4
M
O D U L E
Emotional
Development
Emotions
and Individual Performance
n
Dimensions
of Emotional Intelligence
n
Emotions
in the Classroom
What
Is Emotion?
n
Emotions
and Temperament
n
How
Parents, Gender, and Culture Influence Emotion
Outline
Learning Goals
1.
Describe
the general influences of temperament, parenting practices, gender,
and culture on children’s emotional expressiveness.
2.
Identify
the five dimensions of emotional intelligence outlined in Goleman’s
model, and discuss at least one way teachers can facilitate the
development of each dimension.
3.
Describe
two primary ways in which emotions can impact learning.
Summary
Key Concepts Case Studies: Reflect and Evaluate
Applications:
Emotionally Intelligent Teaching
n
What
Is Social-Emotional Learning (SEL)?
n
Benefits
of SEL Programs
4.
Define
social-emotional learning and discuss the three essential principles
that underlie SEL interventions.
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WHAT
IS EMOTION?
Every
day of every school year, teachers witness a broad spectrum of
emotional displays by students. They may notice physiological signs
such as sweaty palms or flushed cheeks, behavioral signs such as
worried facial expressions or fists clenched in anger, or conscious
expressions of feelings such as entries in students’ reflective
journals or persuasive arguments made during a class discussion. As
you will see throughout this module, emotions
are complex constellations of physiology, behavior, and feeling that
can have a direct impact on students’ performance in school.
Emotions
and Temperament
Temperament
refers to genetically based individual differences in emotions,
activity, and self-control that determine our patterns of response to
environmental stimuli and events. It encompasses our capacity for
adaptability, persistence, adventurousness, shyness, inhibitedness,
irritability, and distractibility (Keogh, 2003; Pfeifer, Goldsmith,
Davidson, & Rickman, 2002; Thomas & Chess, 1977). Although
temperament includes more than emotions, variations in emotionality
are central to modern conceptions of temperament (Lemerise &
Arsenio, 2000). Researchers have identified different temperament
styles that emerge early in life and seem to be relatively enduring.
From the first days of life, some babies are easygoing, cheerful,
and relaxed, while others are difficult, reactive, and fidgety.
Inhibited and fearful 2-year-olds often are still relatively shy as
8-year-olds, and about half will continue to be introverted as
adolescents (Kagan et al., 1994; Kagan, Snidman, & Arcus, 1998).
Young children observed to be highly irritable, impulsive, and hard
to control at age 3 are more likely to have drug problems,
difficulties at work, and relationship conflicts by the time they
are 21 (Caspi, 2000). Teachers who recognize some of these persistent
patterns can help provide students with tools to understand and
manage their emotions in a way that will optimize their chances for
life success.
Temperament
affects how students engage in and respond to classroom activities
and also affects students’ academic achievement (Keogh, 2003). For
example, high levels of persistence and low levels of distractibility
can facilitate school success. The genetic underpinnings of
temperament establish a predisposition for certain kinds of emotional
behavior. However, culture plays an important role in shaping how and
whether those behaviors ultimately will unfold (Keogh, 2003;
Thompson, 1998). For example, European-American families tend to
encourage children to be assertive and independent, while families in
Mexico, Japan, or India are more likely to encourage children to be
reserved and obedient (Joshi & Maclean, 1994; Rothbaum, Weisz,
Pott, Miyake, & Morelli, 2000). While no one best temperament
guarantees success, teachers may need to consider students’
temperamental characteristics in trying to create an optimal learning
environment that meets the needs of every student. For example,
students who are highly anxious may be overwhelmed in a noisy,
chaotic classroom and may need a calmer space in which to work
productively. Students who are shy and sensitive may need help finding
supportive peer connections.
How
would you describe your own temperament? What examples can you think
of that indicate whether your own temperament has been relatively
stable over the years? How does your temperament affect the way you
approach school activities?
How
Parents, Gender, and Culture Influence Emotion
Children
first learn to express emotion within a family context, so the
degree to which family members express their emotions and the form
those emotions take shape the emotional patterns that children adopt
(Halberstadt & Eaton, 2002). The influence of family emotional
expressiveness
declines over the first six years of life (Halberstadt & Eaton,
2002), which suggests that schools may be an appropriate transition
point for assisting children with managing their emotions.
Differences
in emotional expressiveness by gender may also, in part, be traced
back to socialization within the family. Parents typically attempt to
encourage emotional expression in girls, with the exception of anger.
They are more likely to attempt to regulate boys’ emotional
expressiveness, particularly sadness and pain. Hence, boys may be
less emotionally expressive when it comes to emotions such as sadness
or fear but may be more likely than girls to express feelings of
anger or dominance (Eisenberg, Martin, & Fabes, 1996; Fuchs &
Thelen, 1988). Achievement situations are more likely to produce
anxiety responses in boys, whereas girls are more likely to become
anxious in interpersonal situations (Steinberg & Morris, 2001).
,
,
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Emotional
Development
Module
4 :
Emotions
in the Classroom.
Every day, teachers see a broad spectrum of emotional displays by
students.
,
Each
culture has its own display
rules
governing the degree of emotional expression considered appropriate
in different situations, along with the coping strategies considered
acceptable (Elfenbein, 2006; Mesquita & Frijda, 1992). For
example, Asians rarely display negative or self-aggrandizing emotions
that might disrupt the communal feeling within close-knit groups, but
they are more likely than Americans to display emotions of sympathy,
respect, and shame that reflect their social connection and
interdependence. A teacher’s ability to recognize and respond to
students’ emotional states requires awareness of the ways emotions
may be expressed by different individuals, as well as awareness of
how parenting practices, gender, and culture influence emotional
expression.
EMOTIONS
AND INDIVIDUAL PERFORMANCE
Research
on the connection between emotion and learning suggests that
thinking, learning, and emotions are interconnected processes and
that teachers need to address multiple goals of cognition and
emotions in every facet of classroom learning (Coles, 1998). Let’s
examine how emotional competence contributes to personal success in
both academic and broader life arenas and how emotions influence
learning.
Dimensions
of Emotional Intelligence
Psychologists
have begun to explore whether students who have a better command of
their own emotions and are more attuned to the emotions of others
have a social or an academic edge of some kind. Psychologists Peter
Salovey and John Mayer first introduced the term emotional
intelligence (EI) and
defined it as the ability to perceive, express, understand, and
manage emotions (Mayer, DiPaolo, & Salovey, 1990; Salovey &
Mayer, 1990). With the 1995 publication of psychologist Daniel
Goleman’s best-selling trade book Emotional
Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ,
public attention became focused on the construct of emotional
intelligence.
The
concept of emotional intelligence has shifted the academic emphasis
from isolated cognitive abilities as a predictor of school and life
success to the contributions of emotional and social factors. IQ
accounts for only about 20% of a person’s career success, leaving a
large portion of success determined by other factors (Goleman, 2006).
Studies have shown that:
n
overall
emotional intelligence uniquely explains individual cognitive
performance beyond the level attributable to general intelligence
(Lam & Kirby, 2002);
n
emotional
intelligence during preschool is related to social competence in
elementary school students (Denhem et al., 2003; Hubbard & Coie,
1994);
n
children’s
high emotional intelligence is associated with bonding to teachers
and peers in school, whereas low emotional intelligence is associated
with academic outcomes such as dropping out of school (Hawkins,
Catalano, Kosterman, Abbott, & Hill, 1999).
Daniel
Goleman (1995, 2006) broadened Salovey and Mayer’s definition of
emotional intelligence (EI) to include five main dimensions:
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TA
B L E 4 .1 Examples
of High and Low Emotional Intelligence
Dimension
of emotional intelligence High emotional intelligence Low emotional
intelligence
Cannot
share feelings verbally. Is oblivious to nonverbal communication.
Is
not perceptive with regard to others’ feelings.
Emotional
understanding Can openly identify and express feelings.
Reads
nonverbal language effectively.
Can
identify the feelings of others.
Is
not accepting of self or others. Uses passive or aggressive
communication.
Lacks
empathy.
Responding
to others’ emotions Accepts self and others.
Can
communicate assertively.
Displays
empathy.
Emotional
regulation Promotes an optimistic point of view.
Reacts
to hurt by processing feelings.
Is
emotionally resilient.
Lets
negative feelings dominate. Reacts to hurt with physical violence.
Carries a grudge and is unforgiving.
Self-motivation
Usually feels respected and competent.
Is
motivated by personal meaning.
Usually
feels inadequate and defensive.
Is
motivated by rewards and instant gratification.
Emotions
in relationships Says “I feel . . .” (“I” message).
Is
a good listener.
Talks
out problems with others.
Says
“You always . . .” (blame statement).
Is
a poor listener.
Acts
out against others when there is a problem or miscommunication.
Adapted
from G. Doty (2001). Fostering
emotional intelligence in K–8 students (p.
7). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
1.
Emotional understanding.
2.
Responding to others’ emotions. 3. Emotional regulation.
4.
Self-motivation.
5.
Emotions in relationships.
Table
4.1 contrasts the features of high versus low emotional intelligence
by providing specific examples of each of these five dimensions.
Let’s consider each dimension of emotional intelligence and explore
how a teacher might facilitate the development of students’
skills.
DEFINING
EMOTIONAL UNDERSTANDING
How
well can students of various ages understand their own emotional
reactions and those of others?
Emotional understanding,
the ability to differentiate and interpret one’s own emotions and
to perceive and understand the emotions of others, becomes possible
only when certain cognitive milestones have been reached. Between 18
and 24 months of age, the cognitive capacity for self-awareness
emerges.
This is the ability to recognize our own thoughts and feelings and to
observe them in a way that allows us to understand them and make
decisions about how to act on them (Goleman, 1995). Children who lack
such self-awareness may find it difficult to control impulsive
actions, make appropriate decisions, and communicate what they mean
(Elias, Tobias, & Friedlander, 1999). Children’s understanding
of other people’s emotions is closely tied to their ability to
understand their own emotions (Bretherton, Fritz, Zahn-Waxler, &
Ridgeway, 1986; Shatz, 1994).
Researchers
have noted several developmental trends in the various aspects of
emotional understanding, summarized in Table 4.2. As language
development occurs, toddlers begin to acquire emotion words like
happy
and sad
to express how they feel (Bretherton & Beeghly, 1982; Bretherton
et al., 1986). By their fourth year, they can engage in simple
dialogues about the causes and consequences of emotions (Dunn, Brown,
& Beardsall, 1991). A child’s ability to evaluate behavior
based on external standards emerges between two and three years of
age, making emotions such as pride, shame, and
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TA
B L E 4 . 2
Milestones
in Emotional Development
Age
Emotional regulation Emotional understanding
Birth–6
months Signs of almost all basic emotions are present. Social smile
emerges.
Laughter
appears.
Expressions
of happiness are greater when interacting with familiar people.
Vocabulary
for talking about feelings expands.
Empathic
responding appears.
Ability
to detect the meaning of others’ emotional signals emerges.
Social
referencing develops.
Emotional
Development
Module
4 :
Resonance
to the emotional cues of others is present.
7–12
months Anger and fear increase.
Use
of caregiver as a secure base emerges.
Emotional
self-regulation improves as crawling and walking permit approach and
retreat from stimulation.
1–2
years Self-conscious emotions appear but depend on the presence of
others.
3–6
years As representation and language improve, active behavioral and
cognitive strategies for engaging in emotional self-regulation
develop.
Understanding
of causes, consequences, and behavioral signs of emotion improves in
accuracy and complexity.
As
language develops, empathic responding becomes more reflective.
7–11
years Self-conscious emotions become integrated with inner standards
for right action. Strategies for engaging in emotional
self-regulation increase in variety, become more cognitive, and are
adjusted to situational demands.
Conformity
to and conscious awareness of emotional display rules improve.
Ability
to consider multiple sources of information when explaining others’
emotions appears.
Awareness
that people can experience more than one emotion at a time emerges.
Empathic responding increases as emotional understanding improves.
12
years and older At this point, adolescents are developing the ability
to:
n
regulate
intense emotions
n
modulate
rapidly vacillating emotions
n
achieve
awareness of and successfully attend to their own emotions without
becoming overwhelmed by them
Adolescents
begin to:
n
understand
the consequences to self and others of genuine emotional expression
versus dissemblance
n
separate
momentary emotional experience from identity and recognize that the
self can remain intact and continuous despite emotional fluctuation
n
use
cognitive skills to gather information about the nature and sources
of emotion
n
negotiate
and maintain interpersonal relationships in the presence of strong
emotion
Note:
These milestones represent overall age trends, but individual
differences may exist.
guilt
possible (Kochanska, Gross, Lin, & Nichols, 2002; Lindner, 2006).
By the middle elementary grades, most children are also capable of
feeling shame when they fail to meet standards for moral behavior set
for them by adults (Damon, 1988). Guilt comes from within the child,
while shame comes from knowing that someone else might see and
criticize what the child has done (Tangney, 2001). Although guilt and
shame are experienced as unpleasant emotions, they are a good sign
that children are developing a sense of right and wrong. Between ages
3 and 6, children’s understanding of causes, consequences, and the
behavioral signs of emotion improves in accuracy and complexity.
Between ages 7 and 11, individuals demonstrate the ability to
consider multiple sources of information
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(e.g.,
situational and personality factors) in explaining the emotions of
others (Gnepp & Gould, 1985). The expectations teachers have of
students in terms of emotional maturity in different situations
should reflect an awareness of developmental norms and changes.
Students’
ability to understand their emotions is linked to greater
self-confidence, because understanding emotions allows them to feel
greater control over their inner life (Goleman, 1995; Hama-check,
2000). In a longitudinal study conducted by Izard (2001), even after
controlling for verbal aptitude and temperament, 5-year-olds who
could most accurately discern others’ emotions became 9-year-olds
who easily made friends, cooperated with their teacher, and
effectively managed their own emotions.
RESPONDING
TO OTHERS’ EMOTIONS
As
human beings, we communicate our emotions verbally through emotional
language, tone or attitude, and pitch (high or low volume), as well
as nonverbally through our facial expressions, posture, and hand
gestures. Paralinguistic
cues
such as changes in speaking rate, pitch level, or vocal quality
typically are used to reinforce language content. From the first
months of life, babies can pick up on emotional cues in spoken
conversation (Cooper & Aslin, 1990; Morton & Trehub, 2001).
Facial
expressions, a nonverbal indicator of emotion, seem to be culturally
universal (Ekman, 1994; Matsumoto & Ekman, 1989). For example:
n
Studies
of adults across a wide range of cultures show high levels of
agreement on the meaning of facial displays of basic emotions such as
happiness, sadness, disgust, anger, surprise, and fear (Ekman, 1994).
Try it yourself. Figure 4.1 presents six photographs of facial
expressions (Matsumoto & Ekman, 1989). See if you can match the
six basic emotions with the faces pictured.
n
The
facial expressions children use to express various emotions, even
among blind children who have never seen another face to imitate, are
universal (Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1971; Galati, Scherer, & Ricci-Bitti,
1997).
As
children and adolescents improve at reading and interpreting
emotions, empathetic responding tends to increase. Empathy
is
the ability to experience and understand the feelings, situation, or
>><<
Children’s
understanding of right and wrong: See page 77.
,
>><<
Empathy:
See page 82.
Figure
4.1: Facial Expressions. Facial
expressions of basic emotions are culturally universal. See if you
can identify the individuals displaying the following emotions:
happiness, sadness, disgust, anger, surprise, and fear.
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motives
of someone else. Children as young as age 2 to 3 are able to
understand another’s emotional expressions of distress and to
respond with appropriate behaviors (Denham, 1986, 1998). At the early
elementary level, children show empathy more frequently toward people
they know personally. As they reach the upper elementary grades,
their feelings of empathy begin to extend to people they may not
know, such as homeless people or children orphaned by war (Eisenberg,
1982; Hoffman, 1991).
EMOTIONAL
REGULATION
Children
and adolescents vary in the intensity with which they experience and
express emotions and in their skills for regulating emotions.
Emotional
regulation, the
ability to tolerate and manage emotions, enables students to prevent
stress from overwhelming them and to stay on task and think and work
productively (Elias et al., 1997). Students who are poor regulators
have a higher risk of mal-adjustment (Eisenberg et al., 1996).
Emotional regulation involves, among other things, following certain
rules about when and how to display emotions. Children become more
proficient at this as they get older and gain a better understanding
of what emotions are considered appropriate for display in different
contexts (Barnes, 1995). Children and adolescents often use social
referencing,
a strategy of using other people’s reactions to help them interpret
a situation and decide how to respond (Campos & Sternberg, 1981).
Teachers can guide students’ emotional reactions by being in tune
with their own emotions and by modeling the types of emotional
expression that are appropriate in various circumstances.
Some
situations involve stimuli that trigger an almost uncontrollable
emotional response. The amygdala, a limbic structure within the brain
that controls emotions such as fear, anger, and aggression, reacts
instantly to stimuli that individuals perceive as threatening and
triggers a series of behavioral, physiological, and endocrine
responses (LeDoux, 2000; Winston, Strange, O’Doherty, & Dolan,
2002). This quick response pattern has an adaptive function, as in
cases where students react to a fire alarm with an increased heart
rate, a fight-or-flight reaction, and a search for an exit from the
building. The state of arousal created in such situations makes
self-regulation, planning, and thoughtful reflection more difficult
(Metcalfe & Mischel, 1999). However, by participating in a fire
drill (discussing and role playing), students can learn what behavior
is expected and practice it without the increased emotional arousal
and potential cognitive interference that may accompany an actual
emergency.
Emotional
Development
Module
4 :
Fire
Drill.
Teachers help students prepare for a fire emergency by discussing
what to do, and by practicing how to exit the building.
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Emotional
regulation allows the individual to move from an automatic, hot
emotional response to a cooler, well-reasoned, reflective response
that gives access to a wider range of cognitive resources (Mischel,
Shoda, & Rodriguez, 1989). Early in their development, children
have difficulty regulating and inhibiting hot responses (which often
involve some form of impulsiveness or aggression). A preschooler
might hit another child when provoked by teasing (hot response)
rather than considering other possible options such as using words to
ask the child to stop or to ask the teacher to intervene (cool
responses). Cool responses may include dialogue and negotiation,
conflict resolution skills, or self-calming actions such as deep
breathing. Cool system processes begin to emerge around age four and
become increasingly dominant over the lifespan (Rothbart, Ellis, &
Posner, 2004).
SELF-MOTIVATION
Self-motivation
refers to the ability to generate feelings of enthusiasm, zeal,
confidence, and persistence, especially during challenges and
setbacks (Goleman, 1995). Students who have an optimistic attitude
toward learning motivate themselves to expect success. To be
motivated, students need to set goals that they value and to feel
that, with effort, their goals are attainable. According to Nicki
Crick and Kenneth Dodge (1994), emotions can serve to facilitate the
achievement of particular goals, and goal selection or attainment can
modify an individual’s emotional state. Children who have deficits
in reading the emotions of others or in expressing empathy may pursue
more destructive goals because they are unable to “feel other
children’s pain” (Cohen & Strayer, 1996). When children are
involved in a conflict with a peer, friendship ties can motivate
them to work hard to pursue social-relational goals that maintain the
bonds of friendship. If the children are not friends, they may focus
on very different goals (e.g., revenge or avoidance).
EMOTIONS
IN RELATIONSHIPS
In
day-to-day classroom interactions, peers provide one another with
various forms of emotional support necessary to accomplish social and
academic tasks (Schunk, 1987). Positive, supportive peer
relationships translate into greater social adjustment and academic
success (Zins, Bloodworth, Weiss-berg, & Walberg, 2004). Children
who do not express positive feelings, who have difficulty regulating
their emotions, or who are unable to understand others’ emotional
states are likely to experience peer difficulties (Denhem et al.,
2003; Wilson, Fernandes-Richards, Aarskog, Osborn, & Capetillo,
2007). The process of initiating, building, and maintaining social
relationships involves a merging of social and emotional
competencies. Consider the following skills:
n
Greeting
ability:
Greeting a friend involves more than just saying hello. Our facial
expressions, body language, and tone of voice all communicate a
certain attitude toward the person we are greeting and send a message
about whether we are happy to see that person.
n
Timing and staging: When
a friend tells you that her beloved pet has just died, it may not be
the appropriate time to tell a joke or ask for fashion
advice.
Friends
need to be able to read emotional contexts and make good judgments
about how to respond.
If
you were asked in a job interview to describe five ways you would
promote emotional intelligence within your classroom, how would
you respond?
>><<
Goal
theory: See page 280.
Making
Connections.
Building teacher-student relationships can begin with something as
simple as greeting students each day as they arrive for class.
Emotions
in the Classroom
Emotions
can impact how
students learn as well as what
students
learn. The emotions students bring to a classroom can potentially
help or hinder their performance. Students learn and perform more
successfully when they feel secure, happy, and excited about the
subject matter (Boekaerts, 1995). Negative emotions, in contrast, can
hamper performance on cognitive tasks (Izard, 2001). Students whose
minds are cluttered with distracting thoughts and emotions may
find it more difficult to focus their limited attentional resources
on learning tasks within the classroom (Ellis, 2001; Hertel, 1994).
Some distractions, such as a fight with a friend on the school
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Emotional
Development
Module
4 :
TA
B L E 4 . 3 Ways
Teachers Can Help Foster Emotional Intelligence in Students
Dimension
Ways to foster emotional intelligence
Emotional
understanding
n
Model
the use of self-reflective language in the classroom (e.g., “I
felt embarrassed when . . .”).
n
Create
opportunities to talk about positive and negative feelings (e.g.,
classroom meetings, journal exercises, creative writing).
Emotional
regulation
Responding
to the emotions of others
n
Give
students the language to express how they are feeling (e.g., the use
of “I” statements such as “I feel frustrated when . . .”
rather than blaming statements).
n
Show
students how to maintain a sense of emotional balance so that
destructive emotions do not flare out of control in the first
place. This approach involves teaching students to monitor and
identify their own positive and negative feelings, accept emotions as
a normal part of human experience, practice perspective-taking
skills, and develop patience. Managing emotions requires learning to
redirect disruptive impulses and to “shake off” negative moods.
n
Use
modeling, direct instruction, or coaching to help students
acknowledge and fully experience emotions when they do arise, while
encouraging students to refrain from acting out in a way that
adversely affects others. This step requires teaching students
strategies to stop, collect their thoughts, and consider multiple
alternative responses to the emotional situation.
n
Provide
training in conflict resolution and problem-solving skills.
Self-motivation
n
Provide
students with specific, concrete feedback so that they can learn
from their mistakes.
n
Identify
strengths on which students can build.
n
Encourage
students to keep trying their best.
n
Share
your own enthusiasm for a topic with students.
n
Model
perseverance in the face of challenges.
n
Develop
meaningful lessons that connect with students' lives.
n
Provide
opportunities for students to be successful.
Emotions
in relationships
n
Guide
students in learning to identify complex emotions (e.g., through role
playing, storytelling, case studies, discussing emotional themes in
novels).
n
Help
students recognize the emotions that others are feeling.
n
Develop
perspective-taking skills so students can better understand what kind
of support the other person may need.
n
Acknowledge
and positively encourage instances of empathetic responding.
n
Model
ways to be caring and considerate of others’ feelings.
n
Build
effective communication skills (listening and communicating
accurately and clearly).
n
Help
students view an emotional disruption as a learning experience and
help them identify ways to handle the situation more effectively in
the future.
n
Foster
a set of attitudes and skills that strengthen student-student
relationships, including
(1)
effective communication skills, (2) emotional self-control and
appropriate expression,
(3)
empathy and perspective taking, (4) optimism and sense of humor, and
(5) nonviolent conflict resolution and problem-solving skills.
n
Select
activities that involve cooperation and collaboration rather than
competition.
n
Create
rituals that involve all members of the class, such as class
meetings.
n
Provide
students with the opportunity to get to know one another better and
to practice many of the skills through well-chosen classroom
experiences.
bus,
may be temporary. Others, such as dealing with parents’ divorce,
may require more intensive intervention to provide students with the
necessary coping skills and enable them to keep their intellectual
resources focused on learning. In these situations, students may need
extra prompts to help them stay on-task, or one-on-one time with a
teacher or counselor to help them talk through their feelings or
resolve a problem.
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Classroom
factors also affect students’ emotional well-being. Students can
become upset by an event such as a failed test or a negative comment
from a peer and may react in a way that impedes further learning.
Their reactions can unfold in different ways depending on how the
student perceives the problem (Weiner, 1994) or whether the situation
triggers emotional memories (LeDoux, 2000). If two students watch the
same movie in class about a skyscraper collapsing, one might say that
the film is entertaining, while the other finds it quite
disturbing. Knowing that the latter student lost a close family
member in the 2001 terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center may
help the teacher understand the differences in how the students
process and react to the same movie.
Can
you recall a classroom experience of your own that triggered an
emotional response? How did that response influence your
attentiveness to the lesson?
APPLICATIONS:
EMOTIONALLY INTELLIGENT TEACHING
Psychologist
Robert Sternberg (1996) argues that traditional schooling neglects
practical skills that prepare individuals to deal with real-life
problems and challenges. Ideally, the skill sets students learn
should prepare them to face social and emotional challenges that
arise over the course of their lives. Several studies conducted by
Rutgers psychologist Maurice Elias and his colleagues have emphasized
the need for social and emotional learning in public education across
the grade levels (Elias et al., 1997; Elias & Weissberg, 2000).
Paulo Lopes and Peter Salovey (2004) suggest that the best approach
may be to focus on a broad array of skills learned through personal
experience, modeling, and observation. Some skills cannot be learned
through direct instruction alone. Children need opportunities to
practice and refine these social and emotional skills in the
classroom.
What
Is Social-Emotional Learning (SEL)?
The
concept of social and emotional learning emerged in a
systematic way with the publication of Promoting
Social and Emotional
Learn
ing: Guidelines for Educators
(Elias et al., 1997). The ter m social-emotional
learning (SEL)
was developed for use in research and practice in the area of
emotional intelligence as applied to school settings. The term
reflects a strong recognition of the role of both social and
emotional factors in successful academic learning (Elias, 2004).
Three essential SEL principles were articulated to guide classroom
interventions (National Center for Innovation and Education, 1999):
1.
Caring relationships are the foundation of all lasting learning.
2.
Emotions affect how and what we learn.
3.
Goal setting and problem solving provide focus, direction, and
energy for learning.
These
principles emphasize the importance of the learning environment and
the teacher’s role in establishing caring relationships with
students and helping students develop the skills they need to develop
positive relationships with others.
The
social-emotional challenges facing students vary depending on
developmental level and environmental context (Payton et al.,
2000).
Teachers
may not be able to eliminate all sources of frustration, anxiety, or
conflict in the class-Emotional
Triggers.
Incidents in the classroom can trigger emotional memories that
influence how students process information. Viewing a film clip in
history class about the collapse of the World Trade Center twin
towers on 9-11 might be especially disturbing for a student who lost
a family member in the terrorist attacks.
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module
four
emotional
development 71
room,
but they can take steps to minimize these negative emotions and
provide students with the skills necessary to manage difficult
emotions when they arise. Important attitudes and skills to foster
include (Collaborative for Academic,
Social,
and Emotional Learning, 2003):
n
effective
communication skills (listening and communicating accurately and
clearly),
n
emotional
self-control and appropriate expression,
n
empathy
and perspective taking,
n
optimism
and a sense of humor,
n
nonviolent
conflict resolution and problem-solving skills, and
n
respect
for others and oneself and an appreciation of differences.
In
the United States, many districts and even entire states currently
make SEL a curriculum requirement. In Illinois, for instance, specific
learning standards in SEL abilities have been established for every
grade from kindergarten through the last year of high school
(Goleman, 2006). SEL initiatives in classrooms vary widely, but the
best designed programs share two important features:
1.
They match social and emotional learning (SEL) skills to particular
intervention goals. For example, if violence prevention is a top
priority, a teacher might prioritize conflict resolution skills.
2.
They focus attention on teaching skills that can be generalized
across multiple settings, for example, the ability to delay
gratification and persist in the face of difficulties.
As
teachers, we may be skeptical about how we can help students develop
emotional competencies. With all of the academic content we are
expected to teach, how can we take on the extra tasks required by an
SEL curriculum? The integration of SEL content into the curriculum
need not be burdensome. Table 4.4 shows how social and emotional
skills can be integrated into academic content without compromising
academic instruction. SEL skills can be taught by taking advantage of
impromptu teachable moments (reflecting and coaching), modeling, and
building opportunities for skill development into the curriculum.
Benefits
of SEL Programs
The
implementation of classroom, school-level, or district-level programs
targeted at developing social and emotional competence is a
relatively new undertaking. The effectiveness of SEL programs has not
been determined, because rigorous evaluations of their results over
time are relatively limited (Lopes & Salovey, 2004). However,
based on evidence from some of the best designed programs, the
outcomes are very encouraging (Hawkins et al., 1999; Kusche &
Greenberg, 2001; Weissberg & Greenberg, 1998). One study of SEL
programs for children and adolescents from preschool through grade 12
found that teaching social-emotional skills led to improvement in
both behavior and academic performance (Durlack & Weissberg,
2005). In participating schools, other benefits have included
(Goleman, 2006):
n
up
to 50% of children showing improved achievement scores;
n
up
to 38% of students improving their grade-point average;
n
a
drop in incidents of misbehavior by an average of 28%, in suspensions
by 44%, and in other disciplinary actions by 27%, with 63% of
students demonstrating significantly more positive behavior; and
n
a
rise in attendance rates.
One-on-One
Time. Sometimes
students need to meet with a teacher or counselor to talk through
their feelings or resolve a problem.
Emotional
Development
Module
4 :
>><<
Teacher-student
and student-student relationships:
See
page 334.
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72
cluster
one
personal
development
How
would you respond to a parent who claimed that teachers who promote
social-emotional skills are wasting valuable learning time? Do you
think that SEL interventions are a worthwhile undertaking? Why or why
not?
Reading
Cause and effect The teacher reads various passages from well-known
stories. Students determine the cause and effect. The class discusses
how the characters could have solved their problems more
appropriately.
Writing
Personal narrative During an essay-writing exercise, students have
the opportunity to share a time in their lives when they reacted
appropriately in a bad situation.
Social
studies Understanding the Confederate point of view in the Civil War
In
cooperative groups, students discuss the feelings and emotions of the
Confederate soldiers.
Health
Smoking cessation Students engage in a class discussion in which they
are given the chance to discuss the loss of a loved one because of
conditions resulting from tobacco use.
Reprinted
from G. Doty (2001). Fostering
emotional intelligence in K–8 students (p.
14). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
TA
B L E 4 . 4 Planning
Lessons That Integrate Emotional Intelligence
Subject
Lesson objective Emotional intelligence benefits
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key
concepts
73
Summary
Describe
the general influences of temperament, parenting practices,
gender, and culture on children’s emotional development.
Temperament
refers to genetically based individual differences in emotions,
activity, and self-control that determine our patterns of response to
environmental stimuli and events. Socialization practices within the
family shape the way patterns of emotional expressiveness develop in
children. Parents are more likely to attempt to regulate boys’
emotions, particularly sadness and pain, whereas girls are encouraged
to express emotions, with the exception of anger. Cultural
differences are also seen in emotional expressiveness. Some
cultures rarely display negative emotions but more often display
emotions of sympathy, respect, and shame that reflect their social
connection and interdependence.
Identify
the five dimensions of emotional intelligence outlined in Goleman’s
model, and discuss at least one way teachers can facilitate the
development of each dimension. Emotional
intelligence can be described in terms of five major dimensions: (1)
emotional understanding, (2) responding to others' emotions, (3)
emotional regulation, (4) self-motivation, and (5) emotions in
relationships. Approaches for developing these dimensions include,
but are not limited to, (1) giving students the language to express
how they are feeling,
(2)
guiding students in learning to identify complex emotions, (3)
teaching students how to calm themselves down and think through
nonviolent solutions to problems, (4) providing conflict resolution
training,
(5)
selecting activities that involve cooperation and
collaboration
rather than competition, and (6) creating rituals that involve all
members of the class, such as class meetings.
Describe
two primary ways in which emotions can impact learning. Emotions
can impact how
students learn as well as what
students
learn. Students perform more successfully when they feel secure,
happy, and excited about the subject matter, and they perform
more poorly when they are experiencing negative emotions such as
anger or depression. Students’ perceptions of classroom events
(e.g., receiving a low grade on a test) can cause them to react in a
way that impedes further learning or that motivates them to try
harder. Aspects of classrooms situations can trigger strong emotional
memories that influence the ways students attend to, process, and
react to information.
Define
social-emotional learning and discuss the three essential principles
that underlie SEL interventions. The
term “social-emotional learning” (SEL) was developed to recognize
the role of both social and emotional factors in successful academic
learning. Three essential SEL principles guide interventions: (1)
Caring relationships are the foundation of all lasting learning;
(2)
emotions affect how and what we learn; and
(3)
goal setting and problem solving provide focus, direction, and
energy for learning. Well-designed SEL programs match
social-emotional-learning (SEL) skills to particular intervention
goals and focus attention on teaching skills that can be generalized
across multiple settings.
Key
Concepts
display
rules emotional expressiveness emotional intelligence (EI) emotional
regulation emotional understanding
emotions
empathy paralinguistic cues self-awareness
self-motivation
social-emotional learning (SEL) social referencing temperament
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74
case
studies: reflect and evaluate
Case
Studies: Refl
ect and Evaluate
Early
Childhood: “Cry
Baby”
These
questions refer to the case study on page 22.
1.
Erica begins to cry when Tyler yells at her. What if Erica had been a
boy? Would you expect a boy in this situation to react by crying? Why
or why not?
2.
Tyler and Tanner are both very quick to express their anger when the
block tower gets knocked over.
Based
on what you read about cultural differences in emotional
expressiveness, how might their reactions have been different if they
had been raised in an Asian culture rather than an American culture?
3.
When Eddy talks with the boys about the falling tower incident, he
asks, “How do you think she
[Erica]
feels when you make fun of her like that?” At what age are children
developmentally capable of understanding and interpreting the
feelings of others? What cues do they use to identify how others are
feeling?
4.
At the beginning of the case study, Joe is described as a very
considerate child, always willing to help others. Is empathy a trait
a person is born with, or is it something learned? Support your
answer with evidence from the module.
5.
Annie and Zada are both extroverted girls whom Eddy describes as
“natural leaders.” According to temperament research, do these
characteristics have a genetic basis? What kind of temperaments might
you expect Annie and Zada to have ten years from now?
6.
Based on what you read about emotional intelligence, how might these
teachers include social and emotional learning in their classroom?
Elementary
School: “Team”
These
questions refer to the case study on page 24.
1.
Patricia's parents have encouraged her to stand up for herself in
interactions with Kashi. Is it typical for parents to encourage their
daughters to express their feelings openly?
2.
Rocío tells the boys they should be ashamed of themselves for the
way they are speaking to each other. When do complex emotions such as
shame first develop? How do complex emotions such as shame, guilt,
and pride differ from basic emotions such as anger and fear?
3.
If Rocío wants Bill and Zach to use conflict resolution skills to
resolve their problem, what steps should she suggest they take? How
might Patricia and Kashi use conflict resolution skills to resolve
the tension between them?
4.
In terms of emotional regulation, Bill and Zach are engaging in hot
responses. How would their re actions be different if they were
resorting to cool responses instead?
5.
How might Rocío use the incidents in her classroom as teachable
moments to strengthen her students’ SEL (social-emotional-learning)
skills?
Middle
School: “Basketball
Star”
These
questions refer to the case study on page 26.
1.
Mark is emotionally reactive and has difficulty with
self-regulation. According to the research on emotional
self-regulation, what negative outcomes are students such as Mark
likely to face?
2.
Darla doesn't seem to get angry when others say bad things about her,
yet Mark gets angry quite easily. What might account for the
difference in their levels of anger management?
3.
Darla and Mark are being raised by their fathers. How might being
raised by a male parent impact a child’s emotional development
differently than being raised by a female parent?
4.
Darla seems to take pride in her talent as a basketball player. What
are the developmental precursors to feelings of pride?
5.
What actions has Tyrone taken to provide an emotionally supportive
coaching environment? What additional steps could he take?
,
,
,
,
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case
studies: reflect and evaluate
75
High
School: “Steal,
Cheat, and Fight”
These
questions refer to the case study on page 28.
1.
Is Mr. Ruestman’s refusal to include social skills training during
class justified? What arguments could be used to overcome Mr.
Ruestman’s reluctance to provide SEL skills training during his
class time?
2.
The e-mail comments submitted by Ms. Baxter and Mr. Ruestman imply an
either-or situation: that teachers must address social/emotional
issues or
academics but not both. What is the relationship between
socioemotional development and academic achievement?
3.
The high school's parent-teacher association has asked the school
board to implement a school uniform policy to resolve behavioral
problems such as fighting and cheating. They argue that a strict
dress code will reduce fighting by minimizing competition among
students regarding clothes and other status symbols and will help
students focus on academic success (minimizing cheating). Based on
the research evidence in the module regarding social-emotional
learning (SEL), provide a rationale for implementing an SEL program
instead of requiring uniforms.
4.
Mr. Smith complains that he wasted class time to break up a verbal
argument between two girls. How could the situation have been
different if he had modeled conflict resolution skills rather than
just breaking up the fight?
5.
Ms. Baxter complains that her students don’t apply themselves. How
does her comment relate to self-motivation as a form of emotional
intelligence? What could she do to try to increase her students’
self-motivation in the classroom?
6.
Mr. Cargill describes a situation in which Jimmy lost his temper and
hit Bob. Based on what you read about managing destructive emotions,
how could Mr. Cargill have used this conflict as a teachable moment?
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