Communication

Skills for Managers, Fifth

Edition

Janis Fisher Chan

American Management Association®

ISBN:0761213384

All rights reserved. This material may not be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted in whole or in part, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher.

Printed in the United States of America.

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About This Course

Communication

Skills for Managers, Fifth Edition, is designed for new and experienced

managers and others who want to improve their ability to communicate on the job. Using
real-life scenarios and interactive exercises, this course introduces practical concepts and
proven techniques that will help you communicate more effectively with others, deliver your
message successfully to a group, and write clearly and persuasively. You will learn the key

communication

skills: how to listen, deliver your messages clearly, and ask questions. The

course also showcases techniques for helping others learn new skills and tasks, making
successful presentations, and writing business documents that meet your specific standards.
Assessments, exercises, and a

Communication

Skills Log give you the opportunity to identify

your strengths and weaknesses, practice new skills, and apply what you've learned to your
own business situation.
Janis Fisher Chan, a writer, editor, trainer, and instructional designer for more than 20
years, specializes in helping people communicate clearly. As co-owner of a successful
training company, she developed and conducted customized workshops on topics that
included business writing, interpersonal

communication

, performance management, meeting

planning, and making presentations. She is currently working as a freelance instructional
designer, writer, and editor. This is her third self-study course for the American Management
Association: The others are Managing Your Priorities and Making Successful Presentations.
She is also the co-author of five business writing books, available through

www.writeitwell.com

. Her E-mail address is <

janisdee@attbi.com

Acknowledgments

The publisher would like to thank the following people for their review of the manuscript of
this course:

Jim Dezieck, Organizational Development Consultant, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts

Connie Zimmerman, Lecturer, Department of Business

Communication

, Marshall School of

Business, University of Southern California

How to Take this Course

This course consists of text material for you to read and three types of activities (the pre-test
and post-test, in-text exercises, and end-of-chapter review questions) for you to complete.
These activities are designed to reinforce the concepts in the text material and to enable you
to evaluate your progress.

Pre- and Post-tests

A pre-test and a post-test are included in this course. Take the pre-test before you study any
of the course material to determine the amount of prior knowledge you have of the subject
matter.

The Text

The most important component of this course is the text, for it is here that the concepts and
methods are presented. Reading each chapter twice will increase the likelihood of your
understanding the text fully.

We recommend that you work on this course in a systematic way. Only by reading the text
and working through the exercises at a regular and steady pace will you get the most out of
this course and retain what you have learned.

In your first reading, concentrated on getting an overview of the chapter's contents. Read the
learning objectives at the beginning of the chapter first. They will act as guidelines to the
major topics of the chapter and will enumerate the skills you should master as you study the
text. As you read the chapter, pay attention to the headings and subheadings. Find the
general theme of each section and see how that theme relates to others. Don't let yourself
get bogged down with details during the first reading; simply concentrate on remembering
and understanding the major themes.

In your second reading, look for the details that underlie the themes. Read the entire chapter
carefully and methodically, underlining key points, working out the details of the examples,
and making marginal notations as you go. Complete the exercises.

In-text Exercises

Interspersed with the text in most chapters you will find a series of exercises. These take a
variety of forms, including application exercises, assessments, and a

Communication

Skills

Log. Completing the exercises will help you to apply the course concepts and develop new
skills.

The Review Questions

After reading a chapter and before going on to the next, work through the review questions.
Answering the questions and comparing your own answers to those given will help you
grasp the major ideas of that chapter. If you perform these self-check exercises
conscientiously, you will develop a framework in which to place material presented in later
chapters

Pre-Test

Course Code 95098

1. Which is an open-ended question?

a. Do you think we will reach our sales goals this year?
b. Can you finish the report by next Tuesday?
c. What can you tell me about your experience?
d. Have you ever facilitated a meeting?

2. When you want to influence someone:

a. be prepared with specifics to support and illustrate your position.
b. use a forceful tone so the person knows you are serious.

c. make sure the person knows how you will benefit.
d. use polite language so the person will not be offended.

3. Which behavior best demonstrates that someone is listening?

a. Nodding in agreement and saying, "Uh, huh," from time to time
b. Sitting in a slumped position, looking at the floor
c. Asking for more information about what you have just said
d. Maintaining a neutral expression

4. Which statement is the most accurate?

a. Experienced presenters seldom, if ever, experience presentation fear.
b. Speakers are most likely to experience presentation fear when people

they know are in the audience.

c. One way to reduce presentation fear is to try not to think about the

presentation until you are actually in the room.

d. People tend to experience less presentation fear when they identify the

reasons for their anxiety.

5. When people read written business communications, they usually:

a. set aside the time to read every word.
b. scan for the most important information.
c. read only the first and last sentences.
d. refuse to read anything longer than one page.

6. If someone is having trouble finding the words to answer your question:

a. gently mention that they are taking a lot of time.
b. try to guess at what they are trying to say and help by saying it for them.
c. offer them time to think.
d. tell them you are moving on to the next question.

7. Eye contact is important to successful

communication

because:

a. it lets you know whether someone is telling the truth.
b. it makes it seem as if you are interested, even if you are not.
c. it forces the listener to pay attention.
d. it establishes a connection between the speaker and the listener.

8. Which closing meets the criteria for a useful closing?

a. Your assistance and cooperation in this matter will be greatly appreciated.
b. I will call next week to see if you would like to enroll your staff in our

seminar.

c. Your continuing relationship with this firm is welcomed.
d. Should you desire additional information, please do not hesitate to contact

the undersigned.

9. A good listener:

a. tries not to offend people by asking what they meant to say, even if the

message is not clear.

b. keeps a neutral expression on his or her face.
c. asks clarifying questions as needed to be sure he or she has understood

the speaker.

d. paraphrases by repeating everything the speaker says.

10. Which is a common reason that presentations go into overtime?

a. The presenter talks too slowly.
b. The audience keeps asking the presenter to repeat things.
c. The audience insists on staying so they can ask questions.
d. The presenter is trying to cover too much information.

11. Which statement is the most accurate?

a. If you have something negative to say, it is better not to say anything at

all.

b. Criticism is usually more effective when it is general instead of specific.
c. As a rule, you can expect people to feel hurt if you criticize them.
d. People benefit from helpful feedback and criticism.

12. One reason

communication

can be difficult is:

a. most people only want to talk about themselves.
b. people have different priorities and points of view.
c. try as they might, people cannot really understand one another.
d. people are rarely honest and truthful.

13. Which sentence uses active language?

a. The loan papers will be sent to you early next week.
b. We will send you the loan papers early next week.
c. The loan papers should be received by you early next week.
d. Receipt of the loan papers can be expected early next week.

14. When adults are learning something new:

a. they seldom feel anxious, as long as they are competent in other areas.
b. they do not like to be observed, even by the instructor.
c. they need the opportunity to make, and learn from, mistakes.
d. they seldom need the sort of encouragement and support you would give

to a younger learner.

15. Which is a probing question?

a. Can you tell me more about the project you worked on?
b. Are you interested in working on the project?
c. When do you think you will finish the project?
d. Did you say that the project will be completed before the deadline?

16. It is important to use short sentences when you write because:

a. many readers do not have much education.
b. long sentences look bad on the page.
c. studies show that people often have to read long sentences more than

once.

d. only the best writers can structure a long sentence so that it makes sense.

17. What can you do if you are not sure that someone has understood your

message?

a. Wait and see whether they do what you asked.
b. If they look confused, repeat the message.
c. Tell the person to let you know if anything is not clear.
d. Ask the person to summarize and restate what you said.

18. Which is a characteristic of a good written

communication

a. The supporting points lead clearly to the main point.
b. The main point appears clearly in the second paragraph.
c. The main point appears clearly at the beginning.
d. The main point makes a clear, personal contact with the reader.

19. Which objective would be relevant if you were trying to help someone learn how

to use a photocopy machine?

a. Be able to load paper.
b. Be able to repair the machine if it malfunctions.
c. Be able to decide which documents to photocopy.
d. Be able to set priorities for using the photocopier.

20. One important difference between writing and speaking is:

a. writing conveys details effectively.
b. writing comes naturally.
c. writing is less difficult.
d. writing is usually less precise.

21. Which is the most important to do when you are planning a presentation?

a. Think about the reasons people will be attending
b. Think up several clever anecdotes
c. Think about how you can develop professional looking slides
d. Think about whether to serve refreshments

22. Which sentence includes unnecessary words?

a. Please send the draft marketing report as soon as possible.

b. The investigator discovered the missing files in the trash can behind the

building.

c. It is our belief that the new child care facility will be too small in size.
d. We asked our accountant to send the check three weeks ago.

23. If you feel impatient while someone is speaking:

a. stop the speaker and ask them to summarize what they are saying.
b. ask questions to help the person get his or her point across.
c. try to communicate your impatience nonverbally so the person will get the

idea.

d. end the conversation as quickly as possible without being rude.

24. Which is a good reason to ask a closed-ended question?

a. You need a specific detail from a talkative person.
b. You want to encourage discussion during a meeting.
c. You want an employee to explain what he or she did to solve a problem.
d. You need to know the right way to do a procedure.

25. Adults learn best by:

a. watching someone do the job then doing it on their own.
b. after a demonstration or explanation, practicing and getting feedback.
c. attending a lecture then watching a demonstration.
d. being given a description of what they are supposed to do then working it

out themselves.

you

have

questions?

Comments?

Need

clarification?

Call

Educational

Services

1-800-225-3215,

ext.

600

or email at <

ed_svcs@amanet.org

Chapter 1:

Communication

: The Key to a

Manager's Success

Learning Objectives

When you complete this chapter, you should be able to:



Define

communication

accurately in one brief statement.



State the reasons managers communicate and identify the four major types of

communication



Describe what can happen when

communication

doesn't work.



State obstacles to clear

communication



List the key actions that are essential for clear written or spoken

communication



Evaluate your

communication

skills at work.

Overview

As a manager, much of your job involves

communication

, so the ability to communicate

clearly is crucial to your ability to succeed. You need to give explanations, ask questions,
work with people to solve problems and come up with new ideas, coach and train, provide
performance feedback, and more. All those activities require

communication

skills.

In this course, you will learn what happens when real

communication

takes place and what

makes

communication

difficult. You will evaluate your own

communication

skills and learn

how to improve them. You will also learn how to apply what you learn to ensure that the
communications you engage in every day are more satisfactory, useful, and productive.

What is "

Communication

We hear the word

communication

everywhere these days as technological advances make it

possible for us to communicate in an increasing number of ways. But what does the word

communication

really mean?

_________________________________________________________

No matter what the form of

communication

or whether it is one-way or interactive, between

individuals or within a group,

communication

takes place only when a message sent by one

person has been received and understood by another person. That's what Jory didn't realize.

Feeling rushed by a looming deadline for a report her manager wanted right away, Jory
asked Saul to help by getting her some marketing statistics. "I need the figures from the last
three years," she said. "Will that be a problem?"

"Not at all," Saul replied.

But by mid-day, Saul had still not gotten the statistics to Jory—and her report was due first
thing in the morning. Saul was out, so she left him a voicemail: "This is Jory," she said. "I
was wondering, how soon do you think you can get me those stats for the marketing report?"

Two hours later, Jory received an e-mail from Saul: "I'll have those stats to you the day after
tomorrow."

Jory called Saul again, relieved to find that he was in his office. "Friday's too late," she said.
"The report's due tomorrow."

"Why didn't you say you needed them so soon?" Saul said. "I'm sorry, but I have to leave in
twenty minutes, and I'm at an off-site meeting all day tomorrow."

Jory thought she had told Saul what she wanted, and Saul thought he had heard her. But no
real

communication

took place in this situation, and now Jory is left without the statistics she

needs to complete her report. What happened?

_________________________________________________________

Jory knew Saul had received her message, but she didn't check to make sure that he
understood how urgently she needed the statistics. She did not realize that it is not enough
to send a message. Real

communication

takes place only when the person at the other end

understands exactly what you meant to say.

Why Managers Communicate

Think about all the communications you engage in as you go about your day-to-day
business—face-to-face conversations with individuals and groups, telephone calls, e-mail
messages, letters and reports, meetings, interviews, and presentations. One reason for all
that communicating is to pass on information people need. What are some of the other
reasons?
Reasons for communicating:

_________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________
You might have listed some of the reasons in

Exhibit 1-1

Exhibit 1-1: Reasons Managers Communicate

Managers communicate to:



Pass on and receive information.



Establish and maintain relationships.



Tell people what they are expected to do and help them learn.



Give feedback and criticism.



Encourage, motivate, and influence.



Help others solve problems and develop action plans.



Work with others to come up with new ideas.

When you look at all the reasons you have for communicating, it is easy to see why it is so
important to communicate successfully. Poor communications waste time, lower productivity,
and make it difficult to maintain good relationships. Along with misunderstandings and
confusion, the results of poor

communication

include hurt feelings, frustration, and anger.

Think About It ...

Think of some communications you were part of that did not go well. What were the
results?

______________________________________________________________________

Why People Fail to Communicate Clearly

Even the best communicators find that communicating clearly is often difficult. No matter
how clearly they try to send their messages, people do not always understand them. No
matter how attentively they try to listen to others, they do not always understand the
message the way the other person meant it.

Think of a time when you had trouble communicating with someone. What obstacle or
obstacles stood in the way?

______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________
You might have listed one of the common obstacles shown in

Exhibit 1-2

Exhibit 1-2: Obstacles to Clear

Communication

Obstacles to clear

communication

include:



Lack of time and planning.



Competing messages.



Differences in knowledge, perspectives, needs, expectations, priorities,
status, culture, and gender.



Assumptions.



Fears.

Lack of Time and Planning

Jory asked Saul to get her the statistics because she was feeling rushed. In fact, she was
feeling so rushed that she didn't even take enough time to think about what she wanted him
to do. As a result, she conveyed an incomplete message.

People commonly blurt out their messages without thinking, especially when they feel
rushed. Sometimes those messages come out clearly; often, they do not. If you expect
others to understand your messages, you must first be sure that you know exactly what you
want to say.

Competing Messages

We receive thousands of messages every day. They come at us in every direction,
competing for our attention. The telephone rings and an e-mail lands in your mailbox while
you are trying to conduct an interview; people are telling jokes in the next cubicle while you
are trying to explain something to an employee; newspaper headlines catch your attention
and a radio talk show blares in your ear while you are trying to help a colleague solve a
problem. Screening out the unnecessary messages can be almost impossible, but unless we
can screen them out, we will find it hard to pay attention to relevant, useful messages.

Differences in Knowledge, Perspectives, Needs, Expectations, Priorities, Status,
Culture, and Gender

Jory's miscommunication to Saul occurred partly because they had differing priorities. Jory's
top priority was getting the report to her manager on time. Although Saul was willing to help,
he felt no sense of urgency because the report was not important to him.

In the same way, it can be hard to communicate clearly to someone who has a very different
level of knowledge from your own or a very different point of view about the topic. For
example, suppose you need to explain how to use word processing software to someone
who has never used a computer. You might not stop to think about the basic computer
knowledge the person needs to have before the new software can be learned.

Communication

would be far easier if other people had your level of knowledge, background,

sense of what was important, and way of looking at the world. The reality is that people differ
in many ways. Those differences have a great many advantages, but they also mean that we
have to work hard to be understood and to understand one another.

Assumptions

Jory made the assumption that Saul understood she needed the report right away;
obviously, she was wrong. Assuming that someone understands what you are trying to say
often leads to that kind of miscommunication, as does assuming that you have understood
someone else's message correctly or that you know what a person is going to say as soon
as they begin speaking.

Think About It ...

Can you think of a time when you made the assumption that someone understood you
when they did not? That you understood someone else's message when you did not? Or
that you mistakenly believed you already knew what someone was going to say? What
was the result?

______________________________________________________________________

Fears
Instead of saying what we mean, we sometimes convey messages that are little more than
hints. We leave out key information. We say Yes when we mean No. We also hesitate to
speak up when we don't understand what someone else is saying. Why do we behave this
way? Why don't we just say what we mean, and why don't we ask questions when someone
sends us a confusing message?

_________________________________________________________

People do not always say what they mean because they are afraid of what will happen if
they do. They do not want to hurt people's feelings, disappoint them, or make them angry.
They also do not want to take the risk of appearing foolish or being disliked. But indirect,
incomplete, and vague messages make it difficult or impossible to achieve real

communication

Think About It ...

What are communications that you find difficult? Think of a time when you felt unable to
say what you meant or when you did not feel comfortable asking questions when someone
was unclear. What were the results?

______________________________________________________________________

How Well Do You Communicate?

Before you can improve your

communication

skills, you need to recognize your strengths

and weaknesses. Rate your

communication

skills by filling out the self-assessment in

Exhibit

1-3

. When you are finished, highlight or circle any items that you rated 1, 2, or 3. Pay special

attention to those skills during this course.

Exhibit 1-3: How Well Do You Communicate?

Use the scale below to rate your

communication

skills.

Seldom 1 2 3 4 5 Most of the time

1. ___ I listen attentively when other people are speaking.
2. ___ I understand what other people say to me.
3. ___ I ask for clarification when I don't understand what someone is saying.
4. ___ I listen with an open mind even if I don't agree or I already know what

a person is going to say.

5. ___ I do not interrupt when people are speaking.
6. ___ I let people know that I have heard and understood their message.
7. ___ I am able to express my ideas and feelings clearly.
8. ___ I make sure that people have understood my message.
9. ___ I know how to deliver unwelcome news.
10. ___ I am comfortable discussing other people's feelings.
11. ___ I make eye contact with other people when I am listening or speaking

to them.

12. ___ I am able to get my ideas across in meetings.
13. ___ I am able to give people helpful feedback and criticism.
14. ___ I am able to ask questions that help people think something through.
15. ___ I am able to ask questions to elicit useful information.
16. ___ When facilitating a meeting, I am able to ask questions that

encourage participation.

17. ___ I am able to use

communication

skills to help people learn.

18. ___ I am able to give a successful presentation to a small group of people

I know.

19. ___ I am able to give a successful presentation to any group.
20. ___ I am able to communicate clearly, confidently, and successfully in

writing.

What it Takes to Communicate Clearly

In this course you will learn and practice specific techniques for communicating clearly,
whether you are holding a conversation, facilitating a meeting, conducting an interview,
giving a presentation, or writing a business document. In fact, you will find that the key
actions presented in

Exhibit 1-4

apply to all the forms of

communication

we will discuss.

Exhibit 1-4: What It Takes to Communicate Clearly

To communicate clearly:



Know and respect your audience.



Know why you are communicating.



Know what you want to say.



Pay attention.



Keep an open mind.



Be specific.



Take enough time.

Know and Respect Your Audience

Two of the key actions for communicating clearly are knowing and respecting your audience.
Throughout the course, you will be asked to look at your message from your audience's
point of view. By doing that, you increase the chances that the message you send will be
understood.

Know Why You are Communicating

As we mentioned earlier in this chapter and will repeat from time to time, knowing what you
want to achieve by communicating is essential for your communications to be clear.

Know What You Want to Say

Even in a casual conversation, you have to know what you want to say before you can
express your message clearly. As you will see, it is especially difficult—even impossible—to
deliver a successful presentation or write an effective business document without first
determining what you want to say.

Pay Attention

In our busy lives, we are surrounded by distractions. It takes a special effort to pay attention
to what someone is saying or even to pay attention to what you yourself are trying to
communicate. But paying attention is key to successful

communication

Keep an Open Mind

As you learned in this chapter, assumptions are a common obstacle to successful

communication

. Later in this course you will learn how assuming you already know what

someone is going to say or why they are saying it gets in the way of listening, making it
difficult or impossible for real

communication

to take place.

Be Specific

The more specific your messages, the more useful information you will convey. Hints and
vague messages lead to misunderstandings and confusion. To communicate successfully,
try to use specific language that communicates exactly what you want to say.

Take Enough Time

Trying to communicate in a hurry leads people to stumble over their words, leave out
important information, and miss what others have to say. As you will learn in this course, the
time you spend planning a

communication

, delivering a message, and listening to others will

pay off in fewer misunderstandings and less confusion. Taking enough time is a key action
for communicating successfully.

Apply What You Learn ...

Think about the

communication

skills you would like to improve. What are your goals for

this course? List your most important goals on the first page of the

Communication

Skills

Recap

Real

communication

takes place when someone receives a message we send and

understands what we intended to say. Poor

communication

leads to problems such as

wasted time, misunderstandings, and bad feelings. But

communication

is not always easy

because obstacles such as lack of planning, differences in points of view, assumptions and
fears get in the way. Some of the actions you can take to communicate clearly are to respect
your audience, know what you want to say, pay attention, and keep an open mind.

Review Questions

A recommended way of increasing the chances of
successful

communication

is to:

a. speak loudly.
b. repeat your message at least once.
c. pay attention.
d. use polite phrases such as Please.

Which statement accurately describes

communication

a. A message that has been received and

understood

b. The act of sending a message
c. Active listening
d. The art of using language to impress people

Learning to communicate clearly is important to
managers because:

a. most managers communicate poorly.
b. poor communications make it difficult to

maintain good relationships.

c. managers spend almost 50 percent of their

time giving feedback and criticism.

d. open office systems have increased the

amount of

communication

managers need to

do.

Which is an assumption that gets in the way of
clear

communication

a. Not listening because you think you already

know what the other person is going to say

b. Rude behavior that makes the other person

angry

c. Interrupting someone before they are finished

because you are late for a meeting

d. Not being able to hear because people are

talking loudly nearby

Which statement is most accurate?

a. When it comes to communicating, the most

important thing is to make sure the other
person hears you.

b. If you think you might hurt someone's

feelings, it is better to keep your message
vague.

c. To communicate clearly, look at your message

from your audience's point of view.

d. Once you learn to be a good communicator,

you will not be bothered by competing
messages.

Answers

(c)

(a)

(b)

(a)

(c)

you

have

questions?

Comments?

Need

clarification?

Call

Educational

Services

1-800-225-3215,

ext.

600

email at <

ed_svcs@amanet.org

Chapter 2:

Listening: The Foundation

Learning Objectives

When you complete this chapter, you should be able to:



Explain why listening skills are the foundation of clear

communication



Explain why hearing is not necessarily listening.



Identify obstacles to good listening.



Define active listening, clarifying, and paraphrasing.



State key actions for improving listening skills.



Evaluate your listening skills at work.

Overview

The first word that usually comes to mind when people think of "communication" is speaking.
But speaking is only part of the process of communicating, and while it is important, there is
another part that is even more important: listening. When no one is listening, it doesn't
matter how many words you speak or how clearly those words are spoken. When no one is
listening, it is impossible to communicate.

Real listening is not easy (if it were, there would be little reason for this course). Real
listening takes effort and attention, so listening is where we will begin.

Why Does Listening Matter?

On the morning of an important presentation, Allison woke with a bad cold—and hardly any
voice. She called Brad, who had helped put the presentation together, and asked him to take
over for her. She gave Brad the time and location for the presentation and said, "My slides
are in a box on the top of my desk. Better go through them—they might be out of order." She
also told him to remember that the clients had said they limit the presentation to a maximum
of 45 minutes, including the question-and-answer session. "These people want a chance to
ask questions," she said, "so be sure you leave enough time."

While he was on the phone with Allison, Brad went through his calendar and made a list of
appointments and meetings he would need to change or cancel. He also downloaded a copy
of the proposal so he could review it. When Allison finished speaking, he said, "Don't worry.
Get some rest and let me take care of the presentation."

After making his phone calls and reviewing the proposal, Brad grabbed the slides and
hurried out of the building so he could get to the clients' offices on time. Unfortunately, he
didn't notice that the slides were out of order until he had already started the presentation, so
he had to stop for several minutes to reorganize them. He still finished the slide show within
the time limit, but there was no time left for questions.

When Allison returned to the office two days later, she learned that the client had awarded
the contract to a competing firm.

Brad made two mistakes that might have contributed to the loss of this important contract.
He failed to organize the slides before the presentation, and he didn't leave time for
questions. What happened? Why did Brad make such serious mistakes?

__________________________________________________________________

Brad did not pay enough attention when Allison explained what he needed to do. Instead of
listening, he was going through his calendar, thinking about the changes he had to make to
his schedule for the day and downloading the proposal from his computer.

When people don't listen, they often miss important information or misunderstand what's
being said, which can lead to mistakes like the ones Brad made. Not listening also wastes
energy and time. Why bother speaking if the person you are speaking to is not paying
attention?

Think About It ...

Have you ever missed important information because you were not listening carefully
enough? What was the result?

______________________________________________________________________

What is Good Listening?

We always hear what someone says. But there is a big difference between "hearing" and
"listening." What do you think the difference is?

______________________________________________________________________

"Hearing" is physiological. Your ears register sounds of all kinds—the drone of an airplane
flying overhead, music from the radio, a child's laugh, the words someone speaks. But
hearing someone's words is only the beginning. It's what you do when you hear the words
that makes the difference between hearing and listening.

Hearing is a passive process. It just happens. In fact, although you can close your eyes to
shut out visual images, you cannot close your ears to shut out sounds. Listening, however, is
an active process that requires energy and engages your mind. When you listen, you pay
attention, interpret the words, understand them, and, if appropriate, respond to them. Real
communication happens when you not only hear but understand a speaker's message.

When you really listen, you do several things:



Consciously focus on the speaker, ignoring external or internal distractions so
you can pay attention to the words, tone of voice, and body language.



Interpret the message by actively engaging your mind to make sense of what
the person is saying.



Clarify when needed by asking questions to make sure you understand what
the person means.



Select what's important by filtering out information that is not relevant to the
topic or of interest to you.



Respond to the message by letting the person know he or she has been heard
and understood and by taking action if necessary.

To make sure you are really listening, not just hearing, you first need to recognize the
obstacles that can make listening difficult.

Hearing and Listening

The word listen comes from two Anglo-Saxon words: hylstan, which means "to hear," and
hlosnian, which means "to wait in suspense." Hylstan describes a passive activity, hearing,
while hlosnian describes an action—waiting for something to happen. (Bolton,
Robert.People Skills. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1979. p. 32.)

Obstacles to Good Listening

In the story about Brad and Allison that began this chapter, Brad missed key information
because he was distracted. Distractions, such as thinking of other things, are one kind of
obstacle that make it hard to listen. There are many others that make it hard for all of us to
listen.

Think of a time during the past few days when you found it difficult to listen to what someone
was saying. What was going on? Why did you have trouble listening?

_________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________
You might have had difficulty listening because of one of the common obstacles listed in

Exhibit 2-1

Exhibit 2-1: Obstacles to Good Listening

Obstacles to good listening include:

















Differences in status, gender, and culture

Noise

Sometimes listening is difficult simply because it is difficult to hear. Perhaps people are
talking so loudly in a restaurant that you can hardly hear your companion. A jackhammer
outside the presentation room makes it impossible to hear the speaker. Traffic noise keeps
you from hearing the person who has called on your cell phone.

When you cannot control noise that prevents you from listening, let the other person know
that you cannot hear what they are saying. That way, the person will not think you are
listening when you are not.

Distractions
Like Brad, you will find it hard to listen when your attention is on other things, people keep
interrupting the conversation, or something interesting is going on nearby. Just as you
cannot keep yourself from hearing noise, you cannot stop yourself from becoming distracted
—thoughts pop into your mind; people come into the room. What you can do is notice when
a distraction is keeping you from listening. If possible, re-focus your attention on the speaker.
If you are unable to overcome the distraction, say, "I'm sorry. I'm having trouble listening to
you right now. I know that what you have to say is important—can we talk about it later?"

Assumptions

Imagine that while you are listening to the following conversation, you are suddenly able to
hear what Carlos is thinking.

JULIANNA:

Oh, hi, Carlos. I'm glad to see you. Could you come into my
office for a minute? There's something we need to talk
about.

CARLOS:

(Uh-oh, she wants to tell me that she hates the proposal,
after all the work I did on it.) Uh...I'm kind of busy right now."

JULIANNA:

This won't take long. By the way, I thought you did a great
job with the proposal.

CARLOS:

Thanks. (Now she's going to say, "But I hate it....")

JULIANNA:

I know your schedule is pretty full this week....

CARLOS:

You can say that again. ("I don't care what she says. I'm not
re-doing the proposal.")

JULIANNA:

But...

CARLOS:

Look, I did the best I could with that proposal, and if you
don't like it, maybe you should get someone else to do it
over.

JULIANNA:

(After a moment's hesitation) I thought I said that I liked the
proposal. In fact, you did such a good job, I was going to
ask you to make room in your schedule to come with me to
Seattle to present it to the clients.

Carlos was embarrassed because he had jumped to the conclusion that Julianna hated the
proposal. He wasn't listening because he assumed he knew what she was going to say.
What could Carlos have done to avoid embarrassing himself?

_________________________________________________________

Carlos could have checked out his assumption that Julianna hated the proposal. When she
said, "There's something we need to talk about," he could have said, "Did you want to talk
about the proposal? What did you think of it?" Then Julianna could have told him right away
that she thought he had done such a good job and she wanted him to come to Seattle with
her.

Think About It ...

Can you recall a time when you assumed you knew what someone was going to say, only
to find out that you were wrong? What was the result?

______________________________________________________________________

Rehearsing
Sometimes people fail to listen because they are busy planning what they're going to say
next. But the response they are preparing is to what they think the person is saying, not to
what the person actually says.

You cannot rehearse your response and listen at the same time. So when you catch yourself
rehearsing, stop. Focus your attention on the speaker, and wait until the person has finished
before you even think about what you are going to say.

Impatience

Impatience is a serious obstacle to listening. In what kinds of situations do you feel impatient
while people are speaking?

_________________________________________________________

You might feel impatient when you want someone to finish what they are saying so you can
get back to work or express your own ideas. You might also feel impatient when people
repeat themselves or take too long to get to the point. Whatever the reason, you stop
listening. You might convey your irritation nonverbally through your facial expression or body
language, or you might interrupt the person before he or she is finished.

When you feel impatient with a speaker, try to identify the reasons. If you really are too busy
to listen, you might say, "I'm sorry, I have to finish this work by noon. Can we talk after
lunch?" If the person seems too long-winded, ask questions to help him or her get the point
across: "So you are saying that we have two problems with the phone conferencing system,
not just one?"

Lack of Interest

We spend a lot of our time listening. But only a small percentage of the information we hear
is of immediate interest and use.

If you are not interested in what someone is saying, try to find a reason why it might be
meaningful or important. You might say, "I'm sorry, but I need to know why you're telling me
this," or "Can you tell me what the connection is between the purpose of this meeting and
what you're talking about right now?" Sometimes you can elevate your interest simply by
understanding that giving the person the chance to talk about the topic—perhaps a problem
he or she is having—is what's important.

Think About It ...

Remember a time when you felt bored during a conversation. Why were you bored? Were
there any questions you could have asked to determine why the conversation was
meaningful or important?

______________________________________________________________________

Distrust

It is very hard to listen when you distrust the speaker's motives or the accuracy of what they
are saying. That's what happened to Andre.

Andre has been working with Marlena to improve her job performance. Several times in the
past year, she has blamed mistakes she made on other people. Yesterday, Andre received
an angry e-mail from a customer who had received someone else's order instead of her own.
When Andre asked Marlena to tell him what happened, she launched into a long
explanation, giving him all the reasons the error was the customer's fault.

As soon as Marlena began talking, Andre thought, "Here we go again." In the middle of her
explanation, he snapped, "I don't really care what happened. Take care of it." She did as he
said, but her behavior showed that she was upset.

Two days later, Andre received another e-mail from the customer, thanking him for replacing
the order—and apologizing for having placed it incorrectly in the first place.

Andre's distrust of Marlena's motives got in the way of his ability to listen to her explanation.
Because he distrusted her motives, he automatically assumed she was trying to blame the
client for her own mistake. What might Andre have done instead?

_________________________________________________________

Andre might have tried to listen with an open mind and focus the conversation on the best
way to resolve the problem. Afterwards, he could have followed up to find out what really
happened.

Differences in Status, Gender, and Culture

Think of a time when it was difficult to listen because you felt uncomfortable with the other
person or with the way the person was speaking. That's what made it difficult for Robert to
listen to June.

Robert disliked talking to June. She never looked him in the eye, and she spoke so softly
that sometimes he could hardly hear her. She also never asked for anything directly. Instead,
she made statements that forced him to guess at what she meant. He found it hard to pay
attention because he kept wishing she would speak up, look him in the eye, and get to the
point.

Why did Robert have so much trouble listening to June?

_________________________________________________________

Robert had trouble listening to June because her communication style was so different from
his own. She was raised to believe that women should keep their eyes downcast when they
spoke, speak softly, and not be assertive. These kinds of cultural and gender differences
present an obstacle to good listening.

You might feel the same kinds of discomfort when you are listening to someone whom you
perceive to have higher status than yourself—your manager or someone in authority like a
judge. In fact, you might feel so uncomfortable while they are speaking that you are unable
even to hear what they say.

Apply What You Learn ...

What are the obstacles that make it hard for you to listen? For the next two weeks, every
time you find it hard to listen to someone, make an entry in your log. At the end of the two
weeks, you'll have a much better idea of what gets in the way of good listening—and you
can use that information to become a better listener.

Listen Actively

Earlier you learned that good listening is an active process in which you pay attention to the
speaker and engage your mind so you can interpret and respond to the speaker's message.

The opposite of active listening is passive listening. When you listen passively, you simply
take in what you hear. Perhaps you understand it; perhaps you do not. Perhaps you respond
or take action; perhaps you do not. What you do not do, however, is interact with the
speaker.

In this dialogue, Ralph is explaining to a new employee, Ariana, how the department is set
up. Is Ariana an active listener, or is she a passive listener?

RALPH:

So Michael takes the orders, reviews them, and passes
them on to Pedro, who enters them into the system, unless
there are any problems. You'll start by working with Pedro.
He'll show you how to process the orders. Okay so far?

ARIANA:

Uh-huh.

RALPH:

The important thing is to make sure that once the orders are
processed they get followed up. Okay?

ARIANA:

Okay.

RALPH:

Because sometimes things fall through the cracks, if you
know what I mean.

ARIANA:

Right.

In this dialogue, Ariana is a passive listener. She may or may not understand what Ralph is
saying—but there is no way to tell from her responses.

Let's replay that dialogue. This time, Ariana is listening actively.

RALPH:

So Michael takes the orders, reviews them, and passes them
on to Pedro, who enters them into the system, unless there
are any problems. You'll start by working with Pedro. He'll
show you how to process the orders. Okay so far?

ARIANA:

Let's see if I'm following you. Michael takes and reviews the
orders then gives them to Pedro for processing. Pedro will
show me how to do that. What happens if there are

problems?

RALPH:

Good question. If Michael sees problems, he takes care of
them. Pedro passes any problem orders back to Michael.

ARIANA:

I see.

RALPH:

The important thing is to make sure that once the orders are
processed they get followed up. Okay?

ARIANA:

Okay. Who does the follow up?

This time, Ariana is actively involved in the communication. Ralph has no trouble knowing
what she understands and what she doesn't.

When you listen actively, you interact with the speaker in such a way that the speaker knows
you are getting—or not getting—the message. You might ask questions that help the
speaker clarify what he or she is saying, or you might paraphrase the speaker's message so
he or she knows you have heard it. Sometimes it's not even what you say, it's how you
behave that lets the speaker know you have—or have not—gotten the message.

Exhibit 2-2

summarizes what you can do to listen actively.

Exhibit 2-2: How to Listen Actively

To listen actively:



Focus on the speaker.



Clarify as needed to make sure you understand.



Paraphrase to summarize content and meaning.

Focus on the Speaker

Imagine that you are speaking to a small group that includes Annie and Lorenzo. Which of
them is listening actively?

Annie sits slumped in her chair, and her eyes keep roving around the room. Every few
moments she glances at her watch. She holds a pen that she keeps twirling in her fingers.

Lorenzo sits straight up in his chair, and he is leaning forward slightly. Every time you look
his way he makes eye contact. He makes occasional notes on a tablet, and he nods and
smiles at appropriate moments.

Annie does not appear to be listening actively. It seems as if her mind is elsewhere, or she is
bored. Lorenzo, on the other hand, is focusing his attention on you, and his nonverbal
responses indicate that he is listening carefully to what you are saying.

Active listeners, like Lorenzo, keep their attention on the speaker. Their body positions, facial
expressions, and other nonverbal gestures show that they are participating in the
communication process.

Clarify as Needed

Active listeners participate in the communication process by asking questions that help them
understand what the speaker is saying, as in this example:

JOE:

I sat in on the meeting with that new P.R. firm yesterday. I
sure was impressed.

MARGO:

Impressed with the firm? Or with their ideas for our
marketing campaign?

JOE:

I like the firm—they seem to know what they're doing. But
what really impressed me was the way the marketing
campaign seems to be just what we need.

Notice the way in which Margo's clarifying question helped Joe focus on what he was really
trying to say. Clarifying lets speakers know what details to add so listeners have enough
information—and the right information. Clarifying also gives a speaker the chance to correct
any mistaken impressions or misunderstandings, as you can see from the next part of the
dialogue between Margo and Joe.

MARGO:

So you think we should hire this firm?

JOE:

No, I didn't say that. We still have two more
firms to interview, and their fees are pretty
hefty. But I do think we should put them
high up on the list.

Paraphrase to Summarize Meaning and Content

The third element in active listening is paraphrasing. When you paraphrase, you essentially
repeat back what you heard the speaker say. Like clarifying, paraphrasing lets the speakers
know they have been heard, and it gives them a chance to correct misunderstandings.
Here's more of Margo and Joe's conversation:

MARGO:

So what you're saying is that this firm seems to know
what they're doing and came up with a great campaign,
but their fees are high and you don't think we should
make a decision until we've interviewed all the
candidates.

JOE:

Right.

Think About It ...

Look for an opportunity to observe people while they are listening. Notice the nonverbal
ways in which they indicate whether they are listening actively. Also notice how they use
clarifying and paraphrasing to make sure they understand the speaker, let the speaker
know he or she has been heard, and give the speaker a chance to correct
misunderstandings.

Try It Yourself

Do the following activity with a partner:

1. Ask your partner to tell you about a problem or project he or she is

working on. Do not offer advice. Simply listen actively by clarifying and
paraphrasing as needed until the person agrees that you understand
the message.

2. Switch roles and repeat the activity.
3. Discuss the results.

How to be a Better Listener

We can all improve our ability to be better listeners. Improvement begins by assessing your
listening behaviors. Answer the questions in

Exhibit 2-3

to evaluate your listening skills.

Exhibit 2-3: What Kind of Listener Are You?

Rate your listening skills:

Always 1 2 3 4 5 Seldom

1. ___ I make an effort to pay attention to the speaker, make eye contact,

and focus on what he or she is saying.

2. ___ While someone is speaking, I try to avoid assuming that I already

know what the person is going to say.

3. ___ While someone is speaking, I try to avoid rehearsing what I am going

to say next.

4. ___ I try not to let feelings of impatience interfere with my ability to listen.
5. ___ When I feel uninterested in what someone is saying, I try to

understand why it matters.

6. ___ When I find it hard to listen, I try to identify the obstacle that is getting

in my way.

7. ___ I ask questions as needed to clarify what someone is saying.
8. ___ When appropriate, I let the speaker know I have heard the message

by paraphrasing his or her words.

A rating of "3" or less on any item indicates that you need to improve that skill.

Exhibit 2-4

shows some steps you can take.

Exhibit 2-4: How to Improve Your Listening Skills

To improve your listening skills



Have a reason for listening.



Participate in the process.



Monitor your listening behavior.



Be patient.



When appropriate, take notes.

Have a Reason for Listening

Much of the time we listen without thinking about the reasons why. But without a good
reason for listening, your mind might wander and you might become impatient. To improve
your listening skills, think about your reasons for listening. Do you need the information? Do
you have a general interest in the topic? Do you want to know the speaker's ideas or
opinions? Does the speaker need an opportunity or chance to express herself on an issue?
The better able you are to identify your reason for listening, the better able you will be to
listen.

Participate in the Process

You have already learned that active listeners participate in the communication process. The
effort you make to pay attention, focus on the speaker, ask clarifying questions, and
paraphrase as needed will pay off in terms of more effective communication. Your
participation as an active listener has another benefit as well: It helps other people be better
speakers. Your attention and questions demonstrate an interest in what the other person is
saying and help him or her clarify the message.

Monitor Your Listening Behavior

Improving your listening skills takes practice, and practice begins by increasing your
awareness of your listening behavior. Try to notice when you are allowing a distraction to
interfere, assuming you know what someone is going to say, or rehearsing your response.
No one listens attentively all the time. But when you catch yourself thinking about where
you're going to eat lunch instead of listening, turn your attention back to the speaker. If you
notice that you are not participating, look for an opportunity to ask a clarifying question or
paraphrase what the speaker has said. And be aware of your body language—are you
making eye contact with the speaker? Slumping? Fidgeting?

Be Patient
As you will learn in the

next chapter

, it is not always easy for a speaker to get his or her

message across clearly. To be a better listener, teach yourself to be more patient, even when
people ramble or take too much time to say something. Try to wait until the speaker has
finished a thought before responding. If you have a tendency to jump in too quickly, try using
the "ten-second pause"—wait for ten seconds after the person seems to have finished. That
brief delay allows you to process what the person said.

When Appropriate, Take Notes

Taking notes forces you to concentrate on what the speaker is saying, and the notes will be
useful later by reminding you of points you might otherwise forget. The process of taking
notes helps you follow the speaker's points and identify questions you need to ask.

Apply What You Learn ...

For the next two weeks, make a log entry every day to note the results of your new focus
on improving your listening skills.

Recap

Listening skills are essential for successful communication. When you don't listen, you can
miss important information or misunderstand what's being said.

To be a good listener:



Recognize that hearing is not necessarily listening.



Be aware of obstacles such as noise and distractions that make it hard to
listen.



Be patient and avoid making assumptions or "

rehearsing

" when you are

listening.



Listen actively by paying attention and engaging your mind.



Ask clarifying questions as needed to make sure you understand what the
other person is saying.



Paraphrase as needed to let the speaker know you understood the content and
meaning of their message.

Review Questions

Which statement best describes the difference
between hearing and listening?

a. Hearing is an active process, while listening is

more passive.

b. Listening engages your mind, while hearing is

physiological.

c. You cannot stop listening, but you can stop

hearing.

d. It is through hearing that you not only receive

but understand someone's message.

If you are not interested in what someone is
saying, try to:

a. listen politely and keep your face impassive.
b. interrupt and say, "I'm sorry, but I'm just not

interested in this."

c. find a reason to walk away.

d. understand what's important or meaningful

about it.

Which is a good reason to take notes while
someone is speaking?

a. You don't have to make eye contact with the

speaker.

b. You look as if you are taking the speaker

seriously.

c. The process helps you follow points and

identify questions to ask.

d. You don't have to pay as much attention

because you'll have the notes to remind you.

To listen actively:

a. paraphrase as needed to let the speaker

know he or she has been heard.

b. give the speaker your opinion, as needed, of

what he or she has said.

c. interrupt as needed to show that you are

listening.

d. nod your head briskly, as needed, to indicate

that you are paying attention.

Which statement is most accurate?

a. If you already know what someone is going to

say, you can think about other things while
you are waiting for them to finish speaking.

b. If it is too noisy to hear a speaker, a good

listener tries to look as if he or she is paying
attention anyway.

c. It is rude to ask someone what he or she

meant to say, even if you did not understand.

d. To be a good listener, pay attention to tone of

voice and body language as well as the
words.

Answers

(b)

(d)

(c)

(a)

(d)

Chapter 3:

Getting Your Message Across

Learning Objectives

When you complete this chapter, you should be able to:



Describe key strategies for delivering clear spoken messages.



Explain how to use communications skills to influence others.



Describe actions you can take to ensure that your message is received and
understood.



Communicate your ideas clearly in a meeting.



Deliver a message clearly on the phone.



Use communications skills to give feedback, criticize, and deliver unwelcome
news.

Overview

There is a purpose to even the most casual conversation. In one situation, your purpose
might be to pass along information; in another, you might want to explain your ideas; in still
another, you might want to express what you feel. You might want your audience simply to
hear and understand what you have to say, respond with their own ideas and points of view,
or take some action. Often, you have several reasons for communicating, and your purpose
might change more than once during a single conversation.

In the last chapter, you learned about the crucial role that listening plays in clear
communication. In this chapter, you will learn how to achieve your purpose by getting your
message across clearly and effectively.

Strategies for Delivering Clear Spoken Messages

Marla has been planning the company's first annual conference. She has been consumed by
this responsibility for weeks—working nonstop, even on weekends. Several days earlier, her
colleague, Marcus, thinking that she might need some help, asked, "How's the conference
planning going?"

"It's fine, everything's under control," Marla muttered.

The Friday before the conference is scheduled to begin, Marcus notices that Marla seems
even more frantic. Wanting to be helpful, he asks again how things are going. "They couldn't
be worse," Marla snaps. "Two speakers dropped out yesterday, and the room they had
promised us for breakout sessions won't be available after all. Now I hear there might be an
airline strike."

"I'm sorry," Marcus said. "How can I help?"
Marla stared at him. "Now you offer help? Where have you been? I could have used help
weeks ago!"

Marcus was stunned. "But I thought...You never asked," he said.

"A blind man could see how busy I was," Marla exclaimed.

What do you think happened in this situation? What could Marla have done differently to get
the help she needed?

_______________________________________________________

Marla didn't get help because she never asked for it. Just the reverse— she as much as told
Marcus she didn't need or want it. Marla fell into a common trap—assuming that other
people can read your mind, no matter what you actually say. But people cannot read our
minds, and it is not fair to ask them to do so. Each of us is responsible for getting our
messages across so that other people can receive and understand them.
To deliver clear messages, use the strategies in

Exhibit 3-1

Exhibit 3-1: How to Get Your Message Across

To get your message across:



Know your audience.



Know what you want to say and why you want to say it.



Keep your message simple and specific.



Make eye contact with listeners and speak slowly and clearly enough to be
understood.



Try to choose the right time and place.

Know Your Audience

Different people can hear and react to the same message in different ways. That's because
people have differing personalities, concerns, interests, backgrounds, points of view, and
levels of knowledge about a topic. Josh learned the hard way how important it is to think
about your audience.

Josh manages two employees, Philippe and Odette. The company is in a slump, and he
needs to alert them that they might be asked to take one or two unpaid days off every month
for the next quarter.

First, Josh speaks with Philippe. "You know about the lower thirdquarter projections," he
says. Philippe nods. "We might have to take some unpaid time for a while until we get
ourselves out of this hole."

Philippe says, "I thought something like that might be going on. Thanks for giving me a
heads-up."

Josh delivers the same message to Odette, but her response is very different. "That's not
right," she says, clearly upset. "What are they going to do next, fire everyone? Maybe I'd
better start looking for another job!" Josh tries to reassure her, but nothing he says calms her
down.

What happened? Why did Philippe and Odette react so differently to the same message?
Why was Josh caught off-guard when he spoke to Odette? What might he have done?

_______________________________________________________

Philippe and Odette responded differently because they have different interests and
concerns when it comes to their jobs. Perhaps Philippe is not as concerned about the money
he would lose, while Odette needs every penny she can get. Perhaps Philippe is a person
who takes everything in stride, while Odette feels threatened by any sort of change.

Josh knew he had a difficult message to deliver. He should have thought about how each of
his employees might react. Then he could have delivered the message to Odette in a way
that showed he recognized and understood her concerns. He might have said, "Odette, I

have something to tell you that you might find uncomfortable. You might have heard that we
have put out lower than expected projections for next quarter. Your job is safe, so you don't
have to worry about that. But we might all be asked to take a few days of unpaid leave
during the quarter. Do you think you could handle that if it helps keep the company afloat?"

To get your message across clearly, think about your audience before you speak. How much
does the audience already know about the situation or topic? How are they likely to respond
to the message? What are their concerns and interests in this situation? If the topic is
technical, what is their level of technical understanding? The more you know about your
audience, the more effectively you will be able to get your point across.

Think About It ...

Think of a sensitive or complex message you need to deliver. What do you need to
consider about your audience before delivering this message?

_____________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

Know What You Want to Say and Why You Want to Say It
In

Chapter 2

, you learned that as a listener, you can ask clarifying questions to make sure

you understand a speaker's message. But people do not always ask questions when a
message is not clear. Sometimes they assume they understand you when they do not, and
sometimes they do not feel comfortable asking for clarification or additional information.

As a speaker, it is your responsibility to help readers get your message. But first, you need to
know what you want to say and your reasons for saying it. That's a lesson David needs to
learn.

David often feels frustrated because people do not seem to listen when he gives them work
to do. This morning, for example, he asked Sheila to take on a new job. "Here's a list of
sixteen vendors we're currently doing business with," he said. "Please see what you can find
out about them. I need the information as soon as possible."

"Sure," Sheila said.

"Any questions?" David asked.

Sheila looked through the list. "I don't think so," she said.

At four P.M., David asked Sheila how she was doing. He was dismayed to find that she had
spent her day amassing information about the vendors' products, visiting their web sites and
printing out reams of descriptive information.

"But that's not what I wanted," David complained to a surprised Sheila. "Didn't you see the
red check marks I made on the list? All these entries are missing some information—a
phone or fax number, a billing address, an Employer I.D., an e-mail address. I already know
about their products. All I need is the missing information."

Sheila had worked all day gathering the wrong information. No wonder both she and David
were upset. What happened? What could David have done to make sure that Sheila got his
message?

_______________________________________________________

Instead of taking responsibility for making sure that Sheila heard and understood his
message, David left it up to her to decide whether the message was clear. Unfortunately, she
guessed wrong. What he should have done was decide exactly what he wanted to tell her so
that she would know what he needed her to do, and then ask questions to confirm that she
understood.

Exercise 3-1

Instructions: Rewrite the conversation between David and Sheila.
Write what David could have said to make sure that Sheila
understood the job he wanted her to do. When you're finished,
compare your rewrite to the one on the next page.
______________________________________________________
________________
______________________________________________________
________________
______________________________________________________
________________
______________________________________________________
________________
______________________________________________________
________________
______________________________________________________
________________

Answers

Here's one version of a rewritten conversation. Yours might be different.

DAVID:

"Here's a list of sixteen vendors we're currently doing
business with. We are missing some information about
each of these vendors. For example, we don't know
this vendor's telephone number, and we don't have a
billing address for this one. What I'd like you to do is
find the missing information and fill it in. Oh, yes, there
is a red check mark next to every missing item. Do
you have any questions?"

SHEILA:

"I don't think so."

DAVID:

"So I know whether I've been clear, could you tell me
what you are going to do?"

SHEILA:

"The red check marks indicate missing information.
You want me to get the missing information and fill it in
on this list."

DAVID:

"Right."

Keep Your Message Simple and Specific

Winnie has come up with an idea for streamlining the way her department handles requests
for assistance from other areas of the company. Here's how she introduces her idea to the
staff:

"We're taking too much time getting to some of the requests that come into the department.
A few days ago, I heard from someone in Accounts Payable that they'd put in a request

some time back and nothing happened, and there have been other complaints, too. Right
now we've got I don't know how many requests in the To Do bin. Last week, I previewed a
new tracking software I think we might find useful. It's not too expensive and it didn't look too
hard to learn. So what we need to do is figure out a way to handle these requests in a more
timely manner, which I suspect we can do if we put on our thinking caps because that's our
job, isn't it? So what do you think?"

Winnie's message is difficult to follow and understand. She has jumbled up several
messages, she is not completing one thought before moving on to another, and she is using
vague terms and phrases. Put on your own thinking cap and try to identify the questions the
staff members would need answered to understand what Winnie is trying to say.

_______________________________________________________

One question is, "What is the problem?" It seems to be that "some" requests are not being
handled in a "timely" manner, and there have been "other" complaints, too. How many
requests—two or twenty? Which requests? What is "too much time"—too long? Or more
time than the customer expects? How many "other" complaints—three? sixty? What does "in
a timely manner" mean—in one day? Within two weeks? By a certain date? How long has
this problem been going on—for the past month? The past year? What has the tracking
software to do with the problem—is Winnie suggesting that they use this software to handle
requests more quickly? How will it do that? Finally, what's their "job"—putting on their
thinking caps or meeting their internal customers' needs?

To get her points across more effectively, Winnie needs to sort out her messages. Message
number one: "We have not been handling customer requests quickly enough." Message
number two: "We need to figure out how to improve our ability to handle customer requests."
Message number three: "I have found some tracking software that can help us."

Once Winnie has sorted out her messages, she can present them in simplified, logical order
and add the specific details necessary to communicate clearly.

Make Eye Contact with Listeners and Speak Slowly and Clearly Enough to be
Understood

Justin and Deanna, two temp workers, have just left Colin's office feeling confused about the
assignment he has given them. When they arrived, Colin was working at his computer,
inserting figures into a report. As he continued his work, he explained that he wanted them to
set up several training rooms, including multimedia, by ten o'clock. Although he spoke very
fast, Justin and Deanna each assumed the other understood what he was saying. It was not
until they left his office that they realized how unclear Colin's instructions had been.

"How many rooms did he say? And what's a training room in the first place?" Deanna said.

"Beats me," replied Justin. "Do you know what 'multimedia' means?"

Colin made several mistakes when he gave Justin and Deanna their assignment. What were
they?

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________
Colin used reference words that the temp workers did not understand: Training room instead
of classroom, and multimedia, instead of overhead projector and screen. He also spoke too
quickly for them to follow what he was saying. Because his eyes were focused on the
computer screen, he missed the nonverbal cues that would have signaled their confusion.
He did not bother to find out whether they understood what he wanted them to do, so he had
no opportunity to fill in the missing information.

Colin's instructions would have been more effective if he had made eye contact with Deanna
and Justin while he was speaking. Eye contact connects you with your listeners. It makes it
much easier for them to understand you, and it lets you see the nonverbal cues that indicate
they are confused.

Try It Yourself

Work with a partner to see how important eye contact is to understanding. Ask your partner
to explain a problem or a project to you while he or she is looking in another direction.
Then ask the person to repeat the explanation while making eye contact with you.

When your partner finishes, reverse roles and repeat the activity. Then discuss the results.

Choose the Right Time and Place

Lara had cleaned off her desk and was ready to leave for the day. She was tired, and she
still had to stop and visit her elderly mother who had been ill and expected her in half an
hour. Just as she was shutting down her computer, her manager, Alan, appeared at her
cubicle. "Glad I caught you," he said, and launched into a detailed explanation of a problem
with an invoice. Finally, Alan finished, "Please take care of this first thing tomorrow," he said,
handing her the invoice and disappearing down the hall. But the next morning, Lara looked
blankly at the invoice lying on her desk. She hadn't the slightest idea what Alan had said was
wrong with it.

Why didn't Alan's message get across clearly to Lara? What could he have done?

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________
In

Chapter 2

you learned that it's difficult to listen when you are distracted. Lara was

distracted because she knew her mother was waiting, so she heard little of what Alan said.
Alan did not notice that Lara was preparing to leave. If he had noticed, he might have said,
"Is this a good time to talk?" Then Lara could have said, "I have to be somewhere. Can it
wait until the morning when I can give it my full attention?"

Think About It ...

Think about some times when you had difficulty following or understanding the message
someone was trying to deliver. What was going on? Which of the key strategies in

Exhibit

3-1

might the speakers have used to convey the message more successfully?

______________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

Making Sure that Listeners "Get" Your Message

You already know about the importance of listening to successful communication. Listening
to both verbal and nonverbal messages is crucial when you want to make sure that someone
receives and understands your message. That's what Rebecca needs to remember.

For several months, Jurgen has been coming to Rebecca every week or so with a problem
that he expects her to solve. It's taking a lot of her time, so she thinks about what she wants
him to do instead. When he brings her the next problem, she is ready.

"Look, Jurgen," Rebecca says, "I want you to stop and think about problems before bringing
them to me. I only have time to deal with so many things in the course of a day, and I'd like
to use that time as efficiently as possible. What I need you to do is try to solve the problem
yourself first. Then you might not have to bring it to me at all. At least you can figure out what
the problem is and why it's happening, and then you can come up with some ideas for
solving it. Then we'll be a few steps ahead."

While Rebecca is speaking, Jurgen stands in front of her desk with his arms crossed, and he
never quite meets her eyes. When she has finished, she adds, "So we're clear on that?"

"Sure," Jurgen replies. But within two weeks, he is back in Rebecca's office with another
problem that he has not even tried to handle himself.

Why did Jurgen apparently ignore what Rebecca said? What should Rebecca have done to
make sure that Jurgen "got" her message?

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________
All Rebecca did was tell Jurgen what she wanted him to do. But she did nothing to be sure
that he had received and understood the message. Instead, she should have followed the
steps in

Exhibit 3-2

Exhibit 3-2: Making Sure Your Message Is Received and Understood

To make sure your message is received and understood:



Pay attention to verbal and nonverbal responses.



Ask questions as needed to check out your perceptions of the listener's
understanding.



Ask the listener to summarize what you have said and restate the message if
needed.

Pay Attention to Verbal and Nonverbal Responses

How might Rebecca have known that Jurgen was probably not listening to what she had to
say?

_______________________________________________________

Rebecca could have paid attention to Jurgen's body language. His body position and attitude
indicated that he was simply waiting for her to finish speaking. She could also have noticed

that his only verbal response was, "Sure." He did not agree, disagree, or ask clarifying
questions. In fact, Jurgen's almost complete lack of participation should have alerted her to
the possibility that he was not listening.

Ask Questions as Needed to Check Out Your Perceptions of the Listener's
Understanding

If Rebecca had noticed that Jurgen was not listening, she could have asked questions to
involve him and to determine whether any of her message was getting through. Can you
think of some questions she might have asked?

_______________________________________________________

Rebecca might have asked these kinds of questions:



"Are you willing to take some time to think about problems before bringing
them to me?"



"Can you think of a problem we've discussed in the past few weeks that you
might have solved yourself?"



"Can you tell me why you bring problems to me before trying to do
something about them or coming up with ideas for solutions yourself?"

Ask the Listener to Summarize What You Have Said and Restate the Message if
Needed

Rebecca thought she had communicated her message to Jurgen because she told him
clearly what she wanted him to do—but she let him leave her office before checking to be
sure that he had actually gotten the message. To make sure that Jurgen had received and
understood the message, what could Rebecca have said?

_______________________________________________________

Rebecca might have said, "Jurgen, this is a very important issue. I want to be sure that you
understand what I need you to do. Can you give me a quick summary of what I have asked
you to do and why I think it's important?"

Jurgen's response would have shown Rebecca whether he understood the message. But
suppose he said, "You want me to take care of problems myself and stop bothering you with
them." Did Jurgen understand Rebecca's message? ___ Yes ___ No ___ Partly

This response shows that Jurgen got only part of the message. Rebecca would then have to
clarify and restate the part that he missed: "It's not that I want you to stop bringing problems
to me. But I need you to try to solve them yourself first, and if you can't, to think them
through and come up with some ideas for solving them before we talk."

After clarifying and restating the message, Rebecca should again ask Jurgen to summarize.
She can repeat the process until she is convinced that he has heard and understood her.

Try It Yourself

Work with a partner to practice the steps you just learned. Explain something to your
partner. Ask questions to check out your perceptions of whether he or she understands
your message. Then ask your partner to summarize what you said and restate the
message if necessary until you are sure he or she has received and understood the
message. When you finish, reverse the roles and repeat the activity.

Conveying Clear Messages to Influence

A great deal of the communicating you do is intended to influence others: encourage an
employee to take on a new responsibility or improve job performance; convince your
manager to accept your proposal or approve your budget; get someone to take action to
solve a problem or give you needed information. It's helpful to remember that influencing is
essentially selling. No matter what you are selling, the principles in

Exhibit 3-3

apply.

Exhibit 3-3: How to Influence Others

To influence others:



Know your objective.



Consider the other party's needs, interests, and concerns.



Be prepared with specifics to support your position.

Know Your Objective

Knowing your objective is especially important when your purpose is to influence. It's hard to
expect someone to know what you want them to do unless you know it yourself. So when
you want to influence someone, first figure out what it is that you want them to do.
Read the situations in

Exercise 3-2

. See if you can write a sentence for each situation that

expresses what the speaker hopes to influence the listener to do.

Exercise 3-2

Instructions. Write a sentence for each situation that expresses what the speaker hopes to
influence the listener to do.

Susan's staff cannot get their monthly reports completed on time because the staff of
another department is always late with the information they need. What would Susan
like to influence the manager of the other department to do?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

You would like to give a promotion to Tommy, one of your best employees, but he lacks
the writing skills he would need in the new position. What would you like to influence
Tommy to do?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

Answers

Susan wants to influence the other manager to make sure her staff gets the
information for the monthly reports to Susan's staff on time.

You want to influence Tommy to take a business writing class so he can improve
his writing skills.

Know and Respect the Other Party's Needs, Interests, and Concerns

A good salesperson knows that people buy only when they see how a product benefits them
in some way. To influence others, consider the other person's needs, interests, and
concerns.

Suppose you want to influence a prospective hire to take the position you are offering at the
salary that fits into your budget, which is lower than she had requested. You know that the

person is seeking a challenging job that will help her learn new skills and achieve her career
goals. Which points in the following list would be most likely to speak to her interests and
concerns:

1. We need someone with your experience.
2. We offer educational subsidies.
3. We have a promote-from-within policy.

People are influenced more by what meets their needs than by what meets yours. Your
prospect might find the first point of interest, but it is not likely to influence her. But she might
see points two and three as benefits that would make it worth her while to accept a lower
starting salary.

Be Prepared With Specifics to Support Your Position

It is not enough to state your position clearly. You must be ready to provide supporting and
explanatory details. That's what Caleb needed to do when he tried to influence Jill, the
marketing manager, to revise the product information sheet. Here's what Caleb said the first
time around:

"This information sheet isn't much help. My sales staff doesn't like it, and I don't think they
are really using it. We sure could use a new one."

Here's how Jill responded:

"You're probably right. We're in the middle of a million things right now, but I promise to look
at it when I get a chance."

Caleb didn't do a very good job of influencing Jill, did he? What kind of information could he
have given her that might influence her to make revising the information sheet a higher
priority?

_______________________________________________________

Caleb needed to add details that would illustrate the problems with the information sheet and
show how those problems affected his staff's ability to make sales. He might have reminded
Jill that the original purpose of the information sheet was to help prospects see how the
features of the company's products would benefit them. Then he could have pointed out that
the information sheet was out of date—there was no mention of the company's newest, most
exciting new products—and that it contained errors, which reflected poorly on the company's
image. Finally, he could say that his salespeople no longer felt they could use it, so they had
nothing they could leave with a prospect or send people when they made a contact over the
phone.

Think About It ...

Think of a conversation you need to have where your purpose is to influence the other
person. What's your objective? What are the person's needs, interests, and concerns in
this situation? What specifics can you use to explain and support your position?

______________________________________________________________________

Communicating Your Ideas in a Meeting

Meetings are important to managers because they offer opportunities for people to share
information and ideas, make decisions, and work together to solve problems. To get your
messages across clearly in a group requires using all the communications skills you've
learned so far. There are also some other steps you can take to communicate clearly in
meetings. Dina still has to learn those steps.

Dina feels strongly about some decisions her team needs to make at their bi-monthly
meeting. Although she has a soft voice and is not comfortable speaking up in groups, she is
determined to make her ideas known this time around.

When Dina's turn comes to speak, she feels very nervous and she can hear that her voice is
shaking. She can't bring herself to look at anyone, and she delivers her message in a rush,
stumbling a bit as she tries to find the right words. But she manages to say what she thinks
the group should do, and when she is finished, she leans back in her seat with relief.
Unfortunately, the group does not give much weight to Dina's ideas, and the decisions they
make are quite different from the ones that she wanted.

Why didn't the group take Dina's ideas seriously? What could she have done differently?

_______________________________________________________

Dina's teammates may have had trouble following her points and understanding her
message. She spoke too quickly because she was so nervous, and her soft voice might not
have carried well through the room. She probably sounded so tentative that her ideas did not
have very much impact.
To get her message across more clearly and forcefully, Dina needed to follow the steps in

Exhibit 3-4

Exhibit 3-4: Communicating Clearly in Meetings

To communicate clearly in a meeting:



Think through what you plan to say.



Make eye contact with people in the group.



Speak clearly, concisely, and distinctly.



Be prepared to illustrate and support your points.

Think Through What You Plan to Say

Dina knew what she wanted the group to do, but that's as far as she got. She had not
planned out what she wanted to say, so she was left trying to find the words while she was
talking to the group. She would have felt less nervous and been able to communicate her

ideas more successfully if she had come into the meeting with an outline of her main points
and supporting points—what she wanted the group to do and why they should do it.

Make Eye Contact with People in the Group

Dina couldn't bring herself to look at her teammates while she was speaking. Not only did
that lack of eye contact make it difficult for them to follow her, she missed the looks of
confusion and impatience on their faces as she searched for the right words.

Eye contact connects you, the speaker, to the group of individuals to whom you are
speaking. That connection not only makes it easier for people to understand you, it conveys
the sense that you are delivering an important message to each person in the room.

Speak Clearly, Concisely, and Distinctly

Dina's nervousness also led her to deliver her message all in a rush with far more words
than she would have needed if she had figured out what she wanted to say ahead of time.
The speed of her delivery combined with her soft voice and lack of eye contact would have
made it difficult for people to follow her even if she had carefully planned what she wanted to
say.

During a two-person conversion, the listener can interrupt if necessary to ask you to slow
down, speak more distinctly, or get to the point. In a group, however, people are more likely
to wait politely until you are finished, never letting you know that your message is not getting
across because of your delivery style.

Be Prepared to Illustrate and Support Your Points

You already know that it is important to include supporting details when you are trying to
influence people. One reason that Dina's teammates might not have taken her ideas
seriously is that she did not explain why she thought they should make certain decisions and
not others. She would have been more successful if she had presented information that
illustrated and supported her points.

Think About It ...

Have you ever had difficulty following a message someone was delivering in a meeting?
Why? What could the person have done to convey the message more successfully?

______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

How to Deliver Your Message on the Phone

When you speak on the phone, your listener does not have the opportunity to get
additional information from your facial expressions and body language—and you do not
have the advantage of the visual cues a listener sends to let you know whether your
message is being received and understood. So communicating clearly on the phone
requires the following:



Speak slowly, clearly, and distinctly. You need to convey the message by
voice alone, so make sure that the listener can understand and follow
your words. That is especially important when leaving voicemail

messages, because there is no one on the other end of the line to say, "I
didn't get the last three numbers—can you repeat them more slowly?"



Be patient. Telephone conversations do not move as quickly as face-to-
face conversations. Silence on the other end of the line might mean that
someone is thinking and formulating a response. It's a good idea to
count to ten before leaping into a silence.



Listen attentively to responses. The other person's inflections and tone
of voice, or the other person's words can indicate you need to repeat or
restate something. Ask clarifying questions and ask people to summarize
what you have said, as needed, just as you would in a face-to-face
conversation.



Do not use telephone conversations as an opportunity to multi-task.
Earlier you learned that doing another task while speaking to someone
makes it difficult to know whether you are getting your message across.
It's the same with phone conversations. Focus your full attention on what
you are saying and the other person's responses. You can't do that if you
are doing something else at the same time.



Speak especially distinctly and listen especially carefully when you are
teleconferencing with a group. Teleconferencing can be an efficient way
to get people together. But it can also be frustrating. Ask people to
identify themselves at the beginning of the call, and write the names
down. When you speak, identify yourself: "This is John. It seems to me
that...." Listen carefully to people's responses, let people finish before
jumping in, and ask clarifying questions as needed. It's helpful to have a
pad of paper handy so you can take notes.

How to Give Criticism

One of a manager's most important jobs is giving people the feedback they need to know
what they are doing well and what they need to improve. It is also one of the most difficult.
Helpful criticism can mean the difference between success and failure. Yet as you can see in
the two situations below, managers sometimes do not know how to provide feedback in a
helpful way, even if they have only positive things to say. Read the situations and see what
you think each of the managers could have done differently to give useful feedback and
criticism.

Situation 1. Nanci and Tim.

Tim has been handling the customer service desk for nearly four months. It's an assignment
he requested, so when an opening came up, his manager, Nanci, decided to give him the
opportunity. But Tim is not doing a good job. He seems to take customers' irritation and
anger personally, reacting with sarcasm or anger himself. He also spends too much time
chatting with customers he likes, even when other people are waiting for service.

Nanci has been looking for a way to talk to Tim about these problems. Finally, after he
became angry at yet another customer, she calls him into her office.

NANCI:

"Tim, you can't talk to customers like that."

TIM:

"Did you hear what he said to me?"

NANCI:

"It doesn't matter what he said. You do this all the time.
You haven't got the right personality for this job. Like last
week, with Mr. Bartoli...."

TIM:

"That wasn't my fault. He screwed up."

NANCI:

"I didn't say it was your fault. You just can't seem to get

along with people. And you need to do something with
your hair."

TIM:

"I can't believe this. You're blaming me for something I
had nothing to do with. And what's wrong with my hair?"

What could Nanci have done differently to give Tim useful criticism?

_______________________________________________________

Situation 2. Arline and Lawrence.

Arline is one of Lawrence's star performers. No matter what job she takes on, she does it
well. If she doesn't know how to do something, she asks. If she finishes something early, she
asks for another assignment or finds another way to be helpful. She's pleasant and friendly
to everyone. When performance evaluation time comes around, Lawrence always looks
forward to telling Arline what a great job she's doing. In fact, that's what he says: "Arline, I
really don't have much to say. You're doing a great job. I can tell how much you like the job,
and it's wonderful having you on my team."

What could Lawrence have done differently so the feedback he gave Arline was useful?

_______________________________________________________

Nanci's message—that Tim's behavior with clients is not acceptable—is not getting across to
Tim at all. She needs to find a way to deliver that message so that he knows what behavior
he needs to change and what will happen if he does not change it.

Lawrence's message, pleasant as it might be for Arline to hear, provides her with little useful
information. Arline needs to know what she is doing well and what, if anything, she might
need to improve.
In fact, both Nanci and Lawrence need to follow the guidelines in

Exhibit 3-5

Exhibit 3-5: Guidelines for Giving Helpful Criticism

To give helpful criticism:



See criticism as useful.



Be specific and use examples.



Use "I" messages.



Focus on behavior and results, not on personalities or personal traits.



Avoid making assumptions.



Focus on relevant issues.

See Criticism as Useful

One reason Nanci waited so long to talk with Tim about his behavior was that she saw the
feedback she had to give him as entirely negative. If she had realized that Tim needed to
know how to improve his job performance, she might not have felt so uncomfortable and she
could have handled the problem earlier.

Lawrence, too, does not realize the value of feedback, even to a "star performer" like Arline.
He thinks that telling her she is doing a good job is enough. Like many managers, Lawrence
thinks of criticism as something you give people when they are doing poorly. But people
benefit from knowing what they are doing well, not just what they need to improve.

Think About It ...

Think of a time when someone helped you out by giving you feedback. What did the
person say that was helpful? What might have happened if you had not been given the
feedback?

Be Specific and Use Examples

The feedback both Nanci and Lawrence gave their employees was far too vague to be
useful. Broad statements such as, "You do this all the time," and "You're doing a great job,"
communicate little useful information. What is "this"? How often is "all the time"? In what
ways is Arline doing a "great job"?

Criticism is useful only when it is accompanied by specifics, including examples, that
illustrate the points you are making. Nanci could have said, "Since you began this job four
months ago, I have noticed that you get angry with a customer at least twice a week."
Lawrence might have said, "One thing I particularly appreciate is that your reports are
always complete, easy to read, and turned in on time."

Use "I" Messages
Nanci said to Tim, "You do this all the time." Starting a sentence with the pronoun, you, is
like pointing a finger. It's not surprising that people tend to react defensively to such phrases
as:

That's not what I meant. Can't you listen for once?

Your work is sloppy. You have to pay more attention so you don't make so many mistakes.

You drive me crazy when you whistle like that!

Instead of sending "you," messages, try sending "I" messages that express in a more
objective way what you observe and what you want the person to do. For example, instead
of "You never finish anything you start," you might say "I notice that you have three
unfinished projects. I would appreciate it if you would finish them before taking on something
new."
How would you restate the phrases in

Exercise 3-3

Exercise 3-3

Instructions: Restate these phrases as "I" messages.

That's not what I meant. Can't you listen for once?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

Your work is sloppy. You have to pay more attention so you don't make so many
mistakes.
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

You drive me crazy when you whistle like that!
______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

Answers

I'm sorry. I guess I'm not being clear. What I meant to say was...."

I have noticed at least three errors in your calculations this week. I need you to
doublecheck your figures so the errors do not slip through to the weekly reports.

It's hard for me to concentrate on my work when you are whistling.

Focus on Behavior and Results, Not on Personalities or Personal Traits

Nanci not only used "you" messages instead of "I" messages, she criticized Tim's personal
traits instead of his behavior. What are two phrases she used that focus on his personal
traits?

_______________________________________________________

Nanci said, "You haven't got the right personality for this job," and "You just can't seem to get
along with people." Both statements imply that there is something basically wrong with Tim,
something that he cannot change.

When criticizing, it is essential to focus on people's behavior and the results of that behavior
not on the people themselves. You cannot ask someone to change their personality or
personal traits—only the way they behave.

See whether you can recognize statements that address behavior instead of personal traits.
Which of these statements address behavior?

1. It's too bad that all our customer service representatives are not as friendly

as you are.

2. I am impressed with the improvement in your computer skills.
3. I have noticed that you are sometimes rude to your colleagues.
4. You are too careless.
5. You need to proofread more carefully.

The second, third, and fifth statements address behavior, while the first and fourth
statements address personal traits.

Avoid Making Assumptions

You might remember that Lawrence said to Arline, "I can tell how much you like the job." Is
that statement an observation or an assumption? __________________________________

Because she was doing such good work, Lawrence assumed that Arline loved the job. But
he was only making an assumption; perhaps Arline always does good work no matter how
she feels about a job. For all he knows, she is bored with the work and looking for something
more challenging.

Which of the following statements include an assumption?

1. Lily, I saw you arguing with Sam—I know that you don't like him very

much.

2. Thanks for getting the report to me on time. It's very thorough. You did a

good job.

The first statement includes an assumption. How does the speaker know that Lily doesn't
like Sam?

Assumptions get in the way of clear communication because you think you know something
when you actually don't. Ask yourself what you are basing the assumption on. Has Lily ever
said that she doesn't like Sam? Did Arline ever say that she loved her job?

Focus on Relevant Issues

Nanci's concern is communicating to Tim that it is not acceptable for him to become angry at
customers. But at the end of the dialogue, she tosses in another issue: "And you need to do
something about your hair." Is the state of Tim's hair relevant to the criticism Nanci is trying
to provide?

Tim's hair might be a problem if it is dirty or too unruly for someone working on the customer
service desk. But it is not relevant to the issue at hand: Tim's behavior. By bringing up his
hair, Nanci deflects the discussion away from the key issue. Now Tim is likely to become
defensive about his hair, ignoring what she has to say about his behavior.

How to Deliver Unwelcome News

No one wants to be the bearer of bad tidings. But sometimes you need to tell people things
they would rather not hear: "I'm sorry, but all salaries have been frozen." "I've decided to
promote someone else." "We are not going to make our deadlines after all."

Here are some steps you can take to make delivering unwelcome news easier on you and
the other party:



Try to see the situation from the other party's point of view. Before
you deliver the news, think about how the recipient is likely to hear and
respond to it. Is the person expecting this news, or will it come as a
complete surprise? Is this news likely to come as a great disappointment
or create a very difficult situation for this person? Is the news likely to
make the person sad or angry?



Focus on the facts. Avoid long-winded descriptions, opinions,
comments, guesses, or assumptions. Simply state the facts of the
situation, with as much explanation as the other person needs to
understand it: "Third quarter projections are ten percent lower than we
had expected. For us to get through the quarter, we have to freeze all
salaries. That means no salary increases until fourth quarter at the
soonest."



Avoid leading up to the bad news. What people dislike even more
than getting bad news is having it delivered in a way that makes them
work for it. Although you might need a few words to introduce the main
point, get that point out quickly. Then add any supporting or explanatory
details that might be needed. The recipient is still likely to be upset, but
with the news, not with you for the way you delivered it.



Avoid over-apologizing. There's nothing wrong with a simple, "I'm
sorry" or "I wish it didn't have to be this way." But once you begin piling
apology on apology, the recipient begins to wonder if there isn't more to
the story than you are telling. Keep your apologies sincere and simple.



When you are saying "No," offer alternatives. It's not always possible
to respond to people's requests with a "Yes." But if you can, focus on
what you are able to do. Say, "I'm sorry that I can't ... but here is what I
can do."

Think About It ...

Think of a time when someone gave you helpful feedback. Then think of a time when the
feedback you received was not helpful. What was said?

Helpful feedback:

______________________________________________________________________

Unhelpful feedback:

______________________________________________________________________

Try It Yourself

Practice giving feedback with a partner. First, tell your partner how much you appreciate
something he or she does. Then tell your partner about something he or she needs to do
differently. Reverse roles and repeat the activity, and then discuss the results.

Apply What You Learn ...

For the next two weeks, make a log entry every day to note the results of your new focus to
improve your ability to get your message across.

Recap

To communicate facts, ideas, and feelings successfully, get your message across by:



Thinking about your audience's level of knowledge about the topic, needs,
interests, and concerns before you speak.



Knowing what you want to say and why you are saying it.



Keeping your messages simple and specific.



Making eye contact with your listeners to establish a connection and be able to
notice nonverbal cues.



Choosing the right time and place in which to deliver a specific message.



Making sure the listener has received and understood what you wanted to say.



Being prepared with details and examples to support your position and
illustrate your points.



Speaking so that listeners can hear and understand you.



Giving useful feedback that is specific, relevant, and focused on behavior and
results not personal traits.

Review Questions

To present your ideas successfully in a
meeting:

a. Read directly from your

notes if you are

uncomfortable.

b. Speak softly so you do not

appear too aggressive.

c. Make eye contact with

others in the group.

d. Be as spontaneous as

possible.

People are influenced by:

a. what meets their needs

and interests.

b. the amount of urgency you

can convey.

c. a clear statement of what

you need from them.

d. your ability to articulate

your position.

When we deliver our messages:

a. we have a right to expect

other people to listen.

b. we are responsible for

helping

listeners

understand us.

c. we should be careful not to

let people interrupt us
before we are finished.

d. we can only expect to be

listened to if we are
forceful enough.

Which is the best way to make sure a listener
has understood your message?

a. Say it, then say it again.
b. Ask, "Did you understand

me?"

c. Ask the listener to

summarize and restate the
message.

d. Say, "I hope I was clear. If

not, let me know."

When giving feedback, it is important to:

a. recognize that no one ever

wants to hear what they
are doing wrong.

b. try to keep it general so

people can come to their
own conclusions.

c. explain what you like about

someone's personality, if
relevant.

d. avoid making assumptions

about what a person thinks
or feels.

Answers

(c)

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Chapter 4:

The Art of Asking Questions

Learning Objectives

When you complete this chapter, you should be able to:



Describe situations in which managers need to ask good questions.



Describe and explain the uses of four types of questions: open-ended, closed-
ended, clarifying, and probing.



List key strategies for asking useful questions.



Ask appropriate, relevant questions during an interview.



Ask questions to encourage participation in a meeting.



Ask questions to elicit information in difficult situations.

Overview

So far in this course you've learned how important listening and getting your message
across clearly are to successful communication. But there is something else you need to be
able to do if you want to communicate effectively: Ask questions. The questions you ask and
how you ask them affect your communication in many ways.
In

chapters 2

and

you learned about questions that help you to clarify what someone says

or to make sure someone has understood you. In this chapter, you'll learn more about
clarifying questions. You'll also learn about using questions to elicit information, help people
think things through, and encourage participation in meetings.

Why Ask Questions?

Much of the time you spend communicating is actually spent asking questions. If a client
wants a cost estimate for a project, you need to ask the purpose of project, the client's
objectives, the timetable, and so on. If your team members want help with a problem, you
need to ask questions to identify the problem and its causes before you can help them find a
solution.

Think about some of the questions you have asked during the past few days. What were
your reasons for asking those questions?

Question: ________________________________________________________

Reason for asking: ________________________________________________

Question: ________________________________________________________

Reason for asking: ________________________________________________

Question: ________________________________________________________

Reason for asking: ________________________________________________
You might have come up with some of the common reasons for asking questions shown in

Exhibit 4-1

Exhibit 4-1: Why Ask Questions?

Some reasons for asking questions are to:



Get information.



Clarify understanding.



Help people think things through.



Encourage participation in a meeting or team effort.



Create or maintain a relationship.

Asking Questions to Get Information

If a colleague came to you and said, "Can you give me some feedback on my report?" how
would you know what kind of feedback she wanted: whether the report presented the details
clearly, whether the ideas in the report were sound, whether the format was effective, or
does she simply want you to proofread the report for typographical errors? Unless she tells
you exactly what she needs, you would have to ask questions. You would also ask questions
to learn the right way to carry out a procedure, elicit details about job applicant's experience,
or uncover the reasons for an accident.

Asking Questions to Clarify Understanding
In

chapters 2

and

, you learned that questions are crucial for making sure that you

understand someone accurately or that they understand you. Thus, when your manager
says, "I sure hope this project is finished within a reasonable amount of time," you might ask,
"Are you concerned that it's taking too long?" If you were teaching someone to do a new task
and the person said, "There sure are a lot of steps to this process!," you might ask, "Does
this procedure seem too complicated to you? Would it help if I broke it down into small
units?"

Asking Questions to Help People Think Things Through

Has someone ever come to you for advice about how to do something, such as write a
proposal? Instead of telling the person how to write the proposal, you could use questions to
help the person decide what he or she wants to say and figure out the best way to say it. You
might ask, "Who's going to read this proposal? Exactly what do you want your readers to
do? Why should they do what you want?" You can use the same technique to help people
think about problems and come up with a solution. The questions might be, "Can you
describe the situation that needs to be changed? Why does it need to be changed? Who's
involved?" and so on.

Asking Questions to Encourage Participation in a Meeting or Team Effort

People participate more actively when they are involved, and one way of involving people is
to ask questions. Questions encourage people to participate in discussions, think about
issues, and come up with ideas. For example, to kick off a discussion, you might ask your
group, "What ideas do you have for marketing our new product?"

Asking Questions to Create or Maintain a Relationship

In addition to the more pointed functions discussed above, questions can serve the purpose
of building or maintaining a relationship. For example, asking, "How was your vacation,"
shows that you are interested in the other person. The answer is not as important as the
back and forth of the conversation itself.

Think About It ...

Think of two or three situations in which you need information, would like to help someone
think something through, would like to encourage participation and involvement, or would
like to build or maintain a relationship. Briefly describe the situations and list some
questions you might ask.

Situation: ______________________________________________________________

Questions to ask:

______________________________________________________________________

Situation: _____________________________________________________________

Questions to ask:

______________________________________________________________________

Situation: _____________________________________________________________

Questions to ask:

______________________________________________________________________

Types of Questions

In a given situation, some kinds of questions are more useful than others. In the dialogue
below, Elena is trying to find out why Paul has not finished a project that is overdue. Do you
think Elena is asking useful questions?

ELENA:

Paul, is there a reason that you did not finish the project on time?

PAUL:

I guess so.

ELENA:

Was it because you were busy with other things?

PAUL:

Uh huh.

ELENA:

Do you know that other people are waiting for you to finish your
part of the project?

PAUL:

Yes.

ELENA:

If I help you clear your schedule, can you finish the work by next
Wednesday?

PAUL:

Maybe.

What did you think about the kinds of questions Elena asked? They were not very helpful,
were they? Paul's curt responses gave Elena very little information, and he made only a
vague commitment to complete the work.

The problem was that Elena asked "closed-ended"—questions-questions that Paul could
answer with a "yes," "no," "maybe," or other one-word or two-word statements. If she had
asked "open-ended" questions—those that could not be answered so simply—the dialogue
would have been different:

ELENA:

Paul, I see that you did not finish the project on time. Please tell
me why.

PAUL:

I guess I was too busy with other things.

ELENA:

I'm sure that you know other people are waiting for you to finish
your part of the project. What would it take for you to be able to
finish it by next Wednesday?

PAUL:

I'm not sure. I have so many other things to do.

ELENA:

If I help you clear your schedule, will you be able to finish by
next Wednesday?

PAUL:

Yes, I will.

This time, Elena's open-ended questions elicited more information and, more importantly,
involved Paul in the conversation. Notice that all but the last of Elena's questions could not
be answered with a simple yes, no, or maybe. At the end of the conversation, she used a
single closed-ended question to get a commitment from Paul that he would, in fact, finish the
project by Wednesday.
To ask useful questions, it helps to recognize ways in which you can use the types of
questions shown in

Exhibits 4-2

an d

4-3

: closed-ended, openended, clarifying, and probing.

Exhibit 4-2: Open-Ended versus Closed-Ended Questions

Ask Open-Ended Questions

Examples

Ask Closed-
Ended
Questions

Examples



To involve the other
person

How do
you plan
to finish
this job on
time?



To get
quick
answ
ers

Are you
willing to
work next
Saturday?



To invite a lengthy or
thoughtful response

Why did
you leave
your last
job?



To
obtain
inform
ation

Would you
like this
desk or
that one?

Ask Open-Ended Questions

Examples

Ask Closed-
Ended
Questions

Examples

efficie
ntly



To solicit opinions

What
ideas do
you have
for solving
this
problem?



To get
comm
itment

Did you
find the
workshop
useful?

Exhibit 4-3: Clarifying and Probing Questions

Ask

Clarifying

Questions

Examples

Ask

Probing

Questions

Examples



To get
more
precise
informatio
n

Do you mean that
you would like to
try the new
position?



To learn more
details

Can you tell me
more about ...?



To check
out your
assumpti
ons and
verify
your
understan
ding

Are you saying
that you find
working with Tony
difficult?



To encourage
speaker

express ideas
and feelings

In what ways did
you use ...?

What concerns
you about the
move,

the

disruption

working at the
new facility?

Why do you think
...?

What happened
next?

Tell me why you
plan to....
When will ...?
How do you
expect to ...?

"Closed-ended" Versus "Open-ended" Questions

In general, open-ended questions are more useful than closed-ended questions. It's too easy
to respond to closed-ended questions without giving the matter much thought or providing
any information.

Ask closed-ended questions only when you want a short, succinct answer: "How many
people will attend the meeting?" "Are you going to hire a new sales representative?" or "Can
you send me the report by Friday?" Otherwise, ask open-ended questions that encourage
the other person to provide details, develop a topic, or give an explanation.

Which of the following are open-ended questions?

a. "Why did they say they had changed the design?"
b. "What do you think about the new brochure?"

c. "What ideas do you have about where should we hold the conference?"
d. "Can you stop by my office at 10:00 tomorrow morning?"
e. "What's the name of the person in charge of Information Services?"
f.

"What interests you about our company?"

g. "Will the newsletter be out by Wednesday?"

Questions a, b, c, and f are open-ended questions that cannot be answered with a simple
"yes," "no," or other one- or two-word statement. They encourage a more complete
response.

Clarifying Questions
Many of the questions you ask during the course of a day are the kinds of clarifying
questions you learned in

chapters 2

and

: "Do you mean that you won't be in the office at all

on Friday? Or will you be out only in the morning?" "Did you say that the sales figures will be
better this quarter, or that we sold more products?" "Are you worried about meeting the
deadline?"

Some clarifying questions simply repeat the original question in another way, as in this
dialogue:

LAURA:

I am so angry about the change in work schedule.

JASON:

Are you upset because your hours are going to change?

LAURA:

I'll never be able to get my son to school and get here on
time.

JASON:

So you think that you'll need to start too early?

LAURA:

I can't possibly get here before 8:00.

JASON:

It sounds as if 7:30 won't work for you. Is that right?

L AURA:

That's right.

Jason is trying to understand exactly what Laura doesn't like about the new schedule. To do
that, he can rephrase the same question, "What upsets you about the schedule?" until Laura
gives him a clear answer.

Probing Questions

Think about the way in which you search the Internet. You begin with a general question: "A
place to stay in southern France?" A list of web sites appears. You choose one that looks
promising. It gives you general information, including an agency that handles rentals in
Provence. You click on the name of the agency. When the web site appears, you click again,
this time on the menu item, "Charming country hotels." As you move from web site to web
site, each click of the mouse is like a probing question. Your questions become more and
more specific until you have enough information— in this case, the perfect charming country
hotel in a village near Avignon.

In this dialogue, notice how Andy uses probing questions to get more specific information
from Anita.

ANDY:

What did you think of the new product brochures I sent
around for review?

ANITA:

I liked one of them a lot. The other one wasn't so great.

ANDY:

Can you tell me what you liked and didn't like about each of
them?

ANITA:

The blue and green one, with the bird? It seemed kind of
weak. Too soft.

ANDY:

And the one with the logo?

ANITA:

That was better.

ANDY:

Better in what ways?

Andy can continue to ask probing questions until he gets the information he needs about
Anita's responses to the brochures. To do that, he must listen carefully because each
probing question builds on the preceding response.

Ask probing questions when you want to know more about something a person says.
Depending on the answer, you might ask another probing question or a clarifying question
and then a probing question, and so on, until you have the information you need. Most
probing questions are open-ended questions although you might begin asking closed-ended
questions as you get closer to the end of the series.

Think About It ...

Watch or listen to a television or radio interviewer such as Larry King, Ray Suarez, Barbara
Walters, or Terry Gross. Notice the types of questions the interviewer asks and how the
person uses different types of questions to elicit more and more specific information. On
the lines below, write several questions you thought were especially useful.

Interviewer: ___________________________________________________________

Questions: ___________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

Try It Yourself

Work with a partner to practice using open-ended, closed-ended, clarifying, and probing
questions. Choose a topic. Then find out as much as you can about your partner's ideas,
feelings, and experiences with that topic by asking different kinds of questions. Reverse
roles and repeat the activity, and then discuss the results.

Key Strategies for Asking Useful Questions

Even though questions are a large part of the communications we engage in every day, not
all the questions we ask need to be asked. Some questions are not appropriate, and some
are not relevant to the topic you're discussing. Also, if you don't listen closely and remember
your objective, you can easily miss important responses.

In the dialogue below, what do you think about the way Francine asks Benito about his job
performance?

FRANCINE:

So, Benito, how do you think you did this quarter?

BENITO:

Okay, I guess. Yeah, pretty well. In fact, I ...

FRANCINE:

That's great. Are you enjoying yourself here?

BENITO:

Sure. Everyone's pretty nice. I've made some good
friends. In fact, Brett and I are talking about getting an
apartment together... .

FRANCINE:

That would be nice. Rents are so expensive, aren't they?
So is there anything about the job you want to talk about?

BENITO:

Don't think so.

FRANCINE:

Well, I think you're doing well, too. By the way, what do
you think about this thing with the election? Isn't it
amazing?

Francine didn't do a very good job of asking questions. Her questions were so general that
Benito gave her no useful information. In fact, she interrupted him just as he seemed about
to say something specific. She asked closed-ended instead of open-ended questions.
Worse, the question about the election was not relevant, and it was not an appropriate
question for a manager to ask of an employee, especially in a job performance interview.
Francine would have done a better job if she had followed the guidelines in

Exhibit 4-4

Exhibit 4-4: Key Strategies for Asking Useful Questions

Some key strategies for asking questions are:



Know why you're asking the question.



Ask the right type of question.



Be sure the question is relevant, necessary, and appropriate.



State the question clearly.



Give people time to respond.



Listen attentively to responses.

Know Why You're Asking the Question

It's always important to know the purpose of the questions you ask. Are you simply asking
questions to build or maintain a relationship? Is there specific information you need? Why do
you need it? What might happen if you do not get it? Are you trying to help people clarify
their thinking or get them to participate in a discussion? Why does it matter whether those
people are able to resolve their problem or express their ideas?

Francine's purpose should have been to elicit information that could help her determine how
well Benito thought he was doing his job and identify any problems that might be interfering
with his performance. Focusing on that purpose would have helped her formulate more
useful questions.

Think About It ...

Think of a situation in which asking questions can help you achieve a specific objective.
What is that objective? Why does it matter? What might happen if you are unable to
achieve it?

Situation: ____________________________________________________________

Your objective: _______________________________________________________

Why it matters: _______________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

Ask the Right Type of Question
As you learned earlier in this chapter, there are different types of questions. The types of
questions you ask depend on such factors as the situation and your purpose. Which type of
questions would be most effective in each of the situations in

Exercise 4-1

Exercise 4-1

Instructions: For each of the situations below, circle the type or types of questions that would
be most effective.
Situation 1

Sandy needs to ask Marvin, who works in Accounting, whether a
vendor has been paid. Marvin is very friendly and likes to talk. In
fact, when Marvin is asked almost any question, he is likely to
answer with a great deal of unnecessary information. What type or
types of questions should Sandy ask?

a.
closed
-
ended

b.
open
-
ende
d

c.
clarifyin
g

d.
probin
g

Answers

Sandy should use closed-ended questions, which are more likely to focus
Marvin on the information she needs without encouraging him to add
unnecessary information. For instance, she might say, "Did Vendor X receive a
check?" instead of, "What can you tell me about the payment situation for
Vendor X?" If she needs additional information, she can continue to ask
closedended questions: "Did you receive the invoice Vendor X sent on such and
such a date?" "Can I tell Vendor X that she will receive her check by the end of
the month?"

Situation 2

Bruno is interviewing Delilah, who has applied for a position in his
department. When Bruno asks why she has applied for the position,
Delilah says, "It sounded interesting." What type or types of
questions should Bruno ask?

a.
closed
-
ended

b.
open
-
ende
d

c.
clarifyin
g

d.
probin
g

Answers

Bruno should ask open-ended, probing questions. He could begin with a broad
question such as, "What sounded interesting about the position?" and then
continue to probe for more information by asking for more specifics.

Be Sure the Question Is Relevant, Necessary, and Appropriate

Francine's question about whether Benito was enjoying himself at the company threw the
conversation off track and brought in information that was not relevant to Benito's job
performance. While you might use that kind of question to establish rapport at the beginning
of a meeting or interview, it is not helpful during the interview itself. Inappropriate questions,
such as Francine's question about the election, can also throw a conversation off track. They
can also offend people or make them uncomfortable.

Before asking a question, think about whether it serves a purpose and is relevant to the topic
at hand. Consider what would happen if you didn't ask that question. Sometimes it's helpful
to wait for 10 seconds before asking a question so you can consider how to phrase it or
whether to ask it at all.

Be especially careful to avoid questions that might be offensive or cause discomfort. The
problem might be the content, such as Francine's question about the election. In the
workplace, it is usually best not to inquire about a person's politics, religion, sexual
preference, or personal life.

Sometimes the problem is not so much the content as it is the way a question is asked.
Think about how you would feel if you were asked questions like the ones shown below:
"Why did you dye your hair that color?"

"Don't you think you're being too sensitive?"

"Do you really believe that anyone will take that idea seriously?"

"When are you going to learn to do that right?"

All of these questions challenge people to defend themselves. Instead of eliciting a useful
response, these kinds of questions are likely to elicit bad feelings, hostility, and anger.

Think About It ...

Has anyone ever asked you a question that made you uncomfortable? Was it the content
of the question or the way the question was phrased?

State the Question Clearly

If you don't get a helpful answer to your question, perhaps you haven't asked the question
clearly. Suppose someone asks, "What do you think about the meeting next week?" Does
the person want to know whether you think the meeting should be held, whether it's worth
attending, whether the right people have been invited, or whether it's being held in the right
place?

People often assume that the other person understands what they mean, and they do not
realize that the question is unclear. But people also ask unclear questions because they
haven't figured out what they want to know, as in this example:

TRACY:

Jean-Paul, I heard that some people have been having trouble
with the new invoice processing procedures, and I agree that
they are sort of confusing, although I'm not sure what I can do

about it, but maybe you could fill me in?

If you were Jean-Paul, could you tell from Tracy's rambling question what she really wants to
know? Probably not. Tracy might not know herself. If she did, she could ask the question
more clearly:

TRACY:

Jean-Paul, I heard that some of the staff have been having
trouble with the new invoice processing procedures. I agree
that the procedures are a little confusing, and I'd like to help if
I can. Can you tell me who is having trouble, and what it is
about the procedures that they don't understand?

Give People Time to Respond

What do you think is going on in the following situation? How do you think Julia feels?

SUZANNE:

I'd like your opinion about Mario's suggestion that we
delay the product launch.

JULIA:

Hm. He made some good points, that's for sure... .

SUZANNE:

So you agree we should delay the launch?

JULIA:

That's not what I said; it's just that his point about the test
cycle....

SUZANNE:

Oh, you mean we need to run more tests?

Suzanne is jumping in with assumptions about what Julia is about to say, so Julia probably
feels frustrated because she has no time to respond. If you are really interested in the
answers to your questions, give people the time they need to respond, and avoid assuming
that you already know their answers.

Listen Attentively to Responses

Suzanne was not really listening to Julia's responses, so she was not getting the information
she needed. An important part of asking questions is listening carefully to the way people
respond. That's how you'll know the person has understood what you asked and whether
you need to ask additional clarifying or probing questions.
"Listen" to more than the other person's words. As you learned in

Chapter 2

, real listening

means paying attention to nonverbal cues such as tone of voice and facial expressions
because those cues often give you more information than people's words. Dissonance
between what people say and their nonverbal expressions can indicate that the words might
not be an accurate indication of what they really think or feel.

What do you think might be going on in this example?

Bill asks Jeffery, "Would you mind working overtime tomorrow?" Jeffery replies, "Uh, sure, no
problem." But his tone is clipped and abrupt, he frowns, and he looks down at the floor as he
speaks.

The nonverbal cues conflict with Jeffery's words, implying that he certainly would mind
working overtime. If Bill "listens" carefully, he can check out his perception by asking a
clarifying question and giving Jeffery a chance to back out: "Are you sure that it's all right for
you to work overtime tomorrow? If not, I'll be glad to ask someone else."

Think About It ...

Look for opportunities to notice the ways in which people ask questions. What do they do
that works? What might they do differently so their questions are more useful?

How to Ask Questions During an Interview

Two common situations in which managers need to ask questions is when interviewing job
applicants and conducting performance appraisal interviews. To improve the usefulness of
the interviews you conduct, take the steps shown in

Exhibit 4-5

Exhibit 4-5: Conducting Useful Interviews

To conduct useful interviews:



Know your objective.



Be prepared.



Choose the right time and place.



Establish rapport.



Ask the right questions and listen carefully.

Know Your Objective

Before beginning any interview, decide what you hope to accomplish. Why are you
interviewing the person? What can you learn from a face-to-face interview that you could not
learn through other means? What kind of information do you need? How are you going to
use the information?

Be Prepared

The more you know going into an interview, the more you can learn. For hiring interviews,
read the applicant's application and résumé, and review the job description. For performance
evaluation interviews, review the employee's previous evaluations and other relevant
documents. For informational interviews, read any relevant material that might be available.

Develop a list of questions to ask. You might not ask them all, but creating the list helps you
focus on the information you need. The list can also be a useful reference during the
interview, reminding you of important questions you might otherwise forget to ask. Consider
providing the interviewee with some questions ahead of time so he or she can prepare by
thinking about the answers or gathering necessary documents.

Choose the Right Time and Place

A private, comfortable setting and a convenient time go a long way toward determining the
success of any interview. Few people are comfortable being interviewed in public, especially
if the interview is of a personal nature, such as a hiring or job performance interview, or the
topic is sensitive or confidential.

Look for a private place where you will not be disturbed, and set the place up so that both
you and the interviewee will be comfortable. If possible, arrange seating at the corner of a
table or in comfortable chairs placed at an angle to one another. Minimize distractions by
arranging for your calls to go into voicemail or be answered by someone else—and turn off
cell phones. Schedule the interview for a time when neither you nor the person you are
interviewing will feel rushed.

Establish Rapport
Unless you know the person you are interviewing well, take a few minutes to establish
rapport before launching into your questions. Introduce yourself. Set the stage by explaining
the interview process and what you want to accomplish. Give the person a chance to ask

about the process before you begin.

Exhibit 4-6

shows things you might say to start off an

interview.

Exhibit 4-6: How to Begin An Interview

Some sample phrases to use to begin an interview:



"Hi, Joan, I'm Kathleen, manager of the Research Department. I'm glad to
see you here today."



"Here's what I'd like to accomplish in the interview today."



"Before we begin, I'd like to give a quick summary of what kinds of
questions I'll be asking."



"I'm going to use the information from today's interview to ..."



"Can I answer any questions before we get started?"

Ask the Right Questions and Listen Carefully

To conduct an interview, you will use everything you have learned in this chapter about
asking questions. The success of the interview will depend to a large extent on whether you
ask the right type of questions and whether you listen carefully to responses.

Notice how the questions Sylvia asks throw this interview off track:

SYLVIA:

Karl, can you tell me why you're interested in working for
our company?

KARL:

My friend told me that it's a great company to work for.

SYLVIA:

Well, we always like to hear that! What department does
your friend work in?

KARL:

She's in Purchasing.

SYLVIA:

We have a lot of good people in Purchasing. Has she been
here long?

KARL:

I don't know. We only met a couple of weeks ago.

Except for the first one, Sylvia's questions are unlikely to help her learn whether Karl is
qualified for the position with her company. To keep the interview on track, what question
might she have asked after Karl mentioned his friend?

Sylvia might have asked, "What was it she said about the company that interested you?" The
answer to that question would have provided useful information about Karl's reasons for
wanting to work for the company.

Think About It ...

Imagine that you are about to interview someone for a specific position in your department.
What are some of the questions you would ask?

Position: _______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

Try It Yourself

Working with a partner, use what you learned in this section to plan and conduct a mock
job interview. Reverse roles and repeat the activity. Then discuss the results.

Using Questions to Encourage Participation in Meetings

Jeremy facilitates a staff meeting every other Wednesday morning. The purpose of the
meeting is to bring everyone up to date on the department's projects and give people a
chance to share ideas and perspectives. After the team leaders give brief reports, Jeremy
says, "So—does anyone have any questions? Anything you want to talk about?" Most of the
time people simply shake their heads, so Jeremy declares the meeting over and everyone
leaves.

Lately, Jeremy has been hearing that people think the meetings are a waste of time. "We
don't talk about anything," one staffer complained. "Can't the team leaders send out their
reports on e-mail?" But Jeremy thinks it's important for people to get together regularly and
talk about what's going on in the department. He knows the meetings would be more useful
if everyone participated—but they don't.

Jeremy discusses the situation with a colleague who suggests that he ask questions to
encourage participation. "I do ask questions," Jeremy says. What he doesn't realize is that
the questions he asks are far too general and vague to encourage participation. People
probably don't realize that he really wants answers when he says, "Any questions? Anything
you want to talk about?"

You already know that questions are key to eliciting information during an interview.
Questions are also an effective way to increase response and participation in groups. When
you "tell" people something, they might hear what you say without realizing that you want a
response. Even general questions like Jeremy's might not elicit much participation. But when
you make it clear that you are interested in people's ideas, information, or feedback, they will
be more likely to respond.

Exhibit 4-7

shows some strategies for using questions to encourage participation in

meetings.

Exhibit 4-7: Using Questions to Encourage Participation in Meetings

Some strategies for using questions in meetings include:



Create a safe environment.



Ask specific, open-ended questions.



Give everyone a chance to participate.



Send out questions ahead of time.

Create a Safe Environment

To feel comfortable sharing ideas and asking questions, people need to know that it's okay to
say whatever is on their mind and even to ask "dumb" questions. Establish ground rules
specifying that everyone's idea is to be taken seriously and every question or concern is
important.

Ask Specific, Open-ended Questions

Not only were Jeremy's questions too general, they were closed-ended questions, making it
easy for the members of the group to answer with a shake of their heads. What if Jeremy

said something like, "Now that you've heard the team reports, what questions do you have
about these projects?" or "Now that we're finished with the team reports, let's talk about
what's going on in the department. For example, I've been hearing concerns that the
meeting rooms are booked back-to-back so people are having to meet in the cafeteria. What
kinds of problems is this situation causing for you? What suggestions do you have for
improving the situation?"

Give Everyone a Chance to Participate

Remember elementary school? The same few kids always had their hands in the air before
the teacher had finished asking the question. It's the same way in meetings. If the same few
people always answer your questions, try going around the room and giving everyone a
minute or two to respond (letting people pass if they wish). That way, people will learn that
you are interested in hearing from everyone.

Send Out Questions Ahead of Time

If people know you will be asking certain questions, they can think about how they might
respond. For example, Jeremy might have sent around an e-mail asking people to come
prepared with ideas for handling the problem of the overbooked meeting rooms. That way,
he had a better chance of getting a lively discussion going.

Think About It ...

Think about a meeting you will be facilitating. List some actions you can take before the
meeting and some questions to ask during the meeting to encourage participation and
discussion.

Brief description of meeting: _____________________________________________

To do before the meeting: ________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

Questions to ask during the meeting: ________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

Meeting by Telephone

When you meet with people by telephone, it takes a special effort to keep the meeting on
track, include everyone, and make sure that everyone knows who's speaking. Here are
some suggestions:



Send out a meeting agenda, questions to think about, and
supplementary information ahead of time.



Use people's names when addressing them: "Andrew, what do you think
about Marie's idea for improving the ...?"



Keep a list of names in front of you so you can keep track of who is
participating and who is not: "Sienna, we haven't heard your ideas yet.
What suggestion would you make for ...?"



Ask people to identify themselves when they speak: "This is Marie. I'm
intrigued by Sienna's idea. Sienna, can you tell us more about ...?"



After the meeting, summarize key points and send them out to
participants.

Using Questions to Elicit Information in Difficult Situations

Pat was doing everything right, but he was still having difficulty getting Lucinda to answer his
questions about a customer complaint that needed his follow-up.

PAT:

Lucinda, please tell me what you know about the problem with
Mr. Maldonado's account.

LUCINDA:

(arms crossed, lips set in a thin line, flat tone of voice) I don't
know anything about it.

PAT:

Aren't you the customer service representative assigned to his
account?

LUCINDA:

(staring at the floor) Yeah, I guess so.

PAT:

Are you saying that you didn't speak to him about the lost
payment?

LUCINDA:

(shrugs) Maybe. I talk to 20 people a day. Look, I've got a pile
of work on my desk... .

PAT:

I understand, but I really need to straighten this out. Why was
this account cancelled before we sent a warning notice?

LUCINDA:

(in an angry tone) What am I supposed to do? It's not my fault.
Can I go now?

People resist answering questions for various reasons. They might feel uncomfortable
because they think they are supposed to come up with a "right" answer. They might feel that
the questions are putting them on the spot. The questions might feel threatening to them, as
if they are being accused of something.

Lucinda's tone, facial expressions, and body language were obvious cues that she did not
want to answer Pat's questions—that she would, in fact, resist answering them as long as
possible. What do you think Pat might have done when he became aware of those cues?

One thing Pat might have done was to try to relieve some of the pressure on Lucinda. He
might have restated his initial question with a preface: "I know this is a difficult situation for
you. Mr. Maldenado has let all of us know how angry he is. I'm not blaming you for the
problem—these things happen. But I need to know the details so I can help straighten the
situation out. What can you tell me?"

People send a lot of signals to indicate they do not want to answer your questions. The
reason might be simple: Perhaps the person is busy or doesn't know why you are asking the
questions. Or the reason might be more complex, as in the example of Pat and Lucinda: The
questioning itself raises issues that make the person uncomfortable.
What should you do when you are having trouble getting answers to your questions? It
depends on the situation and on how important getting the answers is to you, but you can try
the suggestions in

Exhibit 4-8

Exhibit 4-8: Eliciting Information in Difficult Situations

Some ways to elicit information in difficult situations are:



Be sure the person knows why you are asking questions.



Be patient.



Rephrase the question.



Let the person know you appreciate and value their responses.



Remain calm and focus on the issue.



Ask closed-ended questions.

Be Sure the Person Knows Why You are Asking Questions

If you suspect the other person is resisting answering your questions, first make sure that
they understand the reason for the questions. You might say, "I'm sorry, I might not have
explained clearly why I'm asking these questions... . I need the information so I can give my
manager a budget request for a new sales assistant."

Be Patient

Some people need extra time to put their ideas into words. They feel rushed or pressured if
they're expected to have an answer on the tip of their tongues. Allow a long pause after you
finish the question. You might even say, "Take your time." During the pause, try to relax and
do nothing but wait. If the person still has trouble answering, you might offer time to think:
"Why don't you think about this for a while? I'll stop by later this afternoon to see what ideas
you've come up with."

Rephrase the Question

If you are not getting the answers you had expected, perhaps the person didn't understand
the question. You might say, "I'm sorry, that question might not have been clear. What I
meant to say was... ."

Let the Person Know You Appreciate and Value Their Responses

"What a good observation—I had not thought of that. Now let me ask you... ."; "I can really
use your help with [this situation]"; "You know so much about [this situation or topic], and I
would really like to know what you think about... ."

Remain Calm and Focus on the Issue

If the person seems angry or hostile, try to defuse the situation. You might say, "I understand
that you are upset. We need to set a time to talk about [this situation/your concern/this
issue]. Right now, though, I need to know what it will take to finish this project by the
deadline."

Ask Closed-ended Questions

If a person continues to resist answering your questions and it's important that you have the
information, open-ended questions might not work. Try asking closed-ended questions
instead: "If I assign an editor to work with you, can you finish the report by the fifteenth of the
month?" "Did the customer tell you that the technician showed up on the wrong date?" "Are
you willing to make the presentation if Frank can't do it?"

Think About It ...

Think about a time in which you were having trouble getting answers to your questions.
What do you think might have been going on? What might you have said or done
differently to encourage a more helpful response?

Try It Yourself

Work with a partner to practice the techniques you learned in this section. Ask your partner
to resist answering your questions about a specific topic. Try the techniques to help you get
the responses you need. Reverse roles and repeat the activity, and then discuss the
results.

Apply What You Learn ...

For the next two weeks, try out specific techniques learned in the chapter and record the
results in your log. Write down the techniques you used, what worked and what didn't, and
what you might do differently in the future.

Recap

The questions you ask and the way you ask them are important to clear communication. You
ask questions to get information from people, clarify understanding, help people think things
through, and encourage participation in a meeting. The types of questions you ask—open-
ended, closed-ended, clarifying, or probing—depend on the situation and what you want to
accomplish.

To ask useful questions:



Know why you're asking the question, ask the right type of question, and be
sure that the question is relevant, necessary, and appropriate.



State the question clearly so the other person understands what you are
asking.



Give people enough time to respond and pay attention to the responses,
including nonverbal cues that might conflict with the person's words.



Prepare for interviews by identifying questions that will elicit useful information,
and begin by establishing rapport with the person you are interviewing.



For meetings, send out questions ahead of time when appropriate, and use
questions to encourage participation.



When people resist answering questions, be patient and remain calm; make
sure they know the reasons for your questions; and if necessary, ask
closedended questions to get the information you need.

Review Questions

Open-ended questions:

a. can be answered with a

"yes" or a "no."

b. are the best way to get a

succinct response from a
talkative person.

c. encourage people to

expand on their ideas.

d. should not be used in a job

interview.

Which is an appropriate question to ask during
a hiring interview?

a. What interests you about

working for our company?

b. Who did you vote for in the

presidential election?

c. Do you plan on having

children?

d. What church do you go to?

If you don't get a helpful answer to your
question, you can assume that:

a. the other person doesn't

want to answer.

b. you might not have asked

the question clearly.

c. the question did not need

to be asked.

d. you didn't listen carefully

enough to the response.

Which would be the most useful question to
get a discussion started in a meeting?

a. Does anyone have

anything they want to say?

b. Do you want to discuss

this issue?

c. How many people think we

need to talk about this?

d. What suggestions do you

have for solving this
problem?

Which is a recommended strategy when
people resist answering your questions?

a. Stop asking the questions.
b. Be sure the person knows

why you're asking the
questions.

c. Tell the person to give you

the answer in writing.

d. Insist the person give you

an answer immediately.

Answers

(c)

(a)

(b)

(d)

(b)

Chapter 5:

Helping People Learn

Learning Objectives

When you complete this chapter, you should be able to:



Explain why clear communication is crucial to helping people learn.



Explain the differences between telling, showing, and teaching.



Describe how to teach someone the right way to do a process or task or to
accomplish an objective.

Overview

One of a manager's most important jobs is to help employees do the right work in the right
way. To help people learn, you need to be able to teach them to do tasks and carry out job
responsibilities. You also need to be able to coach, support, encourage, and motivate people
as they apply what they learn on the job. All those activities require the communication skills
you have learned so far in this course.

In this chapter, you will learn why clear communication is important to effective learning and
how teaching differs from simply telling or showing someone how to do something. You will
also find guidelines for helping people learn.

Why Clear Communication is Important to Learning

Roy is excited about his new job as a production assistant because he thinks it will be
interesting and offer a good opportunity to move up in the company. His manager, Barbara,
wants to help him succeed, so she has blocked out a full hour to get him started.

"First," Barbara says, "Let's take a look at the desktop publishing software you'll be using."
She sits down at the computer and gives him a quick tour of the program. "It's a great
program," she says. "You can use it to do almost everything."

Barbara shows Roy a few of the program's features. She demonstrates how to edit text and
enter formatting changes. Then she asks, "So what do you think?"

"Seems to be a good program," Roy replies.

"Do you have any questions?"

"Well ... I'm not sure what I will be using it to do."

"Oh, it's easy." Barbara hands him a stack of documents. "Just put in the changes to the
drafts the writers and designers have produced. All the changes are marked right on the
drafts. See? This writer wants to move this paragraph to here, and on this one, the designer
wants to change the border from thin to thick." Noting the confused look on Roy's face, she
adds, "Don't worry, you'll get the hang of it. Okay?"

"Sure," Roy replies.

Later that day Barbara stopped by Roy's desk to see how he was doing. Unfortunately, he
had not managed to finish making changes in even one document. In fact, he was upset and
frustrated. "It all seemed so clear when you explained it and showed me how it worked. But I
haven't been able to figure out how to do any of this work," he complained. "I'm sorry. Maybe
I've bitten off more than I can chew with this job."

What do you think went wrong? Is the task too much for Roy? Or was there something else
that Barbara should have done to help him learn?

It's not Roy's fault that he can't figure out how to enter the changes. Barbara communicated
only part of what he needed to know to be able to use the software properly. She did not
provide enough of a context by explaining what he would be learning to do and how it related
to his job. She thought the software was so easy to use that he would be able to figure it out
just by watching her demonstration. She did not encourage him to ask questions, and she
left out the hands-on practice and feedback that is crucial to the learning process.

Think About It ...

Can you remember a time when you found something difficult to learn? Was there
something the person who was teaching you could have done to help?

______________________________________________________________________

How Adults Learn

While there are certain commonalities, adults learn differently than children. The different
ways in which adults learn have been studied by many experts who generally agree about
the factors shown in

Exhibit 5-1

Exhibit 5-1: How Adults Learn

Adults learn best when they:



Are active participants in the learning process.



Are respected for their experience and knowledge.



Have clear, achievable learning goals and understand the relevancy of what
they are learning.



Learn by doing—have opportunities for practice with immediate feedback.



Are allowed to make and learn from mistakes.



Receive reinforcement and support.

Adults Actively Participate in the Learning Process

The higher their level of participation, the more people will learn. But many people carry into
adulthood the habit of being passive learners. After years of school, they think of learning as
something that is done to them, rather than as something that they do themselves. Thus, it is
important to find ways to involve people in the learning process. They need to understand
how the new learning will be used, how it relates to their jobs, and how it will benefit them
overall.

Encourage people to take responsibility for their own learning by planning their learning
goals, asking questions, practicing, trying to solve problems on their own, and asking for
help when they need it.

Adults Are Respected for Their Experience and Knowledge

How do you feel when you are learning something new? You might feel uncertain, awkward,
or uncomfortable. You might even feel anxious, afraid that you will make a mistake, or
appear foolish.

Those kinds of feelings are common to adult learners. But adults bring to any learning
situation a considerable amount of experience and knowledge, and what they already know
serves as the foundation on which to build new knowledge and skills. To increase people's
confidence, acknowledge the wealth of experience and knowledge they have in other areas.
Always treat them as equals and as individuals worthy of respect.

Adults Have Clear Learning Goals and Understand the Relevancy of What They Are
Learning

Notice that each chapter in this book begins with a list of learning objectives that state what
you should be able to do when you finish that part of the selfstudy program. That's because
adults learn best when they understand the purpose of what they are learning. Learning
objectives are a tool for communicating that information.

To be useful, learning objectives need to be relevant—state something the person needs to
know or be able to do to perform a specific task or carry out a specific responsibility. For
example, which of the following objectives would be relevant for someone learning to change
a tire?

a. Be able to unscrew the lug nuts that hold a tire in place
b. Be able to drive a car

The first objective would be relevant because you can't change a tire without removing the
lug nuts. But you can change a tire without knowing how to drive a car, so the second
objective is not relevant.

Learning objectives also have to communicate something a person could demonstrate they
were able to do. Which of these objectives communicates something the learner could
demonstrate?

a. Understand the procedure for correcting an error.
b. Describe the steps of the procedures for correcting an error.

The only way of knowing that someone understands the steps would be for them to describe
the steps or do the procedure. Thus, the second objective communicates something the
learner could demonstrate.

Adults Have Opportunities for Practice with Immediate Feedback
Roy needed hands-on practice to be able to learn to use the desktop publishing software. As
you can see in

Exhibit 5-2

, experts agree that the most effective teaching method is to give

the learners opportunities to practice doing the task or activity.

Exhibit 5-2: Why Experiential Learning Opportunities Are Important

According to the National Training Laboratory, research shows the following average retention
rates for different teaching or training methods:



5% Lecture



10% Reading



20% Audio-Visual



30% Demonstration



50% Discussion Group



75% Practice by Doing

(Source: "Training Techniques and Aids, B. Training Adults: Experiential Learning Models,"

www.hab.hrsa.gov/hab3

)

Think about a time when you learned something new—to drive a car, serve a tennis ball,
operate a VCR, speak a foreign language, use a computer program. Which one of the
following methods worked best for you?

1. I read about how to do it.
2. I watched a video on how to do it.
3. I listened to a lecture on how to do it.
4. I watched someone do it.
5. I talked with others about how to do it.
6. I did it myself while an instructor watched and gave me feedback.

You might have done all the activities listed above. But when you thought about what worked
best, you probably checked number 6. Although lecture, explanation, and demonstrations
play a role in the learning process, they are seldom the sole means by which people learn.
For example, if you were learning to serve a tennis ball, you would first need the instructor to
explain the principles of the serve and show you how a good serve is supposed to look.
Then you would have to try the serve yourself, over and over again, with the instructor giving
you feedback so you would know what you were doing right and what you needed to do
differently. It is the hands-on experience combined with feedback that helps you learn.

Adults Are Allowed to Make and Learn from Mistakes

If you have ever tried to learn to speak a foreign language, you know part of the process is
making one mistake after another—using the wrong words, leaving out articles or putting
them in the wrong place, using the wrong verb tense. By making the mistakes, learning to
recognize them, and trying over and over again, you finally get it right.

One of a teacher's most important qualities is patience. When you are trying to help people
learn, let them know that it is okay to make mistakes. Give them feedback so they learn to
recognize their mistakes, and encourage them to try again and again until they have it right.

Efforts and Successes of Adults Are Reinforced, Appreciated, and Supported

As you learned earlier, learning something new can be an anxiety-producing experience. No
matter how competent people are in other areas, in this one area they might feel clumsy and
inadequate until they have mastered the new knowledge or skills. While they are learning,
look for opportunities to reward their efforts and successes, no matter how small.
To encourage and support people as they learn, try using the kinds of phrases shown in

Exhibit 5-3

Exhibit 5-3: Phrases to Encourage and Support Learning

Some phrases that encourage and support people while they learn are:



"That was great! Now try it again, only this time try...."



"You did that part perfectly! Now let's try the next step."



"It's okay to go take your time and make mistakes. That's how you learn."



"I know this is very complicated, and you are probably feeling frustrated.
But don't worry. You'll get it. Now try it again."

How to Help People Learn

Now that you have a better understanding of what's involved in helping people learn, let's
examine some practical steps for teaching people to do new tasks, learn new skills, or learn
to carry out a responsibility. Those steps are summarized in

Exhibit 5-4

Exhibit 5-4: How to Help People Learn

To help people learn:

1. Set the stage.
2. Establish clear learning objectives.
3. Break the process into segments or steps.
4. Demonstrate, explain, and teach the segments or steps in sequence.
5. For each segment or step, provide opportunities for the person to practice

and receive feedback.

Set the Stage

Prepare the person for the instruction with a brief introduction that tells the person what they
will be learning and how it relates to their job. The introduction might include an overview or
a quick demonstration of what the person will be learning to do.

In the scenario that began this chapter, Barbara might have said, "Roy, one our department's
responsibilities is to produce documents that are written and designed by people in the
company. As a production assistant, one of your most important jobs will be to incorporate
changes to the draft documents. Today I will help you learn how to use our desktop
publishing software to make those changes."

This introduction would give Roy a context for the training and tell him what to expect. At this
point, Barbara might demonstrate how the software works—making sure that he knows that
it is only a demonstration and that he is not expected to remember what she does.

Establish Clear Learning Objectives

Barbara would have been more successful in helping Roy learn to incorporate changes in
documents if she had given him a clear sense of what he would be able to do when the
learning process was complete.

Earlier you learned that objectives must meet certain criteria: They must communicate what
a person will actually be able to do, and they must be relevant to the person's job. For Roy,
which two of the following objectives would be useful learning objectives?

a. Insert editorial changes to the text of a report.
b. Change the background color on a page of a marketing brochure.
c. Design a new company logo.

The first and second objectives would be useful because they communicate what Roy needs
to be able to do in his new job. But the third objective is not appropriate. Roy's job includes
making changes, not deciding what those changes should be.

Break the Process into Segments or Steps

One reason that Roy had so much trouble learning to use the desktop publishing software is
that Barbara gave him all the steps at once. To make it possible for people to learn, break
the process down into logical segments or a sequence of steps.

Suppose you wanted to help a new employee learn how to prepare an agenda for your
weekly meetings. Preparing the agenda involves gathering agenda items from participants,
setting the agenda up in the computer, and distributing the agenda. What is one of the first
things the person would need to know?

The person would need to know how to identify the participants who might have agenda
items and how to contact them.

What about Roy? What are the first things he needs to know about the desktop publishing
software?

___________________________________________________________

Roy needs to know how to find and open the program. Then he needs to know how to locate
the features he will be using to make specific kinds of changes in documents.

Demonstrate, Explain, and Teach the Segments or Steps in Sequence, and Provide
Opportunities for Practice

Once Barbara has broken down the process into logical steps, she can demonstrate and
explain them one at a time, giving Roy a chance to master each one before moving to the
next. After Roy learns to navigate around the program, Barbara might show him how to enter
simple editorial changes such as deleting or adding words to a sentence. Once he has
practiced that skill, she can show him how to make more complicated changes, such as
moving blocks of text from one place to another. After he has practiced making editorial
changes, she can show him how to make changes to the layout and design of a document,
again moving from the simple to the complex.

This step-by-step process requires time, patience, and attention on the parts of the trainer
and the person who is learning. But that effort pays off in terms of a successful learning
process.

Teaching People in Groups

All the principles in this chapter apply whether you are teaching something to one person
or to a group. But when you are teaching people in groups, try the following:



People have different learning styles, so use a variety of approaches:
explanations, demon-strations, discussions, experiential activities, and
hands-on practice.



Find ways to involve people actively by posing questions for discussion
and providing opportunities for practice.



Prepare handouts to reinforce key learning points, serve as reference,
and provide detailed information that people need but that you do not
have time to cover in class.



Use visual aids, such as slides and flip-chart pages, to help you
communicate information and reinforce key points.

Apply What You Learn ...

Decide how you would go about teaching something you know how to do to someone who
doesn't.

Topic: _________________________________________________________________

What kind of introduction would you need to provide? ___________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

What would the learning objectives be? _______________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

How could you break down the process so it can be learned more easily? _____________

_______________________________________________________________________

What is the best sequence of segments or steps?_________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

What teaching methods can you use—demonstration, explanation, hands-on learning?
_____

______________________________________________________________________

At what points will the person practice? _____________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

Try It Yourself

Use what you learned in this chapter to teach a partner to do a task. Reverse roles and
repeat the activity. Then discuss the results.

Recap

As a manager, you often need to communicate the right way to do tasks and carry out job
responsibilities. People sometimes feel uncomfortable and anxious when they are learning
something new. To make it easier for them to learn, keep in mind that adults learn best when
they are active participants in the learning process.

To help people learn:



Make sure they know what they will be learning, how it relates to their jobs, and
what they will be able to do when learning is complete.



Break the process down into logical segments or a sequence of steps.



Provide opportunities for learners to practice and master one skill before
moving on to the next.

Review Questions

According to the National Training Laboratory,
the average retention rate when people are
able to practice what they learn is _____.

a. 35%
b. 65%
c. 75%
d. 95%

Which objective describes something people
could demonstrate they were able to do by the
end of training?

a. Understand how to

interview a job applicant

b. Interview a job applicant
c. Enjoy interviewing a job

applicant

d. Think through the process

of interviewing a job
applicant

Adults learn best when they:

a. are active participants in

the learning process.

b. see a good demonstration.
c. are given detailed

explanations of how
something works.

d. are tested often.

Which statement is accurate?

a. People should be

discouraged from making
mistakes while they are
learning.

b. People should be allowed

only one mistake while
they are learning.

c. People should be given a

time limit during which they
can make mistakes while
they are learning.

d. People should be allowed

to make mistakes while
they are learning.

Which is a recommended way to help people
learn?

a. Begin by letting them try it

themselves then discuss
what happened.

b. Make sure they have clear

goals.

c. Find a way to make the

learning fun.

d. Explain the entire process

then let them try it on their
own.

Answers

(c)

(b)

(a)

(d)

(b)

Chapter 6:

On Your Feet: Making Successful

Presentations

Learning Objectives

When you complete this chapter, you should be able to:



Describe the reasons managers make presentations.



Describe the key actions for planning and delivering a successful presentation.



Describe strategies for coping with presentation fear.

Overview

As a manager, you need to make presentations that communicate clearly and persuasively
to people in your organization, clients, and others. A carefully prepared, well-delivered
presentation can inform, convince, and excite people in a way that printed documents, e-mail
messages, web pages, and videotapes are not able to match.

In this chapter you'll learn practical strategies for making presentations that communicate
your message clearly and achieve results. You'll also learn strategies for reducing the
anxiety you may feel before a presentation and any nervousness you experience during the
presentation itself.

Reasons for Making Presentations

Presentations are a very effective and efficient means of communicating to individuals and
groups. In essence, a presentation is a one-way communication: You present information,
usually in a structured form, that is often accompanied by visual aids to reinforce your
message. Occasionally, presentations are unplanned—you might respond to a question in a
meeting with an impromptu presentation. But most presentations, whether they are informal
or formal, require careful planning and preparation.
A key element in a successful presentation is determining why you are making it. Every
presentation should have one of the primary purposes shown in

Exhibit 6-1

: to inform people

about something, or to influence people to do something.

Exhibit 6-1: Why Make a Presentation?

Every presentation should have one primary purpose:



To influence the audience to do something, or



To inform the audience about something

What is the primary purpose of each presentation in the scenarios below?
Presentation 1: Marguerita has been asked to prepare a presentation to explain the changes
her company's employees can expect in health benefits at the beginning of the next fiscal
year.

Primary
purpose
:

___
to
influe
nce

___
to
info
rm

Presentation 2: Jon is preparing a presentation for the management team of a small
business because they want to find out why they should move their accounts to his bank.

Primary
purpose
:

___
to
influe
nce

___
to
info
rm

The purpose of Marguerita's presentation is to inform. She wants to present the audience
with information they need about the changes in health benefits.

Jon's presentation is intended to influence. He wants to convince the management team to
move their accounts to his bank.

No matter what your purpose, you always provide your audience with information. The key
difference is that when your purpose is to inform, you essentially leave it up to your audience
to decide what to do with the information. When you intend to influence, you make it very
clear what you want your audience to do. In other words, a presentation to influence
emphasizes a strong call to action.

Determining your purpose is crucial because it helps you focus on your primary message
and decide what information to include. What kind of information will Marguerita probably
include in her presentation? Jon?

Marguerita: ______________________________________________________

Jon: ____________________________________________________________

Marguerita will include details about the changes to expect in the health plans, such as
expanded benefits and any increase in premiums. Jon will focus on the benefits to the client
of moving their accounts to his bank, such as improved service, a personal banker, and
lower fees.

Think About It ...

Can you recall the last two presentations you attended? For each presentation, what was
the speaker's primary purpose—to inform you or to influence you? (Hint: If you're not sure,
perhaps the speaker wasn't sure either.)

Presentation 1:

Topic ________________________________________________________________

___ to influence

___ to inform

Presentation 2:

Topic ________________________________________________________________

___ to influence

___ to inform

How to Give Successful Presentations

What makes a presentation successful? What causes a presentation to fail? Why is the
audience at one presentation attentive and engaged, while at another people get up and
leave before the presenter has finished speaking?

Think of a presentation you attended that was successful and one you attended that was
not. Briefly describe what made the first presentation successful, and what made the other
presentation less of a success.

Successful presentation: ________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

Unsuccessful presentation: ______________________________________

____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________
The successful presentation probably met all or most of the criteria in

Exhibit 6-2

, while the

less successful presentation failed to meet several of those same criteria.

Exhibit 6-2: How to Give a Successful Presentation

To give a successful presentation:



Know your subject.



Know your audience.



Select the right information and organize it effectively.



Start and end on time.



Speak so you can be heard and understood.



Manage the question and answer session.



Handle the symptoms of anxiety and nervousness.

Know Your Subject

Impressed with the efficient way that Benny used his time, his manager, Paula, suggested
that he give a presentation to the rest of the staff on time management techniques. "Sure,"
Benny said, pleased to be asked. Unfortunately, the presentation was not a success. Benny
talked nervously for 20 minutes, telling anecdotes about some of his experiences with
deadlines, but although people laughed at his stories, he knew he had given them little
useful information. Afterwards, he apologized to Paula. "I know it wasn't what you wanted. I
just didn't know what to say."

What went wrong? Why was Benny's presentation unsuccessful?

____________________________________________________________

Benny didn't know what to say because he didn't know his subject. He had instinctively
found ways to use his own time well, but he knew nothing about the factors that made it
difficult for people to manage their time or techniques for using time more efficiently. He had
little useful information to communicate, and his lack of confidence in his subject matter
contributed to his nervousness.

Learn from Benny's experience. Before giving a presentation, make sure you know enough
about the subject to feel confident that you have something useful and worthwhile to say.

Know Your Audience

Suppose you are going to deliver presentations on recruiting and hiring practices to two
different audiences, a group of 100 college seniors and a group of 15 human resource (HR)
professionals. Could you deliver the same presentation to both audiences? If not, why not?

____________________________________________________________

Although much of the content might be the same, the two presentations would be very
different. That's because the two audiences have different needs, characteristics, and
expectations. For example, what would interest the college seniors about the topic? What
would interest the human resource professionals?

College seniors: ______________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

Human resource professionals: ___________________________________

____________________________________________________________

The college seniors want to know about recruiting and hiring practices so they will know how
to apply for jobs. The HR professionals want to know what recruiting and hiring practices are
most likely to help them attract good staff. Also, because the group of college seniors is
much larger, that presentation is likely to be more formal and structured than the one for the
smaller group of HR professionals.
To deliver a successful presentation, think about your audience's characteristics and
consider the topic from your audience's point of view. One way to do that is to ask the
questions in

Exhibit 6-3

Exhibit 6-3: Questions To Ask About Your Audience

Ask the following questions about your audience:



How many people do you expect? Who are they? How old?



In terms of the topic, is the audience a cohesive or diverse group?



Why are people attending this presentation? What are their specific
needs, interests, expectations, and concerns?



How much do people already know about the topic?

Think About It ...

Select a topic for a presentation you have to give or would like to give. Choose a subject
you know well.

Subject:________________________________________________________________

Who is the audience for this presentation? Using the questions in

Exhibit 6-3

as a guide,

list some points to keep in mind about this audience.

______________________________________________________________________

Select the Right Information and Organize it Effectively

Deirdre had been looking forward to Mark's presentation on the new web site his group was
developing. She hoped to learn how the web site would help her find answers to questions
about corporate policies and procedures. But the presentation was disappointing. Mark
spoke non-stop for over an hour (even though the presentation was only scheduled for forty-
five minutes), and she left the room feeling overwhelmed by the amount of information. She
found it hard to follow his points, and toward the end she could hardly understand what he
was saying because he spoke so rapidly.

Why did Deirdre find Mark's presentation so disappointing? What might Mark have done
differently?

_____________________________________________________

Mark made a common mistake. He tried to include too much information in his presentation,
and he did not organize that information effectively. A successful presentation includes just
the right amount of information—not too much, not too little.

Typically, presenters tend to include too much, rather than too little, information because
they misjudge how much they can cover successfully in a given amount of time, or they are
so fascinated by the topic that they hate to leave anything out. No matter what the reason,
trying to squeeze too much information in a presentation is a recipe for disaster. You need to
decide how much information you can reasonably expect to convey and then organize that
information into a sequence that helps people follow and understand the points.

Think About It ...

Let's say that you have 15 minutes for your own presentation. What is the most important
message you hope to convey? What information does your audience need to understand
the topic and, if your purpose is to influence, to be convinced to accept your idea or take
the action you recommend? How much can you cover successfully in 15 minutes without
talking at the speed of light?

Most important message:

______________________________________________________________________

Key points to include:

______________________________________________________________________

Start and End on Time

Mark's presentation went nearly 20 minutes overtime. Although Deirdre stayed to the bitter
end, several other people left before he finished because they had other commitments.

Successful presenters respect their audience enough to make sure they begin and end on
time. Some presenters, like Mark, go into overtime because they are trying to cover too
many points. Presentations also go on too long because they get started late or equipment
breaks down.

Experienced presenters not only make sure they have the right amount of information for the
time available, they anticipate and plan for problems. They understand that it is unfair to ask
people to come on time just to sit and wait or to expect them to stick around and pay
attention when the presentation continues past the scheduled ending time.

Practice your presentation to be sure that you can cover all your points in the time you have
available. Decide ahead of time what you could leave out in case of problems instead of
rushing the opening, leaving out the closing, skipping questions, or speeding up delivery if
you are forced to start late or are interrupted.

Speak so You Can be Heard and Understood
Have you ever been unable to follow a presentation because the speaker mumbled, spoke
too softly or too quickly, or failed to speak distinctly? You probably felt frustrated. It doesn't
matter how carefully you plan your presentation if your audience cannot understand you.
Successful presenters follow the guidelines in

Exhibit 6-4

Exhibit 6-4: Speak to be Heard and Understood

To make sure the audience understands you:



Speak loudly enough to be heard and slowly enough so people can follow
your points.



Make eye contact.



Use a conversational tone and pronounce your words clearly.



Talk to the audience not to the slide or flip chart.

Speak loudly enough to be heard and slowly enough so people can follow your points.
Presentation audiences often complain that they had trouble hearing the speaker, or the
person spoke so quickly they couldn't follow her points. Make sure that your voice is loud
enough to carry to all parts of the room. If necessary, use a microphone. Also, be aware of
your pace. If you speak too quickly, people will find it difficult to follow you. On the other
hand, avoid speaking so slowly that you put the audience to sleep.
Make eye contact. Throughout this course you have learned how important eye contact is to
successful communication. When delivering a presentation, make a special effort to make
eye contact with individuals in the audience. Eye contact establishes a vital connection
between you and your listeners, and it helps you notice nonverbal cues that indicate whether
people are being attentive or whether they are confused.

Use a conversational tone and pronounce your words clearly. Many speakers make the
mistake of speaking in a monotone, especially if they have memorized their presentation or
are reading directly from their notes. Speakers may also mumble or slur their words. To
communicate clearly in a presentation, you use a conversational tone and speak clearly and
distinctly. Avoid memorizing a "script," and use bullet-point notes instead of writing out
sentences.
Talk to the audience, not the slide or flip chart. The audience will miss key information if you
talk while facing a flip-chart page or a slide. If you need to write on a flip chart, write first,
then turn to the audience and talk. When you show slides, glance at the slide if necessary,
then talk to the audience.

Try It Yourself

Ask a colleague to sit near the back of the room and watch you deliver a short
presentation. Then ask the person to give you feedback on the items listed in

Exhibit 6-4

How to Manage the Question-and-Answer Session

Not every presentation includes a question-and-answer (Q&A) segment, but many do.
Suppose you are about to give a presentation in which you know the audience will be asking
questions? What are some of the things you could do to make the Q&A segment run
smoothly and be useful?

_____________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________
You might have listed some of the points in

Exhibit 6-5

Exhibit 6-5: How to Manage the Q&A Session

For a useful Q&A session:



Anticipate questions and prepare responses.



Leave enough time.



Let the audience know how you will handle questions.



Make sure you understand the question.



If necessary, restate the question for the group.



Answer only relevant questions.



Focus your response.

Prepare yourself by thinking about the questions your audience is likely to ask and deciding
ahead of time how you will respond. Knowing what questions to expect also helps you
determine how much time to leave for the Q&A segment.

At the beginning of your presentation, tell your audience how you plan to handle questions.
Will you have a Q&A segment at the end? Or can people ask questions at any time during
the presentation?

Clarify questions as needed to make sure you understand them. Say, "I'm not sure I
understand what you are asking. Could you restate the question?" or, "Do you want to know
whether we are changing the policy or when we are changing it?" In a large group, it is also
helpful to restate or repeat every question so everyone knows what question you are
answering.

People commonly ask questions that have little to do with the topic. You can say, "That's an
interesting issue, but it's not our topic today." If necessary, offer to speak privately with the
questioner later.

Keep your eye on the clock. Answer each question as concisely as you can and then move
on to the next. Be careful not to ramble, repeat yourself, or get sidetracked.

Think About It ...

For the presentation you began planning earlier, list questions your audience is likely to
have.

______________________________________________________________________

How to Make Impromptu Presentations

When you need to make a presentation on the spot, you do not have the luxury of thinking
ahead of time about what you're going to say and how you're going to say it. Here are
some guidelines:



Take a few moments to organize your thoughts and make some notes. If
possible, ask the facilitator to call a break so you can have a little time to
prepare. Otherwise, ask the group to wait for a couple of minutes while
you collect your thoughts.



Focus on what you know. No one can expect you to carry all the
information about the topic in your head, ready for any impromptu
presentation that might come up. Tell the group what you do know, and
don't worry about what you don't know. Avoid the temptation to bluff.



Encourage people to ask questions. Let them tell you what they want to
know.

How to Reduce Presentation Fear

Has this ever happened to you? For days before making a presentation, you can think of
nothing else. Concern about whether the presentation will be good enough keeps you awake
at night. When the presentation actually begins, your mouth feels as if it is stuffed with cotton
and your hands start shaking so badly that you can hardly hold your notes.

If you have experienced any of those unpleasant symptoms of presentation fear, know that
you have lots of company. Studies show that the fear of public speaking ranks right up there
with the fear of heights—even with the fear of death.

There are many reasons people experience presentation anxiety and nervousness. They
might fear being judged and found unworthy, appearing foolish or thought to be incompetent.
Perhaps they do not know enough about the subject, or they have not paid enough attention
to planning and preparing for the presentation. Whatever the reason, anxiety and
nervousness can not only be unpleasant, they can make it difficult to deliver a successful
presentation.

Fortunately, there are some steps you can take to reduce presentation fear. Can you think of
what some of those steps might be?

_____________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________
You might have listed some of the steps for reducing presentation fear shown in

Exhibit 6-6

Exhibit 6-6: How to Reduce Presentation Fear

To reduce presentation fear:



Identify the reasons for your anxiety.



Focus on the planning and preparation process.



Take care of yourself.



Arrive early.



Make eye contact with individuals in the audience.



Breathe.



Use silence.

Identify the Reasons for Your Fear

Ask, "What is it about this situation that makes me feel anxious and nervous?" Identifying
why you feel such discomfort helps you decide how to handle it. Is this a high-stakes
situation? Might the presentation determine whether your company gets a contract or you
get a promotion? If so, devote additional time to your preparation. Do you think you do not
know enough about the subject to talk about it confidently? Perhaps you need to learn more.
Are you new to making presentations? Maybe a more experienced presenter can give you
some advice.

Think About It ...

Were you ever especially fearful about the prospect of making a presentation? What were
the reasons?

______________________________________________________________________

Focus on the Planning and Preparation Process

Instead of worrying, channel that energy into planning, preparing, and practicing the
presentation. Include backup plans for things that might go wrong. Just knowing that you
have the information, organization, and delivery down cold and that you know what you will
do if a computer malfunctions will give you a tremendous amount of confidence, and
confidence is the best cure for presentation fear.

Take Care of Yourself

Making a presentation can be stressful. When you're under stress, it is more important than
ever to get enough rest, eat properly, get enough sleep, and find ways to relax. Build in time

for doing the things that make you feel happy, confident, and in control—take a long walk, go
to a movie, have dinner with a friend, read a good book, go to the gym.

Think About It ...

What are some activities that help you relieve stress?

______________________________________________________________________

Arrive Early

You will be less nervous if you arrive early for your presentation instead of rushing in at the
last minute. Arriving early lets you make a mental transition between what you were doing
and what you will be doing. It also gives you a chance to check out materials, equipment,
and room set-up ahead of time so you can feel confident that everything is ready to go.

Make Eye Contact with People in the Audience

Even experienced presenters commonly experience a rush of nervous symptoms if they
begin speaking the moment they get up in front of the group. Take a moment or two to make
eye contact with people in the audience. Find a few friendly faces and send them a
nonverbal greeting—make eye contact and think, "Hello," and "Welcome." During the
presentation, try to make eye contact with as many people as possible and when you feel
nervous, return to your friendly faces for a moment.

Breathe

A common symptom of nervousness is shallow, rapid breathing. In fact, some people
actually hold their breath. If you realize that you are not breathing normally, stop talking. Take
in a deep breath through your nose, and exhale all that nervous tension out through your
mouth. Then do nothing. That's right—nothing. Your body, which demands oxygen, will take
over and breath on its own. Repeat the process until you are breathing normally.

Try it. Take a deep breath through your nose, exhale through your mouth, and do nothing.
Notice how your body takes over and breathes on its own.

Use Silence

When you begin a presentation or move from one segment to another, both you and the
audience need to settle down. When you get up to speak or make a transition from one key
point to another, wait for several seconds before you begin to speak. Also pause when you
feel nervous and need a moment to collect yourself.

Using Presentation Aids

Presentation aids help reinforce, illustrate, clarify, or explain the information in your
presentation. They are useful because audiences remember up to 40 percent more when
they are able to see the information as well as hear what's being said.

Presentation aids include printed flip-chart pages; posters and banners; blank surfaces on
which to write, such as white boards and flip-chart pages; props such as models and
product samples; videotapes and audiotapes; slides and overhead transparencies

projected on a screen; computers; and handouts, such as copies of key visuals,
workbooks, and informational packets.

Presentation aids can be helpful, or they can be distracting. Here are guidelines for using
them:



Know why you're using a presentation aid and what you want it to
accomplish.



Have backup plans in case the equipment isn't available or malfunctions.



Keep visuals simple and clear.



When using visuals, direct the audience's attention so they know where
to look.



Decide whether to give people handouts during the presentation or
afterwards.

Apply What You Learn ...

Apply what you have learned in this chapter by observing and, if possible, making
presentations. Record the results in your log.

Recap

A carefully prepared, well-delivered presentation offers an efficient, effective means of
communicating to individuals and groups.

To ensure that your presentation achieves your objectives:



Decide whether you intend to inform or influence the audience.



Know enough about the subject to feel confident that you can say something
worthwhile.



Think about your audience's characteristics, needs, interests, expectations, and
concerns.



Include the right amount of information for the time you have and organize it
into a logical sequence.



Respect your audience enough to start and end on time.



Anticipate problems.



Speak loudly, slowly, and distinctly enough to be heard and understood.



If you are including a Q&A session, prepare responses to likely questions,
clarify questions and restate them for the group as needed, and answer
questions as concisely as possible.



Plan and prepare carefully to reduce symptoms of presentation fear.

Review Questions

Which is a primary purpose for making any
business presentation?

a. To impress the audience

with your knowledge

b. To keep the audience

entertained so they do not
leave early

c. To inform the audience

about something or
influence them to do
something

d. To demonstrate the use of

high-tech presentation aids

Because presentations sometimes get started
late, you should:

a. make sure you don't have

to be anywhere right away
in case you go over the
time limit.

b. decide ahead of time what

you can leave out.

c. be prepared to drop the

question-and-answer
session.

d. practice speeding up your

delivery, just in case you
need to.

What's a recommended way to deal with
presentation fear?

a. Prepare thoroughly.
b. Memorize a script.
c. Ask friends to attend.
d. Avoid making eye contact

with the audience.

When you are making a presentation:

a. knowing your subject is not

as important as knowing
how to hold the audience's
attention.

b. you should be an expert on

the subject, so you can
answer any questions that
might come up.

c. you should feel confident

that you can say
something useful and
worthwhile about the
subject.

d. it's not as important to

know your subject well as
it is to have good
presentation skills.

If you feel a rush of nervous symptoms as you
are beginning your presentation:

a. take a moment to make

eye

contact

with

individuals in the audience.

b. ignore the symptoms and

start the presentation
immediately.

c. excuse yourself and leave

the room so you can
collect yourself.

d. tell a joke.

Answers

(c)

(b)

(a)

(c)

(a)

Chapter 7:

On the Page: What is Good Writing?

Learning Objectives

When you complete this chapter, you should be able to:



Explain why writing skills are crucial to a manger's success.



List the different types of business writing.



Describe the characteristics of good business writing.



Explain the role of planning in good business writing.



Follow the planning process to plan and draft a letter or memo.

Overview

So far in this course, you have learned about the principles that shape clear verbal
communication. Now you will see how those same principles affect your writing. After all,
writing is one of the most important methods of communication, especially in the Internet
age. Much of the work that managers do is accomplished through writing, and the ability to
write clearly and concisely is crucial to a manager's success.
In this chapter, you will learn why writing is important, examine the characteristics of good
writing, and learn some key actions you can take to improve your writing. In the

next chapter

you will learn practical techniques for ensuring that all the documents you write communicate
your message clearly.

Why Write?

Talking is a natural form of communication. Children learn how to talk by imitating what they
hear, and while they can still barely walk, they are able to use language to communicate.

Writing, however, does not come naturally. Writing has to be learned, and learning how to
write takes many years and considerable effort. Yet even after studying and practicing writing
in school and on the job for most of their lives, people often think of writing as a time-
consuming chore and find it difficult to compose a written document that conveys their
message clearly and concisely.

So why bother to write? Why not simply use the phone or talk to someone face to face? One
reason is obvious: It is not always possible to telephone or meet with someone when you
have a message to convey. But beyond that practicality, writing has several advantages that
speaking does not have. What do you think those advantages are? List them below.

____________________________________________________

____________________________________________________
You might have listed the advantages shown in

Exhibit 7-1

. Let's examine them in more

detail.

Exhibit 7-1: Advantages of Communicating in Writing

The advantages of communicating in writing are:



Writing leaves a record.



Writing conveys details effectively.



Writing is efficient.



Writing can be more precise than speaking.

Writing Leaves a Record

One important reason to write your message is to document something in a form that can be
retrieved whenever someone needs the information. Written procedures can be referred to
by anyone who needs to know how those procedures are carried out. The written summary
of a meeting tells someone who was not there what decisions were made. A written
performance evaluation provides a permanent record that supports decisions and actions.

Can you think of some situations in which a written record might be necessary or desirable?
List them below.

________________________________________________________________________

Here are several situations in which you might need a written record. You might have listed
others.



To document the details of an incident or accident



To support the reasons for a decision or action



To detail the provisions of an agreement or contract



To provide information in a form that can be used to teach or for reference



To provide the key points from a discussion for later reference

To decide whether something needs to be documented in writing, ask, "Might someone need
to refer to this information in the future?" If so, write it down.

Writing Conveys Details Effectively

Suppose a project leader needs to communicate significant changes in the schedule for a
project to team members. What would be the most effective way to communicate those
changes, writing or speaking?

If the project leader communicated the changes verbally, the team members would have to
write them down in order to remember them. So the most effective way to communicate the
changes would be to put them into a written memo or e-mail message. When you need to
communicate detailed or complicated information, ask, "Would the people listening to this
information need to write it down to remember it?" If so, help them out by putting the
information into writing in the first place.

Writing is Efficient

Managers often need to communicate the same message to several people. For example,
you might need to tell your staff about a construction project that requires them to park at a

different location and take a shuttle bus to the office for several weeks. Which of the
following would be the most efficient way of communicating that message?

a. Call everyone together for a meeting.
b. Send out an e-mail message.
c. Go around and tell each person individually.

Sending an e-mail message would obviously be the best way to communicate the message
in this situation. There is no need to discuss the information, so a meeting would be a waste
of time. It would also be a waste of time to convey the message to the staff members one at
a time because they all need exactly the same information. Putting the information into an e-
mail quickly ensures that everyone receives the same information. Also, when you put this
kind of factual information in writing, it is less likely that someone will miss important details
because they cannot attend a meeting or are not paying enough attention while you speak.

To determine the best way to convey a message to a group, ask, "What's the most efficient
way to get this information to the people who need it?"

Writing Can be More Precise than Speaking

When you communicate verbally, it is not uncommon to "think on your feet." You might even
stammer and stumble a bit, trying to find the right words. Although it might take some time to
get the message out clearly, your listener's verbal and nonverbal cues provide immediate
feedback that tells what you need to clarify. But when you write, how do you know whether
your reader has "gotten" your message?

________________________________________________

____________________________________________________

Sometimes readers let you know when they do not understand something you write. Usually,
however, you know only when you do not get the response you had expected. In many
situations, you have no way of knowing that you have confused, misled, or offended a
reader. Thus, when you write, you need to be more precise, and take responsibility for
making sure readers receive a clear, accurate message.

Think About It ...

Think about several messages you have to convey. Which ones would be best conveyed
by speaking and which by writing?

Message:
____________________________________________________________________



______Writing

______Speaking

Message:
____________________________________________________________________



______Writing

______Speaking

Message:
____________________________________________________________________



______Writing

______Speaking

What is Good Business Writing?

There are many different types of business writing—memos, letters, reports, proposals,
policies and procedures, technical descriptions, sales and marketing materials, and more.
Business writing also differs widely in form, from brief e-mail messages to book-sized
manuals. But all written business communications share a single primary purpose. What do
you think that purpose is?

____________________________________________________

The primary purpose of business writing is to communicate information people need to do
business. People read fiction and poetry for pleasure, letters to friends to maintain
relationships, and essays and magazine articles to increase their general knowledge. But
they read business documents because they need the information in order to do their jobs.
The best way to determine whether a letter, memo, or other piece of business writing
achieves its purpose is to look at it as if you were the reader. Try that now by doing

Exercise

7-1

Exercise 7-1

Read the sample memo and letter below as if you were the intended reader. Then answer the
questions that follow the documents.
Sample 1: Memo

To all staff:

Subject: Meeting

Three things for the meeting that you should think about ahead of time so you can come
prepared to discuss. The scheduling of the reception desk continues to be a problem, we had it
not covered twice this week alone. How to reorganze the space so we can fit in the new hires
that start mid-month, Alan Gee who will assist Brenda, Martin O'Neil, the new hire for the
customer service desk, and the other two are Selena Baraki and Dallas Smith, welcome
additions to our staff.

It was impressive to see the way everyone pitched in last week, we got so much accomplished
in so short of a time, you should all be congratulated. In any event, we will talk about that at the
meeting also.
Sample 2: Letter

Dear Ms. Loggia:

Please accept my sincerest thanks for your application for the vacant position in our
department as well as for taking the time to travel to our company to be interviewed by our
hiring commitee. Your extraoardinary résumé was very impressive and interviewing you was a
pleasure because you are obviously the kind of person who this company appreciates and
would like to include as a member of our staff, your excellnt skills and experience would be a

perfect fit especially for projects such as the ASPIC which is to be embarked upon shortly after
the first of the year, as well as the type of day-to-day IP services provided by us to our internal
customers.

Unfortunately, we are unable to offer you a position at this time due to unforeseen changes in
our budget that were not expected by us at the time your interview was conducted. These
unexpected changes were announced suddenly by our CEO last week because of downward
revisions to the profit estimates for the coming quarter. As a result of these changes we are
currently experiencing a reduction in staffing levels and no indication has been given as to how
long this unfortunate situation is likely to last.

Again, please be advised that your efforts and interest were sincerely appreciated by all.

Sincerely,

Answer these questions. Then compare your answers with those on the next page.
Sample 1: Memo

What's the writer's main point? Underline it. Where does it appear in
the memo?

Did the memo include any unnecessary information? Cross out
anything that you think was unnecessary.

Is any important information missing? What information?

Is the information easy to follow?

What is your image of the person who wrote this memo?

Answers

The writer's main point seems to be that people should come prepared to
discuss three items at the next meeting. That point appears at the beginning,
which is where the main point should be, so the reader sees it right away.
However, you might have thought that the main point was that four new hires will
start work next week, or even that it was impressive that everyone pitched in.

You might think that the details about the new hires and even the
congratulations for the impressive performance were unnecessary—they do not
relate directly to the main point.

This writer forgot to include the third item that will be discussed at the meeting.
You might also have wanted to know more about what jobs Selena and Dallas
were going to do.

Although the memo is very short, it is still difficult to follow because the writer
jumps around and does not use transitions to move from point to point. Also, the
writer's sloppy grammar makes some information hard to understand.

If you did not know this writer (and perhaps even if you did), you might think that
the person did not pay too much attention to his (or her) work. The memo was
obviously written in a hurry, without much thought. The result is a confusing,
awkward, disorganized document with grammar, punctuation, and typographical
errors that reduce the writer's credibility.

Sample 2: Letter

What's the writer's main point? Underline it. Where does it appear in
the memo?

Did the memo include any unnecessary information? Cross out
anything that you think was unnecessary.

Is any important information missing? What information?

Is the information easy to follow?

What is your image of the person who wrote this memo?

Answers

The writer's main point seems to be that the company will not be offering Ms.
Loggia a job in the near future. But that point does not appear until the second
paragraph— well after the information that would lead her to think that she was
being hired.

You might have thought that the details about the department's project and
services were not needed in this letter. You might also have thought that the
writer should not have included the reason for the budget changes. The reader
does not need that information, and it is probably not appropriate to include it.

If you were Ms. Loggia, you might like to know whether the manager is keeping
her application and will contact her when the hiring freeze is lifted.

The writer's style makes the information somewhat difficult to follow—he (or she)
uses too many words. Several of the sentences are also too long, too passive,
and awkwardly constructed.

It seems as if the writer is reluctant to give bad news without "softening up" the
reader first. She (or he) leads up to the main point instead of putting it first. The
writer's tendency to overuse descriptive words such as excellent and sincerely
weakens the message. Errors in grammar, punctuation, and spelling negatively
affect the writer's image.

Taking the reader's point of view, it was easy to see that the documents you read in

Exercise

7-1

do not communicate as clearly and effectively as their writers might have wished. That's

because the documents do not meet the criteria for good business writing shown in

Exhibit

7-2

Exhibit 7-2: Criteria for Good Business Writing

The criteria for good business writing are:



Clear, concise main point at the beginning.



Enough information to support and/or explain the primary message.



No unnecessary information.



Information organized so readers can follow points easily.



Sentences and paragraphs short enough to read easily.



Clear, concise, active, and appropriate language that readers can easily
understand.



Correct grammar, sentence structure, punctuation, and spelling.

Clear, Concise Main Point at the Beginning

You probably noticed that the most serious problem with the letter to Ms. Loggia was that the
main point did not appear until the second paragraph.

As a reader, you know that you need the main point at the beginning, even if it is bad news.
Otherwise, you might be misled, the way Ms. Loggia was, or waste time trying to figure out
what the writer's main point is. To write clearly, always put the main point at or near the
beginning of the document.

Think About It ...

Go through three to five written communications—yours or other people's. Underline the
main point in each document and notice where it appears. If the main point is not near the

beginning, or if you are unable to find the main point at all, you know that the document will
not communicate as clearly as it should.

Enough Information to Support and/or Explain the Primary Message

In Sample 1, the writer left out important information—the third item to be discussed. As a
reader, you were left with the question, "What is the third item?"

When you communicate in person or on the telephone, your listener can ask questions in
case you leave something out. But when you leave important details out of your writing, your
reader is left hanging. It is your responsibility as a writer to figure out what information your
reader needs and include that information in the document.

No Unnecessary Information

In Sample 2, the writer included information that Ms. Loggia did not need— information
about his company's affairs that might not even be appropriate to include. At the least,
unnecessary information can confuse readers and dilute your primary message. At the
worst, it can mislead readers or raise issues that would be better left alone.

Think About It ...

Go through the three to five communications again. This time, list questions you have
because the writer seemed to leave out important information. Cross out any information
that seems to be unnecessary.

______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

Information Organized so Readers Can Follow Points Easily

Sample 1 is difficult to follow partly because the writer failed to organize the information so
you, the reader, could easily follow his (or her) points. Unclear organization usually reflects
unclear thinking. Instead of thinking through what they want to say, writers with unclear
thinking simply write everything down as it occurs to them. The result is a communication
that jumps around, forcing the reader to go back to the beginning one or more times in an
attempt to find the logical order. If you have to read a document more than once and you are
still unsure of its message, chances are the writer hasn't bothered to organize the
information logically.

Sentences and Paragraphs Short Enough to Read Easily

In the letter to Ms. Loggia, count the words in the second sentence of the first paragraph.
How many words do you find? ______

You'll find that the sentence is 82 words long. Most writing professionals believe that a
sentence longer than 25–30 words is difficult to follow. They recommend that sentences in
business writing should average no more than 18–22 words, less if the material is highly
technical.
Think about the way you read business documents. Do you linger over every word, the way
you might linger over the words in a poem or a narrative passage in a novel? Probably not.
Most people scan documents to pick out the important information. To help busy readers get
the information they need quickly, keep your sentences and paragraphs short. Also, consider

using lists whenever you have three or more items to present because information is far
easier to read in list form than in paragraph form, as you can see in

Exhibit 7-3

Exhibit 7-3: Use Lists to Help Readers See Information Easily

Both documents below present the same information. Notice how much easier it is to grasp the
information when it is presented in list form.
Paragraph form:

More than 300 people attended last week's conference. The agenda for the three days
included speakers from every division of the company and more than 20 optional workshops on
topics ranging from recruiting strategies to computer technology. There were task force
meetings on a vision planning, budgeting, marketing, and other subjects. We also had
opportunities to visit a world-class museum, play a round of golf, and attend a theatrical
presentation. The keynote speech was given by the CEO. All in all, the conference was a great
success.
List form:

More than 300 people attended last week's very successful conference. The agenda for the
three days included:



A keynote speech given by the CEO.



Speakers from every division of the company.



More than 20 optional workshops on topics ranging from recruiting
strategies to computer technology.



Task force meetings on vision planning, budgeting, marketing, and other
subjects.



Opportunities to visit a world-class museum, play a round of golf, and
attend a theatrical presentation.

Think About It ...

In the written communications you are reviewing, look for any unclear organization, long
sentences, and long paragraphs. Also look for any information that might be presented
more clearly in a list.

Clear, Concise, Active, and Appropriate Language that Readers Can Easily
Understand

Both Sample 1 and Sample 2 include examples of language that gets in the way of
communication. Unnecessary words and language that is passive, pompous, or vague make
it difficult for readers to understand what you mean to say.

Here is an example. Notice how much easier it is to read the revision.
Original:



Herein please find documents pertaining to the survey that will be conducted
in order to determine the parameters of the property that is being disputed by
you.

Revision:



Here are permission forms that we need before we can survey the
boundaries of your neighbor's property.



Chapter 8

, you will practice revising these kinds of sentences yourself.

Correct Grammar, Sentence Structure, Punctuation, and Spelling

Both of the sample documents contain errors in grammar, punctuation, and spelling. Those
kinds of errors can confuse readers. For example, a missing or misplaced comma can

change the meaning of a sentence. But even if readers are not confused, errors can make a
writer seem less competent and knowledgeable.

Errors usually happen because writers do not take the time to proofread their writing, not
because they do not know how to write correctly. Make sure that your written documents are
clear and present a professional image of you and your organization by proofreading them
before sending them out.

Pay Attention to the E-mails You Send

Errors are especially common when people write e-mail messages. E-mails are often
written very quickly and sent before writers have even glanced at them to be sure they
communicate a clear, accurate message. But e-mails are written communications just like
the letters, memos, and other documents that we print out and send via interoffice mail and
the postal service, and they should conform to the same standards.

Think About It ...

In the documents you are reviewing, circle or underline any words or phrases that seem be
be too passive, wordy, vague, or pompous. Also circle or underline any errors in grammar,
sentence structure, punctuation, or spelling.

Apply What You Learn ...

Find three documents you have written recently (not the documents you have been
reviewing during this chapter). Select documents that no one else has edited or revised.
Use the Writing Checklist that follows to evaluate how well your writing meets the criteria
for good writing.

Writing Checklist

Instructions: Use the chart below to rate how well a document meets the criteria for good
business writing.



Clear, concise main point at the beginning

Excellent

Needs
Improvem
ent

Comments

______________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________



Enough information to support, explain primary message

Excellent

Needs
Improvem
ent

Comments

______________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________



No unnecessary information

Excellent

Needs
Improvem
ent

Comments

______________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________



Information organized so readers can follow points easily

Excellent

Needs
Improvem
ent

Comments

______________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________



Sentences and paragraphs short enough to read easily

Excellent

Needs
Improvem
ent

Comments

______________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________



Clear, concise, active, and appropriate language that readers can easily
understand

Excellent

Needs
Improvem
ent

Comments

______________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________



Correct grammar, punctuation, spelling

Excellent

Needs
Improvem
ent

Comments

______________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

Strategies for Communicating Clearly in Writing

After several failed attempts to get a vendor to repair a defective computer printer, Eileen
decided to write the company. She wanted them to know how frustrated she felt and how
much time it has taken her to deal with the problem. She also wanted them to replace the
printer.

Eileen did not like her first draft, so she revised it by copying sentences from one part of the
letter to another. The second draft was not much better—she still felt that it did not express
what she wanted to say. Several drafts later she gave up and sent the letter even though she
was not pleased with it. Two weeks later she received a response from the company asking
her what the problem was and what she wanted them to do about it.
Read Eileen's letter in

Exhibit 7-7

. What do you think of the letter? What might she have

done to make the writing process more efficient and produce a letter that communicated her
message clearly?

________________________________________________

Exhibit 7-7: Eileen's Letter of Complaint

Dear Vendor:

I cannot tell you how upset I am. No one has returned my phone calls or e-mail messages. I
have spent hours trying to get through to your office without results. I am too busy to keep
trying.

On March 7, we bought a computer printer, model number F-67312, from your company. We
set up the printer according to the instructions provided in the package. It worked all right for
about three days, then we kept getting error messages whenever we tried to print something.
That was the first time I tried to contact someone at your office. One of the people on my staff
who is very mechanically inclined managed to adjust the paper feed mechanism and finally the
printer started working again. But the next day the paper started coming out with a big black
stripe down the middle. Nothing in your documentation or on your web site helped us in any
way. No one called me back when I left a message on your voicemail. I sent an e-mail
message to the address on your web site but all I got was one of those automatic responses
and then nothing.

We purchased this printer in good faith and paid for it in full with a check as you requested,
including shipping charges. I am sure you understand that I do not want to spend even one
minute more on this and I will think very carefully before ever again doing business with your
company.

Good writing is the result of careful planning. Even though Eileen spent a long time drafting
and revising her letter, she communicated only her frustration, not what she wanted the
vendor to do. That's because she started out by writing, instead of by planning. Good
business writing does not just happen. If you simply put your thoughts down on paper or on
the screen as they occur to you, as Eileen did, you are likely to end up with a disorganized,
confusing document.
People sometimes don't take the time to plan their writing because planning seems to take
too much time. In fact, the real work of writing is the planning. If you do your planning well,
the actual writing will be easy.

Exhibit 7-8

shows the key steps in the planning process. If Eileen had followed these steps,

her letter would have been far more clear and concise. It would have communicated to the
vendor exactly what she wanted them to do.

Exhibit 7-8: How to Plan a Successful Written Communication

As you plan written communication:



Think about your reader.



Identify your primary purpose and message.



Decide what information to include and organize it logically.

Think About Your Reader
In

Chapter 3

, you learned that to send a clear spoken message, you need to think about

your listeners. In

Chapter 5

, you learned that thinking about your audience is a key factor in

making a successful presentation. It's the same with writing. To communicate clearly in
writing, begin by thinking about your reader—by looking at the situation from the reader's
point of view.

Eileen spent a lot of time thinking about what she wanted to say to the vendor. But if she had
looked at the situation from the vendor's point of view, she would have found it much easier
to decide what information the vendor needed and what would convince the vendor to repair
the printer.

When you think about your reader, ask these kinds of questions:



How much does this person know—and care—about this topic or situation?



Is the person expecting this document or will it come as a surprise?



How will the person use the information?



Might this message feel uncomfortable to the reader?



Is the reader likely to agree with my point of view?

Identify Your Primary Purpose and Message

Eileen had more than one reason for writing and more than one message to deliver. No
wonder she had trouble writing clearly. She needed to identify her primary purpose and
message—otherwise, how could she expect the vendor to understand her letter.

You often have more than one purpose and message when you write. You might want to
inform the reader about something and influence the reader to do something. But to write
clearly, you need to decide on your primary purpose. Once you have done that, write a
complete sentence that expresses your main point.

Suppose Eileen decided that her primary purpose was to convince the vendor to replace the
defective printer. What would her primary message be?

____________________________________________________

Eileen's primary message might be, "The printer we purchased from you has never worked
properly. Please replace it as soon as possible." Once she has formulated the main point,
she can put it at the beginning of the letter so the vendor has no doubt about what she wants
them to do.

Decide What Information to Include and Organize It Logically
Eileen's letter is confusing partly because it contains unnecessary information, is missing
some essential information, and is not organized in a way that is easy for the reader to
follow. If you want your writing to meet the criteria you learned earlier, you need to make
decisions about what information to include and how to organize it before you start to write.

Whether to include certain information depends on your purpose and main point. For
example, to convince the vendor to replace the defective printer, Eileen needs to include
enough information to answer the vendor's question, "Why should we replace this printer?"
What are some of the points Eileen might include to answer that question?

____________________________________________________

Here are some of the points Eileen might include:



How long the printer has been functioning poorly



What the problem seems to be



The amount of time Eileen has already spent trying to get the printer fixed



The amount of business her company does with the vendor each year

A Planning Tip

One way to decide what information to include when you write is to list all the questions
you think the reader will have about the topic or situation. Answer each question, and then
organize the answers logically.

Try It Yourself

Choose a situation from the list below. Then follow the planning steps to draft a memo or
letter for that situation. When you're finished, go on to

Chapter 8

where you will learn more

about how to communicate clearly in writing.



Memo to your manager asking for something you need—a new hire,
equipment, time off, etc.



Letter to a customer explaining how a problem is being handled



Memo to an employee supporting your evaluation of the person's job
performance

Apply What You Learn ...

Think about what you have learned in this chapter. Follow the planning steps every time
you write for the next two weeks and record the results in your log.

Recap

Writing has advantages that speaking does not have: It leaves a record, conveys details
efficiently, is efficient, and can be more precise. Good writing results from careful planning
during which you think about your reader; identify your primary purpose and most important
message; decide what information to include; and organize information logically.

No matter the format, all business writing serves the same function—to convey information
people need to do business—and must meet the same criteria:



Clear, concise main point



Enough information to support or explain the primary message but no
unnecessary information



Logically organized so readers can easily follow points



Short sentences and paragraphs that are easy to read



Concise, active, specific language that communicates clearly to specific
readers



Correct grammar, sentence structure, and punctuation

Review Questions

The sentences in a business document should
average no more than _______ words.

a. 6–10
b. 18–22
c. 30–33
d. 35–40

A good business letter:

a. uses a standard format.
b. includes as much

information as you think
the reader will read.

c. fits on one page.
d. includes no unnecessary

information.

People read business documents because
they:

a. need the information to do

their jobs.

b. enjoy reading.
c. want to improve their

vocabularies.

d. have no choice.

Which is a good reason for putting your
message into writing instead of delivering it
verbally?

a. People get information

more easily by reading
than by listening.

b. Writing leaves a record.
c. Writing takes less time

than speaking.

d. You won't have to deal with

questions.

To communicate clearly in writing:

a. put the main point at the

end, especially if it is bad
news.

b. include all the information

you can think of.

c. think about your reader

before you begin.

d. try to make it entertaining

Answers

(b)

(d)

(a)

(b)

(c)

Chapter 8:

On the Page: How to Write Well

Learning Objectives

When you complete this chapter, you should be able to:



Describe strategies for helping readers follow points and find details.



Write an effective opening and a useful closing.



Use effective language.



Explain how to proofread for a professional image.

Overview

In the last chapter, you learned why writing is an important communication skill and
examined the characteristics of good business writing. You also learned the important role
that planning plays in writing successfully and what steps you take to plan writing that
achieves a specific purpose.

Now you will look more closely at ways to ensure that your business writing communicates
clearly and effectively. In this chapter, you will learn the importance of using short sentences
and paragraphs. You'll explore the use of lists and headings to help readers find and follow
information. You'll learn to write useful openings and closings and use language that
communicates clearly and concisely to specific readers. Finally, you'll look at the way
proofreading your writing helps you present a professional image of you and your
organization

How to Help Readers Follow Points and Find Details

To prepare the quarterly report for his department, Ricardo needs some information. The
message he sent to Frieda requesting HR data is shown in

Exhibit 8-1

. If you were Frieda,

could you easily figure out what information Ricardo needs? If not, what might Ricardo have
done to make it easier for you to get his message?

Exhibit 8-1: Ricardo's Message Requesting Data

To:

friedayarrow.HR@newtech.com

Re: Request for HR data

Frieda,

I'm putting together the quarterly personnel report and I need some information. Could you tell
me how many new hires, broken down into exempt and nonexempt, there were during the last
quarter and also what the average starting salaries were for each category, how many
employees are carrying vacation days over into next quarter, and how many people have
borrowed from their vacation account this year? In addition, please provide me with the
percentage of salary increases made last quarter for each position. I also need to know how
many sick days were used by employees in the department and the number of employees who
have used up all their sick leave for the year. I'd appreciate having this information by next
Monday because my report is due on the 17th. Please let me know if you have questions, and
thank you in advance for your help.

Frieda might find it difficult to pull the items Ricardo needs out of this message because he
presented them in one long paragraph that contains several long sentences. To make the
information easier for Frieda to grasp, Ricardo should have presented it in a list. See how
much easier the revision in

Exhibit 8-2

is to read.

Exhibit 8-2: Ricardo's Message Requesting Data in List Form

To:

friedayarrow.HR@newtech.com

Re: Request for HR data

Frieda,

I'm putting together the quarterly personnel report and I need the following information:



How many new hires, exempt and nonexempt, were there during the last
quarter?



What were the average starting salaries for each category?



How many employees are carrying vacation days over into next quarter?



How many people have borrowed from their vacation account this year?



For each position, what is the percentage of salary increases made last
quarter?



How many sick days were used by employees in the department?



How many employees have used up all their sick leave for the year?

I'd appreciate having this information by next Monday because my report is due on the 17th.
Please let me know if you have questions, and thank you in advance for your help.

Remember, people usually read business communications by scanning them instead of
reading every word. To help readers follow your points and find details they need, follow the
guidelines in

Exhibit 8-3

Exhibit 8-3: Helping Readers Follow Points and Find Details

To help readers follow your points and find details, use:



Short sentences.



Short paragraphs.



Lists.



Headings.

Use Short Sentences

Notice that the second sentence of Ricardo's message to Frieda has 54 words. Studies
show that people often have to read long sentences more than once because long
sentences contain too many ideas.

Exercise 8-1

Instructions: Revise this long sentence into several shorter sentences, each of which
contains only one main idea.
Jana Kirkpatrick, who met with us for three hours yesterday, agreed to take on the
project if we are willing to extend the deadline by three months, but she believes that the
budget is unrealistic and has suggested that we increase it by at least 5 percent, which
is not a bad idea although I am far from certain that we can get approval for the
increase, given the economic projections.
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

Answers

Here's one way to revise the sentence:
Jana Kirkpatrick, who met with us for three hours yesterday, agreed to take on
the project if we are willing to extend the deadline by three months. Jana
believes, however, that the budget is unrealistic and has suggested that we
increase it by at least five percent. I agree that increasing the budget is not a
bad idea, although I am far from certain that we can get approval for the
increase, given the economic projections.

Use Short Paragraphs

Ricardo also presented his message in one long paragraph. Long paragraphs are so difficult
to read that people often miss information that is buried in the middle. Try to keep your
paragraphs to a maximum of six or seven lines, with one main idea and several supporting
or explanatory points per paragraph.

Exercise 8-2

Instructions: Break the paragraph below into two or more shorter
paragraphs so the information is easier to read.
Dear Ms. Talbot:
It was a pleasure to talk with you last week about the possibility of
your speaking at our annual retreat. As I mentioned, we have all
read your journal articles and believe that we can learn a great deal
from the presentation you outlined. The retreat begins on Monday,
June 6, and runs for three full days. We would like to schedule your

talk for Tuesday afternoon, if that time is convenient for you. We will
all be staying at the Miramar Hotel and Resort. I will be glad to
reserve your room as soon as I know when you plan to arrive—you
are, of course, welcome to join us for as much or as little of the
retreat as you wish. (Among the other speakers are Jay Sato and
Sally Stowbridge, both of whom you might know.) I have enclosed
additional details about the retreat along with a brochure describing
the hotel. Please let me know if you have questions. Otherwise, I
hope you will decide to speak, and I look forward to meeting you.

Answers

Here's a revised version of the paragraph:
Dear Ms. Talbot:
It was a pleasure to talk with you last week about the possibility of your speaking
at our annual retreat. As I mentioned, we have all read your journal articles and
believe that we can learn a great deal from the presentation you outlined.
The retreat begins on Monday, June 6, and runs for three full days. We would
like to schedule your talk for Tuesday afternoon, if that time is convenient for
you.
We will all be staying at the Miramar Hotel and Resort. I will be glad to reserve
your room as soon as I know when you plan to arrive—you are, of course,
welcome to join us for as much or as little of the retreat as you wish. (Among the
other speakers are Jay Sato and Sally Stowbridge, both of whom you might
know.)
I have enclosed additional details about retreat along with a brochure describing
the hotel. Please let me know if you have questions. Otherwise, I hope you will
decide to speak, and I look forward to meeting you.

Use Lists

You saw how much easier Ricardo's message was to read when he put the items he needed
from Frieda into a list. Lists are an excellent way of presenting information so readers can
grasp it quickly, especially when the information consists of items or steps.

Exercise 8-3

Instructions: Revise this paragraph into a list.
To the volunteers:
We've scheduled the daycare center fix-up day for next Saturday,
March 12. Please be there by 10 a.m. Wear old clothes and bring a
sack lunch—we'll provide the beverages and dessert. Let Jane know
if you can bring tools, paint, a sewing machine, brightly colored
fabric, glue, pieces of plywood, or if you have furniture that you can
donate. We also need a carpet and several throw rugs that are still
in usable condition. The teachers have said they could use a tape
recorder and any books that are suitable for ages two through five.
Old greeting cards have also been solicited and leftover wallpaper
as well. See you on Saturday.

Answers

Here's one revision:
To the volunteers:
We've scheduled the daycare center fix-up day for next Saturday, March 12.
Please be there by 10 a.m. Wear old clothes and bring a sack lunch—we'll

provide the beverages and dessert. Let Jane know if you can bring any of the
following:



Tools



Paint



A sewing machine



Brightly colored fabric



Glue



Pieces of plywood



Furniture



A carpet



Throw rugs in usable condition



A tape recorder



Books suitable for ages two through five



Old greeting cards



Leftover wallpaper

Use Headings
Headings help readers see what information is in a document even before they start to read
it. They also help readers find specific information. Can you think of headings that might help
the meeting summary in

Exercise 8-4

Exercise 8-4

Instructions: Add headings to this memo.
To all staff:
Re: Weekly Meeting, Thursday, September 21
Here is a summary of what we covered at this meeting.
Pete and Mirabella reported on the status of the computer upgrades.
The new computers should arrive within three weeks, and they
should be up and running 10 days after their arrival. Each staff
member will receive four hours of training.
Our new marketing specialist, Daniel Leong, begins work next
Wednesday. We decided to gather at 10 a.m. in the conference
room to welcome him.
There was some discussion about the way in which vacation dates
are being selected. The group decided to let everyone put in a first,
second, and third choice. Any conflicts will be worked out by the
parties who have conflicts. A reminder: Everyone is responsible for
making sure they are covered while they are away.
Pat announced that he was not successful in getting us cell phones
this quarter. The management team has decided to make cell
phones available only to sales personnel for the time being.
Everyone agreed to let the matter drop for now.

Answers

Here are some headings that would make this meeting summary more useful:
To all staff:
Re: Weekly Meeting, Thursday, September 21
Here is a summary of what we covered at this meeting.
Status of Computer Upgrades
Pete and Mirabella reported on the status of the computer upgrades. The new
computers should arrive within three weeks, and they should be up and running
10 days after their arrival. Each staff member will receive four hours of training.
New Marketing Specialist

Our new marketing specialist, Daniel Leong, begins work next Wednesday. We
decided to gather at 10 a.m. in the conference room to welcome him.
Scheduling Vacations
There was some discussion about the way in which vacation dates are being
selected. The group decided to let everyone put in a first, second, and third
choice. Any conflicts will be worked out by the parties who have conflicts. A
reminder: Everyone is responsible for making sure they are covered while they
are away.
Status of Cell Phone Request
Pat announced that he was not successful in getting us cell phones this quarter.
The management team has decided to make cell phones available only to sales
personnel for the time being. Everyone agreed to let the matter drop for now.

Think About It ...

Pull out the documents you reviewed in

Chapter 7

or find some other documents you have

written recently. Read through them to see whether you find any overly long sentences or
paragraphs, information that could be presented in list form, or places where you could use
headings.

Write an Effective Opening and a Useful Closing

The way you open and close a written communication affects how successful that piece of
writing is. An opening can make a personal contact with the reader, or it can make the
document sound as if it was being written from one machine to another. A closing can restate
your primary message and tell readers what happens next, or it can sound as if it had been
tacked on because you couldn't think of how to stop writing.
To be useful, openings and closings should accomplish the goals shown in

Exhibit 8-4

Exhibit 8-4: Effective Openings and Useful Closings

Openings:



Make a personal contact with the reader.



Set the tone.



State or introduce the main point.

Closings:



Make a final personal contact with the reader.



Restate the most important message.



Tell readers what happens next.

Writing Effective Openings

Even after they have developed a detailed writing plan, writers often forget that the purpose
of writing is to communicate. Instead of "talking" to their readers, they begin to compose
sentences. As a result, they often open their written communications with clichéd words and
phrases, such as those shown below:



Per your request ...



In reference to your recent letter ...



I am writing to inform you ...

Those kinds of overused openings imply that the writer could be writing to almost anyone,
about almost any subject. They establish a distant, flat tone, and they convey a sense that
the topic has no real importance or urgency.

An effective opening, on the other hand, conveys to specific readers a sense that the writer
wants—and needs—to communicate with them. It draws readers into the document, as if the
writer was sitting in the same room, talking with them.
What do you think of the opening of the letter in

Exercise 8-5

? Can you revise that opening

so it meets the criteria in

Exhibit 8-4

? Use your imagination to fill in missing details.

Exercise 8-5

Dear Mr. Liu:
I am writing to advise you that your application for employment with our
company has been received and that your interest in the vacant position
is appreciated....
____________________________________________________
__________________
____________________________________________________
__________________
____________________________________________________
__________________

Answers

Your opening might be different. But it should meet the criteria in

Exhibit 8-4

Dear Mr. Liu:
Thank you for sending your excellent qualifications for the position of
publications manager....

The opening of the first letter to Mr. Liu sounds like a form letter that the company sends to
all applicants. It offers no useful information, and it conveys a sense that no one really cares
about Mr. Liu's application.

The rewritten opening clearly implies that a real human being has noticed that Mr. Liu is
applying for a specific position. This opening sentence should then lead Mr. Liu right to the
main point, which will tell him whether or not he is being considered for the job.

Write Useful Closings

Some written communications, such as reports, do not need a closing. But most need at
least a few words to let readers know you have said what you needed to say and tell them
what happens next—are they supposed to do something? Are you going to do something? In
some situations, you can also use the closing to restate your main point.
Below are two closings. Which of them meets the criteria in

Exhibit 8-4

a. Your assistance and cooperation in this matter is appreciated. Further

information will be provided if desired.

b. Thank you for considering our firm to produce your new brochure. I will

call next week to see what decision you made.

The first closing is vague, passive, and wordy. It sounds as if it could have been lifted out of
a list of standard closings and pasted into the letter.

The second closing makes a final personal contact with the reader, restates the main point
—" consider our firm to produce your brochure"—and tells the reader clearly what happens
next.

Think About It ...

Look at the openings and closings of the documents you have been reviewing. How might
you revise them so they meet the criteria in

Exhibit 8-4

Use Effective Language

Language helps you communicate clearly, or it can weaken your writing and get in the way
of clear communication. You can see that by comparing the memos in

Exhibit 8-5

. Which

memo is easiest to read? Why?

Exhibit 8-5: Using Effective Language: Two Examples

MEMO 1

To: All staff

Subject: Reductions in budget

We have been asked to implement cost management measures that are necessary for the
purpose of achieving the goals established by the Board of Directors at the meeting which was
held on October 12 in order to discuss methods by which the company could be helped to
achieve a higher degree of profitability. At this point in time it is not anticipated that any
reduction in force will be necessitated. The management team is in agreement that the
financial objectives can be achieved if the efforts detailed in the FERP document which was
developed at the retreat held in the prior quarter by the management... .

MEMO 2

To: All staff

Subject: Managing Costs

The Board of Directors has asked each department to find ways of saving money so that the
company can become more profitable. At this time, neither the Board nor the Management
Team anticipate layoffs. The Management Team agrees that we can achieve the necessary
cost savings by following the guidelines in the Financial Efforts to Realize Profits (FERP)
document that we developed at last summer's retreat... .

Memo 2 is much easier to read. That's because the writer followed the guidelines in

Exhibit

8-6

Exhibit 8-6: Guidelines for Clear Writing

To write clearly, use language that is:



Active.



Concise.



Specific.



Plain English.

Use Active Language

You found the memo that opened this section difficult to read partly because it used so much
passive language:



"We have been asked to implement ..."



"... goals established by the Board of Directors"



"... it is not anticipated ..."

In a passive sentence, something is done. In an active sentence, an actor does something.
Passive sentences are flat and wordy, while active sentences make your writing stronger and
more concise.

Writers often write passive sentences because they do not want to take or assign
responsibility: "The decision was made to cut salaries"; "Serious errors were made in the
calculations." People also use passive language (also called passive voice) because they
see so much of it in the business writing around them that they mistakenly believe it is the
correct way to write.

As a reader, it is easy to see that active writing communicates more successfully. Which of
the following messages would you prefer to read?

Message 1

Your attendance at the benefit would be greatly appreciated. Excellent food will be enjoyed,
and all proceeds are to be distributed to a worthwhile cause.

Message 2

The committee hopes you can attend the benefit. You will enjoy excellent food, and we will
distribute the proceeds to a worthwhile cause.

You probably prefer Message 2. The active language makes that message easier to read
and more energetic than Message 1.

It is especially important to use active language when you are giving instructions. Which of
the following instructions is easier to read?

Instruction 1

Before submitting your expense report, ask your manager to review and sign it.

Instruction 2

Expense reports need to be reviewed and signed by the manager before they are submitted.

Instruction 1 says clearly what you are supposed to do. Instruction 2 is not much more than
a hint—it says what should be done but not who should do it.

Exercise 8-6

Instructions: Circle the numbers of the passive sentences. Then revise the sentences so they
are active. If necessary, use your imagination to supply an actor. The first one is done for you.

When updated procedures manuals are sent to your department next week, it would be
appreciated if the old manuals could be destroyed.
When you receive updated procedures manuals next week, please destroy the old
manuals.

During the past three weeks, several clients have complained that no one has returned
their telephone calls.
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

Your application for the position of Information Services Associate has been received
and your qualifications will be considered by our hiring team.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

A meeting was held on Thursday, April 6, and the move to the new facility was
discussed.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

It was noted by the CEO that important gains have been made in productivity by the
staff during the past quarter.
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

Answers

When you receive updated procedures manuals next week, please destroy the
old manuals.

No changes needed. This is an active sentence.

Our Human Resources Department has received your application for the
position of Information Services Associate, and our hiring team will consider your
qualifications.

The staff met on Thursday, April 6, and discussed the move to the new facility.

The CEO noted that the staff made important gains in productivity during the
past quarter.

Use Concise Language
Concise writing uses no unnecessary words. Instead of writing, "We are in agreement with
you ..." write, "We agree with you ..." Instead of, "The end result was ..." write, "The result
was ...". The more unnecessary words you can eliminate, the tighter and more powerful your
writing will be.

Here are examples of ways to tighten up your writing:



The Board conducted a survey of the staff.



The Board surveyed the staff.



Twenty people attended the meeting, which was held at ten a.m. in the
morning.



Twenty people attended the meeting, held at ten a.m. in the morning.



There are many employees who believe that the process of brainstorming is
essential to creativity.



There are Many employees who believe that the process of brainstorming is
essential to creativity.

To write more concisely, read your drafts carefully to find words that are repetitive or do not
add anything to the meaning. Try that in

Exercise 8-7

Exercise 8-7

Instructions: Tighten the sentences below by cutting out words that are repetitive or do not add
anything to the meaning.

In order to provide desirable benefits to our customers, we are in the
process of establishing a modern and up-to-date rewards program.

We are preparing guidelines which are being developed for the
purpose of simplifying the submission of manuscripts for publication.

At this point in time, our team is in need of a computer that has the
capability of handling amounts of data that are larger.

Answers

To provide benefits to our customers, we are establishing a modern rewards
program.

We are preparing guidelines to simplify the manuscript submission.

Our team needs a computer that can handle more data.

Use Specific Language

The more specific a word, the more information it communicates. Notice the difference
between the amount of information you receive from these two sentences:

Sentence 1

We provide some electronic devices that help you do your work.

Sentence 2

We sell laptop computers you can use to make field presentations.

Your writing will communicate facts and ideas more successfully if you try to find the most
specific words that convey what you want to say. That is not always easy. Sometimes you
begin with a vague, general statement, and then refine it until it gets the message across as
precisely as possible.

Here are some examples:

Example 1

We are thinking of buying a new car.
We are thinking of buying a new luxury car.
We are thinking of buying a new Lexus.

Example 2

I would like to meet with you on a timely basis to discuss some ideas .
I would like to meet with you soon to discuss some ideas I have about marketing.

I would like to meet with you within two days to discuss three ideas I have for the new
marketing campaign.

Example 3

The investigator discovered some problems.
The investigator discovered some problems with the books.

The investigator discovered fraudulent entries in the general ledger.

Exercise 8-8

Instructions: Revise these sentences so they communicate more specific information. You will
have to use your imagination to supply missing information.

The accident damaged several pieces of equipment.

We hope to hire a new worker before too long.

Our group was somewhat late to the conference because of
transportation delays.

Answers

The collapsing ceiling smashed five computers so that they are now unusable.

We hope to hire a new programmer within four weeks.

Our product team was three hours late to the conference because flights out of
Denver were delayed.

Use Plain English

Can you read the following paragraph easily?

Insofar as my understanding of the status of ARC, the finalization of the design prior to the
deadline is problematical at best. Implementation and utilization of the telephonic
communications service described herein will thus require expedition.

Chances are that you found the paragraph very difficult to read. That's because the writer
used pompous language and jargon instead of the plain, everyday language that everyone
understands. Why do you think that people write this way?

__________________________________________________

Many people hesitate to use plain English when they write because they are trying to
impress their readers. They are afraid that using ordinary language will lead readers to think
that they are not educated or sophisticated enough to use more complicated words.

In reality, the more difficult a piece of writing is to read, the more the writer's image suffers.
The reader might even think that the writer is trying to hide the fact that he or she doesn't
know the subject very well.

To make sure that your writing communicates clearly, choose plain English words instead of
their more complicated alternatives.

Using Specialized Terms

Every field has its own specialized vocabulary, and technical terms might communicate
more precisely and accurately to readers who use those terms in their work. Environmental
engineers know the meaning of groundwater. Academics understand the word matriculate.

There is nothing wrong with using technical terminology if you know that your reader will
understand it. But use plain English instead when you are writing for a more general
audience.

Exercise 8-9

Instructions: Revise these sentences so they are easier to read by changing the italicized
words into plain English.

Prior to the reduction in force, more than 400 personnel worked at
our Texas plant.

We ask that you avoid utilization of the department's computers for
personal e-mail.

If we all work together, we can achieve maximal results.

Answers

Before the layoffs, more than 400 people/employees worked at our Texas plant.

We ask that you avoid using the department's computers for personal e-mail.

If we all work together, we can achieve the best results.

Proofread for a Professional Image

Chapter 7

, you learned that errors in grammar, punctuation, and spelling can confuse

readers and convey a negative image of the writer—and the writer's organization. You also
learned that most errors happen because writers have not taken the time to proofread
documents before sending them.
Errors in your writing can be more than embarrassing. They can keep you from achieving
your purpose. Suppose you received the letter in

Exhibit 8-7

from a job applicant. Would you

consider the writer for the job?

Exhibit 8-7: Proofread for a Professional Image

Dear Ms. Lee;

I am sending my resume in the hopes that you will consider me for the position of markting
assistent.

As you can see I have several years of experience. I have helped to develop; brochures,
annual reports and many other kinds of documents, also I have worked closely with people that
have done extensive reserach for marketing campaigns. Most recently, in my position as
administrative assistant to the marketing Manager I helped with a E-mail project where we sent
e-mail messages to approx. 15000 companies.

I am currently seekng a position that will offer increased responsibility; along with the
opportunity for new challanges. Thank you for your consideration, I look forward to hearing
from you.

Sincerely,

You probably would not consider the writer for the position because the letter contains so
many errors. If the person did not bother to proofread such an important letter, he might not
take much care with his work.

To ensure that your writing presents a professional image, proofread it to catch errors before
they reach the reader.

How to Proofread

It can be difficult to proofread your own work because we do not always see the errors we
make. That's why publishers hire professional proofreaders, whose job it is to find errors that
the writer and other editors have missed. You can train yourself, however, to catch many of
the most common errors.

Proofreading should be the last thing you do before sending the document out. By then, you
have already made the content, organization, and language changes needed to make sure

that you have conveyed your message clearly and concisely. When you proofread, look for
any errors that might confuse readers or make your writing seem less professional—errors in
grammar, awkward sentence structure, missing or incorrect punctuation, and
inconsistencies.

Proofread Important Documents

When you write something that is very important, such as a job application letter, a
proposal, or an e-mail that will be sent to clients, ask someone else to proofread it before
sending it out. Chances are the other person will catch errors that you miss.

Exhibit 8-8: What to Look for When Proofreading

When proofreading, look for:



Errors in grammar and sentence structure.



Missing or misplaced punctuation.



Inconsistent format and usage.

Using Spell Check and Grammar Check

Computer tools, such as spelling and grammar checkers, can help you catch errors in your
writing. They can even help you improve your writing over time by alerting you to problems
that you repeat such as using too much passive language or misspelling certain words. But
be careful! Not every suggested change is the right change. Use these tools to help you
identify possible problems—you make the decision about what changes to make.

Exercise 8-10

Instructions: Proofread the letter in

Exhibit 8-7

. See how many errors

you can catch.

Answers

Apply What You Learn ...

Proofread every document you write for the next two weeks. Make the changes. Then ask
someone else to proofread the revision to see whether they find any more errors. In your
log, record the most common errors you make.

Recap

To ensure that your business writing communicates clearly and presents a professional
image:



Write so that readers can get information quickly by scanning the document.



Write openings that draw readers into the document and closings that tell them
what happens next.