaments might you expect Annie and Zada to have ten years from now?

6. Based on what you read about emotional intelligence, how might these teachers include social and emotional learning in their classroom?

Elementary School: “Team”

These questions refer to the case study on page 24.

1. Patricia's parents have encouraged her to stand up for herself in interactions with Kashi. Is it typical for parents to encourage their daughters to express their feelings openly?

2. Rocío tells the boys they should be ashamed of themselves for the way they are speaking to each other. When do complex emotions such as shame first develop? How do complex emotions such as shame, guilt, and pride differ from basic emotions such as anger and fear?

3. If Rocío wants Bill and Zach to use conflict resolution skills to resolve their problem, what steps should she suggest they take? How might Patricia and Kashi use conflict resolution skills to resolve the tension between them?

4. In terms of emotional regulation, Bill and Zach are engaging in hot responses. How would their re actions be different if they were resorting to cool responses instead?

5. How might Rocío use the incidents in her classroom as teachable moments to strengthen her students’ SEL (social-emotional-learning) skills?

Middle School: “Basketball Star”

These questions refer to the case study on page 26.

1. Mark is emotionally reactive and has difficulty with self-regulation. According to the research on emotional self-regulation, what negative outcomes are students such as Mark likely to face?

2. Darla doesn't seem to get angry when others say bad things about her, yet Mark gets angry quite easily. What might account for the difference in their levels of anger management?

3. Darla and Mark are being raised by their fathers. How might being raised by a male parent impact a child’s emotional development differently than being raised by a female parent?

4. Darla seems to take pride in her talent as a basketball player. What are the developmental precursors to feelings of pride?

5. What actions has Tyrone taken to provide an emotionally supportive coaching environment? What additional steps could he take?

, ,

,

,

boh7850x_CL1Mod4.p061-075.indd 74 boh7850x_CL1Mod4.p061-075.indd 74 10/9/08 8:26:57 AM

10/9/08 8:26:57 AM

case studies: reflect and evaluate 75

High School: “Steal, Cheat, and Fight”

These questions refer to the case study on page 28.

1. Is Mr. Ruestman’s refusal to include social skills training during class justified? What arguments could be used to overcome Mr. Ruestman’s reluctance to provide SEL skills training during his class time?

2. The e-mail comments submitted by Ms. Baxter and Mr. Ruestman imply an either-or situation: that teachers must address social/emotional issues or academics but not both. What is the relationship between socioemotional development and academic achievement?

3. The high school's parent-teacher association has asked the school board to implement a school uniform policy to resolve behavioral problems such as fighting and cheating. They argue that a strict dress code will reduce fighting by minimizing competition among students regarding clothes and other status symbols and will help students focus on academic success (minimizing cheating). Based on the research evidence in the module regarding social-emotional learning (SEL), provide a rationale for implementing an SEL program instead of requiring uniforms.

4. Mr. Smith complains that he wasted class time to break up a verbal argument between two girls. How could the situation have been different if he had modeled conflict resolution skills rather than just breaking up the fight?

5. Ms. Baxter complains that her students don’t apply themselves. How does her comment relate to self-motivation as a form of emotional intelligence? What could she do to try to increase her students’ self-motivation in the classroom?

6. Mr. Cargill describes a situation in which Jimmy lost his temper and hit Bob. Based on what you read about managing destructive emotions, how could Mr. Cargill have used this conflict as a teachable moment?

boh7850x_CL1Mod4.p061-075.indd 75 boh7850x_CL1Mod4.p061-075.indd 75 10/9/08 8:26:59 AM

10/9/08 8:26:59 AM