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The Planning Process

Choosing Learning Objectives

M O D U L E

Outline Learning Goals

Describe the sequential process of planning for classroom instruction and provide examples of the decisions

made during lesson planning.

ﬁne learning objective and explain why it is important for a lesson to have clear learning objectives.

Choosing Teaching Methods

Teaching Methods Based on Behaviorism

Teaching Methods Based on Cognitive

Learning Theory

Teaching Methods Based on Constructivism

Describe the goals of mastery learning and direct instruction, and discuss the advantages and disadvantages of

each approach.

Explain how discovery learning and expository teaching foster meaningful learning.

Describe the techniques based on cognitive apprenticeships that are used in constructivist teaching.

Summary Key Concepts Case Studies: Re

ﬂect and Evaluate

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Academic Learning
Time. How much time do students actually spend learning?

DESIGNING EFFECTIVE INSTRUCTION

An effective teacher understands that academic learning time—the
time students spend    engaged    in    meaningful,    appropriate
tasks—is    a    predictor    of    academic achievement (Berliner, 1988;
Evans, Evans, Gable, & Schmid, 1991). Even though most states
mandate over 1,000 hours per year of instruction, the actual time
spent in academic learning drops to an average of only 333 hours
when we consider absences, recess, lunch, time spent in lulls and
transitions, and time spent off-task (Weinstein & Mignano, 2003).
Lack of planning or poor time management often leads to
time-wasting practices such as (Karweit, 1989; Thompson, 2002):

using the ﬁrst few minutes or last few minutes of class ineffectively,

failing to establish efﬁcient daily routines and procedures,

using poor transitions between activities, and

mistaking straying off topic with ―teachable moments.‖

Effective teachers use even small blocks of time wisely to maximize
academic learning time. They approach teaching in a proactive,
purposeful way by developing clear learning objectives, choosing
among a variety of effective instructional methods, and using
assessments to determine whether learning goals have been met. This
module explores how purposeful lesson planning and carefully
selected teaching methods impact what and how students learn in the
classroom.

The Planning Process

In a series of studies on the characteristics of effective teachers,
Carolyn Evertson and Edmund Emmer (1981, 1982, 1989) found that
effective teachers have materials ready in advance, select materials
that are directly useful in instruction, and use consistent routines for
delivering information about assignments (e.g., having students copy
assignments from the board into an assignment notebook). They also
communicate the expectation that class time is for work-relevant
activities, that they are aware of what students are doing, and that
students will be held accountable for their work.

Effective teachers make classroom management and academic

instruction look relatively effortless. Yet in truth, a well-organized,
productive learning environment is the result of intentional decisions
and choices. The majority of the decision making is pre-instructional
(Borko & Shavelson, 1990; Clark & Yinger, 1979). Consider these
decisions that teachers make prior to teaching a lesson (Evertson &
Emmer, 1982; Thompson, 2002):

aligning curriculum with state standards,

stating learning objectives and how students will demonstrate knowledge or

skills,

selecting assessment techniques to indicate whether objectives

have been met (which happens in advance, rather than as an
afterthought),

identifying necessary prior knowledge and determining whether a

review of certain knowledge is needed,

developing clear instructions (written and/or verbal),

dividing complex tasks into step-by-step procedures,

selecting relevant instructional materials and resources,

differentiating instruction to meet the needs of students at varying ability

levels, and

accommodating students with special needs.

Comprehensive instructional planning unfolds in three stages (Schell & Burden,
1992):
1. Long-range plans determine how much time is to be spent on
each unit of the curriculum and what state standards will be met by
the end of the school year.
2. Teachers construct unit plans to decide how much to accomplish
in a given time period (usually two to four weeks). Because unit
plans often involve a particular theme or set of concepts to be
learned, they are more speciﬁc than long-range plans.

Productive learning environments: See page 324.

Time management: See page 332.

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TA B L E 2 0 .1

Basic Components of a Lesson Plan

Component Criterion for evaluation

Planning for Instruction

Module 20 :

Statement of topic Lesson/topic is tied to state standards.
Objectives Objectives are clearly stated in behavioral terms.

Materials needed Learning materials are
appropriate for students

’ age, interests,

developmental level.

Prerequisites/prior knowledge needed

Students have mastered the necessary
prerequisites for this lesson.
Attention getter Lesson includes an
appropriate opening that engages students

’

attention.

Teacher input (e.g., explanation or demonstration)

Lesson is presented in a logical sequence
and designed in a way that helps students
master the material.

Opportunities for student engagement/active learning

Lesson includes a variety of activities or
presentation formats that will appeal to
different students.

Practice (guided and/or independent)

Students are given suf

ﬁcient opportunity to

practice new skills.

In-class assessments (formal or informal)

Assessments fairly and accurately evaluate
students

’ learning.

Potential accommodations (remediation, enrichment, or
adjustments)

Lesson includes activities for enrichment and
remediation that can be used to meet
individual needs.

Closure Lesson includes appropriate closing.

Adapted from Thompson, 2002.

3. Daily lesson plans are completed last. While the lesson plan
format may vary depending on grade level and subject area,
typical lesson plans include many of the components listed in
Table 20.1.
As effective teachers plan their daily lessons, they pay attention to

how those lessons ﬁt within the broader instructional framework.
Novice teachers commonly make the mistake of focusing on the
teaching of content too much more than on student learning, leading
them to create plans that rush through coverage of a large amount of
material (Thompson, 2002). This content-driven approach often

focuses too much on what the teacher will do and say and too little on
what students need to do to master the material.

At any grade level, teachers should allow students sufﬁcient time

to process new information and ample opportunities to apply what
they have learned (Jensen, 2000). An effective lesson includes
focused attention as well as movement or hands-on activities. For
example, breaking up a high school chemistry lecture with a
demonstration and an opportunity for hands-on experimentation
facilitates learning. Allowing time for recess and other unstructured
activities gives elementary school students a mental break from
focused academic work, reduces demands on their attention and
memory, and leads to more efﬁcient processing of information during
learning tasks (Bjorklund & Harnishfeger, 1987; Toppino,
Kasserman, & Mracek, 1991).

Because students in every classroom have varying abilities,

teachers need to carefully target an appropriate difﬁculty level for
instruction and differentiate instruction when necessary in a way that
considers individual differences among students. They must consider
how to accommodate students who ﬁnish a task earlier than expected
as well as students who require extra time to complete a task
(Richards, 2006). Teachers may need to create different lessons,
activities, or assignments or use a different teaching method for
students with disabilities and students who are gifted.

Proactive teachers anticipate potential challenges that could arise at

any point in the lesson and are prepared to address them, making
on-the-spot adjustments as needed to ensure maximum success. They
also reﬂect on what works and what doesn’t so that they can improve
their instruction the next time.

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Teaching gifted students: See page 415.

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Have you ever been in a class where a teacher rushed through content or did not adjust instruction to the
needs of different students? How did this in

ﬂuence your level of learning and engagement?

TA B L E 2 0 . 2

Learning Objectives and Their De

ﬁning Features Performance Conditions Criteria

An objective tells what the learner is expected to do.
An objective describes the conditions under which the performance is to occur.
When possible, an objective describes what constitutes acceptable performance.

ﬁnition

The student will correctly label all seven continents and all

ﬁve oceans.

The student will identify 90% of the grammar, spelling, and punctuation errors in the sentences and make the
appropriate corrections.

Correctly identify continents and oceans.

English example Correctly use grammar, spelling, and punctuation rules.

Geography example

When given an unlabeled map of the world, . . . .

When given

ﬁve sentences to correct, . . . .

Choosing Learning Objectives

In contrast to experienced teachers, novice teachers often plan lessons that lack clear learning objectives—speciﬁc
descriptions of what students will know or be able to do after they have completed the lesson (Mager, 1975;
Thompson, 2002). Learning objectives serve as the foundation for a good lesson and are the standard by which
teachers evaluate student learning. Common to all learning objectives are three features, shown in Table 20.2:
performance, conditions, and criteria (Mager, 1975).

When constructing objectives, you might begin by asking yourself what types of knowledge students are required

to show. Will students be required to learn factual knowledge, speciﬁc pieces of information that can be
communicated verbally, as when they memorize the capitals of all 50 states? Will students acquire procedural
knowledge—how to perform a task or skill—as when they learn to operate a microscope? Will they learn conceptual
knowledge, reﬂecting an understanding of the relationship or connections between ideas, as when they explain the
events leading up to World War I?

The next step in planning learning objectives is to ask yourself what students should be able to do with their

knowledge. Fifty years ago, educational psychologist Benjamin Bloom proposed a way to classify learning
objectives. Bloom’s taxonomy for cognitive tasks, revised and updated in 2001, speciﬁes six ways students can
demonstrate their knowledge (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001; Bloom, Englehart, Frost, Hill, & Krathwohl, 1956):

1. Remember: Students recall or recognize information, ideas, or principles in the approximate form in which they

learned them without necessarily understanding or using the information. Instructional activities: list, label, name,
state, or deﬁne things.
2. Understand: Students make sense of information based on prior learning but may not make new connections.
Instructional activities: explain, summarize, paraphrase, or describe the information learned.

3. Apply: Students select, transfer, and use data and principles to solve a problem or complete a task with a

minimum of direction. Instructional activities: use, compute, solve, demonstrate, or apply knowledge.

4. Analyze: This type of thinking often involves breaking something down into its parts. Students distinguish,

classify, and relate the assumptions, hypotheses, evidence, or structure of a statement or question. Instructional
activities: analyze, categorize, compare, or contrast information.

Types of knowledge: See page 193.

Bloom

’s levels of cognitive skills: See page 502.

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5. Evaluate: Students judge the value of materials, methods, or
ideas in a particular situation. Instructional activities: critique
information, make judgments or recommendations, provide
justiﬁcations.
6. Create: Students combine ideas into an original product, plan,
or proposal. The key emphasis at this level is on creating
something new, not simply repeating information or using
someone else’s ideas. Instructional activities: create, design,
invent, develop, hypothesize.
As they plan instruction, teachers can develop learning goals using

these six levels as objectives. Educators often view these objectives
as a hierarchy, with each skill building on those that precede it. When
deciding on learning goals, ask yourself whether the content to be
learned involves lower-level objectives (remember, understand,
apply) or higher-level objectives (analyze, evaluate, create).
Mastering the multiplication of fractions is a lower-level objective,
while comparing and contrasting two literary pieces is a higher-level
one. After you have clariﬁed what students need to learn, you need to
select the most appropriate methods to help students reach their
learning goals.

CHOOSING TEACHING METHODS

Teachers have available a variety of instructional methods with
distinct theoretical roots in behavioral learning theory, cognitive
learning theory, or constructivism. Behavioral learning theory, or
more speciﬁcally operant conditioning, proposes that learning leads
to a change in an individual’s behavior. This perspective has led to
teacher-centered approaches in which teachers serve as dispensers of
information and structure the learning environment to help students
progress from simple to more complex skills. In contrast, cognitive

learning theory and constructivism both propose that learning
involves actively constructing knowledge. Cognitive learning theory
focuses on the mental processes involved in knowledge construction,
while constructivism emphasizes the role of active exploration and
social interactions within an individual’s environment. Teaching
methods based on cognitive learning theory and constructivism are
student-centered approaches because teachers structure the
environment to optimize students’ construction of meaning from their
interactions with content material and peers. Teachers often are
mediators or facilitators of student learning rather than repositories of
knowledge.

Teaching Methods Based on Behaviorism

Mastery learning and direct instruction are two teaching methods
based on operant conditioning, which proposes that an individual’s
behavior is the result of two environmental stimuli: antecedents and
consequences. Antecedents are stimuli or situations that signal that a
behavior is expected, while consequences are stimuli that either
strengthen the likelihood that the behavior will occur again or reduce
the future occurrence of the behavior. In mastery learning and direct
instruction, teachers create an antecedent for learning by establishing
learning objectives; breaking the objectives down into small,
manageable learning tasks; and presenting content to be learned.
Students’ behaviors include answering questions, practicing new
knowledge and skills, and demonstrating learning through
homework, assignments, and tests. To create consequences that
strengthen students’ knowledge and skills, teachers closely monitor
students’ progress toward the learning objectives and provide
feedback.

MASTERY LEARNING

Mastery learning is based on the idea that all students can learn
curricular material if given sufﬁcient time (Carroll, 1971). The
approach consists of (Bloom, 1971):

the development of major learning objectives representing a course or unit;

dividing major learning objectives into smaller units from

simple to complex, with each unit having its own learning
objectives;

conducting a formative assessment—a brief diagnostic test to

assess students’ current level of performance before instruction
and to determine areas needing improvement;

presenting material to students, who typically work individually and independently;

providing students with feedback about their progress (reinforcement of learning); and

conducting a summative assessment—a test to determine what the student has learned.

Planning for Instruction

Module 20 :

Information processing: See page 186.

Operant conditioning: See page 163.

Constructivism: See page 119.

Formative and summative assessment: See page 469.

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Students who do not master a certain unit are allowed to repeat it or
an equivalent version and to take another unit test until they have
mastered the material (Joyce, Weil, & Calhoun, 2004).

The sequence of instruction described has been used with

students at all grade levels and for curricula ranging from basic skills
to complex material (Joyce et al., 2004). Mastery learning also can
beneﬁt students of varying achievement and ability levels. By
adjusting the amount of time and the amount of feedback given to
students with different needs, mastery learning increases the
likelihood that most students will achieve a prespeciﬁed mastery
level set by the teacher.

Teachers also should be aware of

potential disadvantages of mastery learning. In research comparing
students taught with mastery learning and those taught the same
material using a different method, mastery-learning students have
shown modest learning gains on teacher-made tests but no gains
when standardized tests are used to measure achievement (Kulik,
Kulik, & Bangert-Drowns, 1990; Slavin, 1990). Also, this method
may widen the achievement gap between students rather than
narrowing it. While lower-achieving students are given extra time to
repeat content in order to achieve mastery, we must assume that
higher-achieving students are progressing to more advanced units.

DIRECT INSTRUCTION

The goal of direct instruction is to maximize academic learning time
by (Joyce et al., 2004; Rosen-shine, 1979):

using a high degree of teacher control,

emphasizing completion of learning tasks,

conveying high expectations for student progress, and

minimizing off-task behavior such as puzzles, games, and

teacher-student interactions not directly related to an academic task.

The components of direct instruction provide a structured

environment for learning new material and many opportunities for
practice and teacher feedback (Rosenshine, 1983, 1985). The
following are typical components:

Teachers review and check the previous day’s work and re-teach

concepts or skills in areas where students committed errors. In
contrast to mastery learning, where reteaching to mastery is done on
an individual basis, reviewing and reteaching in direct instruction are
done with the entire class. All students move at the same pace
through content.

Teachers introduce new content by activating prior knowledge

through discussion of the learning objective of the lesson or an
overview of the lesson (Joyce et al., 2004; Rosenshine, 1985).
Clarifying the purpose, procedure, and content of the lesson in these
ways improves student achievement (Fisher et al., 1980; Medley,
Soar, & Coker, 1984). Teachers are encouraged to present material
in small steps to be mastered one step at a time, provide varied
examples, use modeling, and reex-plain difﬁcult points (Rosenshine,
1985). During instruction, teachers check for understanding by
asking convergent questions that call for a right answer or questions
that require students to explain their answers (Rosenshine, 1985).

They engage the students in controlled practice by leading them

through examples. Teachers need to carefully monitor this stage of
practice and provide immediate corrective feedback to prevent
students from learning incorrect procedures or concepts. Rather than
simply giving the right answers, effective teachers provide feedback
that tells students what they have done correctly, prompt students for
clariﬁcation or improved answers, and reteach when necessary
(Fisher et al., 1980; Rosenshine, 1971).

Mastery Learning.
In mastery learning, shown here, students work independently at their own
pace.

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Homework. Homework gives students the opportunity for independent
practice, a critical component of direct instruction.

Planning for Instruction

Module 20 :

Students continue with guided practice— practicing on

their own while the teacher provides reinforcement and
corrective feedback (e.g., seat work and worksheets).

Students progress to independent practice when they are

able to practice knowledge or skills with about 85% to 90%
accuracy.
Homework is an example of independent practice.

Teachers provide weekly and monthly reviews and

reteach ing as necessary in order for    long-term    learning    to
occur.    Students also    need    to    engage    in    distributed
practice    once    they    have    achieved    mastery    at independent
practice. These short and frequent    practice    periods    are    more
effective than fewer but longer practice opportunities, especially
for children in early elementary grades.
Direct instruction is a popular method in the early elementary

grades (grades 1–3), where much of instruction is focused on basic
skills such as reading, mathematics, spelling, handwriting, and early
science and social studies knowledge. Direct instruction is effective:

for lower-level objectives in Bloom’s taxonomy and for

improving students’ basic skills in reading and mathematics
(Brophy & Evertson, 1976; Denham & Lieberman, 1980; Joyce et
al., 2004);

as an initial instructional strategy for lower-achieving students

(Good, Biddle, & Brophy, 1975); and

for teaching basic skills to students with disabilities (Reddy, Ramar, & Kusama, 2000; Turnbull,

Turnbull, Shank, Smith, & Leal, 2002).

Direct instruction is not effective for all students and all situations
(Joyce et al., 2004). For example, this method may not beneﬁt
high-achieving students or task-oriented students (intrinsically driven
to perform and succeed on tasks) (Ebmeier & Good, 1979; Solomon
& Kendall, 1976). Also, direct instruction should not become the sole
instructional method for lower-achieving students. Rather, teachers
should transition to less structured learning experiences and
emphasize more complex knowledge and skills as these students
achieve more success (McFaul, 1983; Means & Knapp, 1991). For a
more balanced emphasis on basic and complex learning skills, direct
instruction can be used together with more student-centered
approaches (Kierstad, 1985).

Think about the grade level you intend to teach. Would you
consider using mastery learning or direct instruction? Why or
why not?

Teaching Methods Based on Cognitive Learning Theory

An important concept in cognitive learning theory is meaningful
learning—actively forming new knowledge structures by (Mayer,
2003):

selecting relevant information,

organizing the information into a coherent structure, and

integrating the information with relevant prior knowledge.

Jerome Bruner’s (1961) discovery learning and David Ausubel’s
(1963, 2000) expository teaching are two distinct teaching methods
for achieving meaningful learning. Elementary through secondary
school teachers in today’s classrooms consider these methods to be
complementary. Teachers can use both approaches, and each has
features that encourage meaningful learning when used appropriately.

Homework: Do multiplication problems
1

–12 Study spelling words Read story

and answer questions

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DISCOVERY LEARNING AND GUIDED DISCOVERY

Discovery learning encourages students to actively discover and
internalize a concept, rule, or principle through unstructured
exploration of to-be-learned information (Bruner, 1961). For
example, high school students might be given various inclines and
objects and be expected to experiment with the materials—without
explicit guidance from the teacher—to ―discover‖ certain physics
principles. The lack of instructional guidance may be problematic for
students who:

have no prior knowledge for integrating the to-be-learned principle,

fail to stumble across the principle at all because of too much freedom in the

discovery process

(Mayer, 2004), or

activate inappropriate knowledge, leading to negative or zero transfer.

A form of discovery learning called guided discovery is more

effective than pure discovery in facilitating the learning and transfer
of knowledge (Mayer, 2004; Mayer & Wittrock, 1996). In this
approach, the teacher provides enough guidance to ensure that
students discover the rule or principle to be learned. For the high
school students seeking to discover physics principles, the teacher
would provide general guidelines for experimentation, guide their
experimentation, and monitor their progress. Guided discovery
promotes active learning by enabling students to acquire and integrate
appropriate knowledge. For this to occur, teachers must consider the
individual abilities and needs of students in determining how much
and what type of guidance to provide (Mayer, 2004).

EXPOSITORY TEACHING

In expository teaching (also called meaningful verbal learning), the
goal is not to have students independently discover to-be-learned
content but to ensure that new information will be integrated into the
learner’s memory in a meaningful way. Teachers promote meaningful
learning in several ways:

They introduce new content by emphasizing its relevance to what

students already know and to real-life examples and situations.

They activate students’ prior knowledge using advance

organizers, or general information presented before instruction to
provide the learner with prior knowledge and a structure within
which to integrate new information. For example, the outline and
corresponding learning goals at the beginning of this module (see
page 361) provided general information about what you would learn
and gave a structure to the material (the hierarchical outline).
Advance organizers that consist of concrete models or analogies
presented either verbally or graphically, rather than abstract
examples or principles, are most effective (Mayer, 1992; Robinson,
1988).

After activating students’ relevant knowledge, teachers present

topics in a highly organized format from general, or prerequisite,
knowledge to more speciﬁc topics that are a part of the general topic.
This provides a relevant foundation and structure on which students
can build by integrating their new knowledge.

Students practice their knowledge in many different contexts to

achieve a thorough understanding of the new content.

Implemented in this way, expository teaching is an efﬁcient

method for teaching subject-matter content, especially with students
from the upper elementary grades through high school (Ausubel,
2000; Luiten, Ames, & Ackerson, 1980). Advance organizers also
enhance learning and promote transfer, especially when new material
is unfamiliar or difﬁcult (Corkill, 1992; Luiten et al., 1980; Morin &
Miller, 1998).

Have you ever experienced discovery learning, guided discovery,
or expository teaching? Re

ﬂect on how effective these methods

were for your learning.

Teaching Methods Based on Constructivism

Many constructivist teaching methods are based on situated

cognition, a conceptual framework with roots in the writings of
Russian educational psychologist Lev Semenovich Vygotsky, Swiss
psychologist Jean Piaget, and philosopher/educator John Dewey
(Cobb & Bowers, 1999; Rogoff, 1990). Situated cognition explains
learning in authentic contexts, such as apprenticeships, in which
individuals work alongside experts and acquire necessary skills for
solving problems and completing tasks that are important in the real
world (Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989; Collins, Hawkins, & Carver,
1991).

Transfer:

See page 229.

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Piaget

’s and

Vygotsky

’s theories: See page 119 and page 124.

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Educators can bring situated cognition to schools by creating

cognitive apprenticeships, in which students develop cognitive skills
through guided participation in authentic activities, which are
important in themselves (Brown et al., 1989; Collins, Brown, &
Newman, 1989; Lave & Wenger, 1991). Students participate in
activities at a level commensurate with their ability and move
gradually toward full participation. Cognitive apprenticeships involve
many techniques (Dennen, 2004; Enkenberg, 2001):

modeling by the adult or the more experienced individual,

explaining (explaining one’s reasoning or the need for certain strategies),

coaching (monitoring students’ activities and assisting and supporting them when necessary),

practicing,

scaffolding (providing support to students so they can accomplish a task),

fading (gradually withdrawing scaffolding),

exploration (forming and testing hypotheses; ﬁnding new ideas and viewpoints),

reﬂection (students’ assessment and analysis of their performance), and

articulation (verbally expressing the results of one’s reﬂection).

These techniques are found in many of the constructivist
teaching methods described next. As you read, try to identify the
techniques in each teaching method.

INQUIRY LEARNING

Inquiry learning is a form of situated learning in which students
construct knowledge and develop problem-solving skills in the
context of an inquiry activity (Lave & Wenger, 1991). Inquiry
typically involves several phases:

formulating appropriate research questions,

collecting and organizing data,

analyzing and evaluating data, and

communicating the research results in a presentation.

More than a ﬁnite list of steps, however, the process of inquiry
usually is practiced as a continuous cycle (Bruner, 1965), as Figure
20.1 illustrates. While this approach appears similar to the scientiﬁc
method, inquiry learning assignments can be designed for any
discipline and any developmental level.

Teachers serve as facilitators, using their expertise to guide the

inquiry lesson and to evaluate students’ progress and the direction of
the inquiry process. When forming and monitoring inquiry groups,
teachers need to ensure that students are working collaboratively. If
some students are allowed to take over the inquiry process of    the
group,    the    opportunity    for    all students to ―construct‖ knowledge
for themselves may be reduced. Students with intellectual disabilities,
who typi cally show a weakness in independent insight and inductive
thinking relative to normally achieving students,    may    require
additional coaching and scaffolding in order to beneﬁt from the
inquiry process (Mastropieri et al., 1996; Mastropieri, Scruggs, &
Butcher, 1997).

COOPERATIVE

LEARNING

Cooperative learning involves students working

Scaffolding:

See page 125.

Intellectual disabilities: See page 427.

Planning for Instruction

Module 20 :

Cognitive Apprenticeships. Cognitive apprenticeships, like actual
apprenticeships (shown here) involve guided participation in authentic
activities.

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together to achieve a shared goal. A cooperative group activity must
contain these ﬁve elements (Johnson & Johnson, 1990, 1999):

1.    Positive interdependence: Members of the group work together
and depend on one another so that all group members succeed.
2.    Individual and group accountability: Each member must
contribute to the group in order for the group to succeed and be
rewarded.
3.    Interpersonal skills: Trust, communication, decision making,
leadership, and conﬂict resolution are all important to the success of
cooperative learning.
  4. Face-to-face interaction: Offering effective help and feedback,
exchanging resources effectively, challenging one another’s
reasoning, and motivating one another to achieve goals are all
necessary for effective learning.
  5. Group processing: Reﬂecting on how well the group is
functioning and how to improve is important for successful
cooperative learning.

Teachers can use the tips in Table 20.3 to create activities that incorporate these
ﬁve essential elements.

Cooperative learning can be used for any subject and has several

beneﬁcial academic and social outcomes for elementary through high
school students (Johnson & Johnson, 1999; Lotan & Whitcomb,
1998; Stevens & Slavin, 1995):

higher-level reasoning, creative thinking, and long-term

retention and transfer of learned information;

higher achievement in reading and mathematics;

increased self-esteem, especially in students with disabilities;

greater intrinsic motivation for learning; and

improved peer relationships in general, among students with

disabilities and nondisabled students, and between students of
different ethnicities.

METHODS OF FOSTERING COMPREHENSION

Teachers can use several methods to promote students’
comprehension, all of which foster the construction of knowledge
through social interactions and embody several characteristics of
cognitive apprenticeships.

Reciprocal teaching. Reciprocal teaching is a method of teaching

metacognitive strategies necessary for skilled reading comprehension
based on Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development. A group of
students is jointly responsible for understanding and evaluating the
text. The teacher ﬁrst models the four comprehension strategies
(questioning about the main idea, clarifying, summarizing, and
predicting) and then provides scaffolding to students, who take turns

leading discussions (Brown & Palincsar, 1987; Palincsar, 2003).
Scaffolding by the discussion leader may involve asking questions
and rephrasing or elaborating on statements (Brown & Palincsar,
1989; Rosenshine & Meister, 1994). Students are given as much
support as they need to complete the activity (Collins et al., 1989).
Students with lower reading ability can participate and contribute to
the level of their ability, while learning from those with more ability
or experience (Brown & Palincsar, 1989). As

Ask

Reflect

Investigate

Discuss Create

Figure 20.1: The Cycle of Inquiry Learning.
Students begin by asking research questions and
end by re

ﬂecting on the research process and its

outcomes.

Cooperative learning: See page 373.

Intrinsic motivation: See page 267 and page 279.

Reciprocal teaching: See page 219.

, ,

Vygotsky

’s theory: See page 124.

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module twenty

planning for instruction

367

TA B L E 2 0 . 3

Tips for Effective Cooperative Learning

Characteristic Teaching tips

Individual and group accountability

Planning for Instruction

Module 20 :

Positive interdependence

Test all group members and average the scores.

Interpersonal skills

Teach communication skills, especially in the elementary grades.

Include interpersonal objectives for a cooperative lesson.

Inform students of the collaborative skills

needed to work successfully in their groups.
Face-to-face interaction

Monitor group

members

’ use of resources and level of

challenge and feedback.

Monitor and scaffold interactions and

collaboration, especially for students in
elementary grades.
Group processing

Allow time for groups to

ﬂect on their functioning so students do not

assume that speed and

ﬁnishing early are

more important than meaningful learning.

Have students identify what was helpful

and unhelpful in their interactions.

Use information about group processing to

make decisions about what to change for the
next task or what changes to make in group
placements.

Sources: Johnson & Johnson, 1986, 1990; McCaslin & Good, 1996.

Establish a group goal stating that all group

members must reach their learning goals.

Provide rewards based on the success of

the group (e.g., a group grade, bonus points,
or tangible rewards).

Assign each member a speci

ﬁc role.

Divide the work so that one member

’s

assignment is necessary for the next
member to complete his or her assignment.

Randomly select one student

’s product to represent the group.

Distribute limited resources.

students acquire skill, they take greater responsibility over the
reciprocal teaching process, and scaffolding gradually fades.

Reciprocal teaching is most appropriate at the elementary school

level, when instruction in reading focuses on the acquisition of
comprehension skill. The method results in substantially improved
reading comprehension in students of all ages (Brown & Palincsar,
1989; Rosenshine & Meister, 1994). It also improves the
comprehension skills of elementary and middle school students with
learning disabilities (Gajria, Jitendra, Sood, & Sacks, 2007; Lederer,
2000). Because students are required to articulate what makes a good
question, prediction, and summary, their strategies become
decontextualized, able to be used in many domains (Collins et al.,
1989).

Instructional conversations. In many elementary school

classrooms, students’ verbal contributions are limited to known
answers (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 1992). In contrast, the
instructional conversations (IC) method assumes that teaching
involves conversing—that students have something important to say
and their input is valued. Teachers use the IC method to promote
elementary school students’ interaction with and comprehension of
stories during reading lessons (Gallimore & Golden-berg, 1992;
Saunders & Goldenberg, 1999).

The IC method consists of ten elements (see Table 20.4) that

reﬂect Vygotsky’s notion of assisted learning in the Zone of Proximal
Development. Teachers and students engage in a joint conversation
about a text that looks like a spontaneous discussion but instead is a
planned interaction with two purposes (Gallimore & Goldenberg,
1992; Gallimore & Tharp, 1990):

The Zone of Proximal Development: See page 124.

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368

cluster six

classroom management and instruction

Components of Instructional Conversations Instructional elements How to

implement

TA B L E 2 0 . 4

1. Thematic focus

Select a theme or an idea as a starting point for focusing the discussion.

5. Promotion of bases for statements or positions

4. Promotion of more complex language and expression

Make a general plan for how the theme will unfold.

2. Activation and use of background knowledge

Provide students with necessary background knowledge for understanding the text by weaving the knowledge into the

discussions.
3. Direct teaching

When necessary, teach a skill or concept directly.

Language development techniques: See page 127.

Elicit more complex language by asking students to expand on their thoughts, questioning them, and restating their

contributions using more complex grammar and vocabulary.

Encourage students to use text, pictures, and reasoning to support an argument or a position.

Probe for the bases of students

’ statements (e.g., ask “How do you know?”).

Conversational elements How to implement
6. Fewer

“known-answer” questions

Focus on questions for which there might be more than one correct answer.

7. Responsiveness to student contributions

9. A challenging but nonthreatening atmosphere

Be responsive to students

’ statements and the opportunities they provide for further discussion, while maintaining the

focus and coherence of the discussion and the initial plan for the discussion.

8. Connected discourse

Be sure the discussion involves interaction and turn-taking so that succeeding contributions build on and extend

previous ones.

Create an open, supportive environment that challenges students to negotiate and construct the meaning of the text.

10. General participation

Encourage students to volunteer to speak or to in

ﬂuence the selection of speaking turns rather than directly

determining who speaks.

Adapted from Goldenberg, 1992/1993.

1. Instructional (learning objectives for the conversation; e.g., vocabulary, comprehension, themes).
2. Conversational (a joint communicative purpose for discussing the text rather than a question-response format).
For this method to be effective, teachers need to shift away from the traditional role of evaluating students’
interpretations to assisting students in interpreting texts (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 1992).

The IC approach was initially developed and used with native Hawaiian children in grades K–3 in urban

Honolulu and was adapted for use with Latino students in Los Angeles, California (Au, 1979; Goldenberg, 1987).
Students participating in IC have achieved grade-level or higher reading skills and mastery of more complex,
differentiated concepts than children receiving traditional reading comprehension instruction (Saunders &
Goldenberg, 1992; Tharp & Gallimore, 1988).

Reciprocal questioning. Reciprocal questioning, a method of reinforcing new concepts, information, or

procedures that students have learned in class, encourages structured conversations among students. Because every
student’s understanding of new material may differ, the social negotiation of conﬂicting perspectives can lead to a
restructuring of knowledge (Bearison, 1982; Glachan & Light, 1982). For example, after high school students
participate in a history lesson on the consequences of

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module twenty

planning for instruction

369

TA B L E 2 0 .5

Question Stems for Reciprocal Questioning Type of prompt Purpose Examples

Describe in your own words . . . .

making evaluative, comparative, or evidential connections within the material

To construct new knowledge and integrate it with prior knowledge by:

explaining

Do you agree or disagree with this statement? Why or why not?

How does . . . tie in with what we learned before?

Planning for Instruction

Module 20 :

Comprehension-checking
Self-testing

What does . . . mean?

What is a new example of . . . ?

Knowledge-constructing

Explain why . . . .

Explain how . . . .

How do you account for . . . ?

What conclusions can you draw about . . . ?

What would happen if . . . ?

How would . . . affect . . . ?

What do you think causes . . . ?

What are the strengths and weaknesses of . . . ?

Metacognitive To monitor thinking and learning

Thought-provoking To create cognitive con

ﬂict through expression of different points of view

What do you think would happen if . . . ?

What is the best . . . and why?

What is your reasoning?

What made you think of that?

Adapted from King, 2002.

the Missouri Compromise of 1820, they would independently generate two or three questions using question stems,
shown in Table 20.5, and then take turns in cooperative groups asking and answering each other’s questions.
Students who give explanations of lesson content in peer groups improve their own comprehension of the material
(Dansereau, 1988; Webb, 1989). The question stems are the most important aspect of this approach, because they
guide discussions by encouraging students to (King, 1990, 2002):

provide explanations to others,

think about the material in new ways by confronting different perspectives, and

monitor their thinking through metacognitive questions.

More instruction on how to generate the questions is better than less instruction. In research by King (1990,

2002), students trained in the use of ―why‖ and ―how‖ questions asked more critical thinking questions and gave and
received more elaborated explanations than untrained students (King, 1990, 2002). With students in elementary
school through college, research also shows that reciprocal questioning improves comprehension more effectively
than group discussion, unguided peer questioning (i.e., no question stems provided), and a general review of
material (Fantuzzo, Riggio, Connelly, & Dimeff, 1989; King, 1991). Reciprocal questioning generates more
high-level (critical thinking) questions than does group discussion (King, 1990, 2002).

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370

key concepts

Summary

Key Concepts

academic learning time advance organizers

Bloom

’s taxonomy cognitive apprenticeships cooperative

learning daily lesson plans direct instruction

Describe the sequential process of planning for
classroom instruction and provide examples of the
decisions made during lesson planning.
Comprehensive instructional planning unfolds in several
stages, moving from general to speci

ﬁc, from long-range

plans to unit plans to very detailed daily lesson plans.

When planning lessons, teachers must make decisions
about ful

ﬁllment of state standards, identiﬁcation of

learning objectives, selection of effective instructional
methods, and development and use of assessments to
determine whether learning goals have been met. The
process is dynamic, in that teachers make on-the-spot
adjustments as needed to ensure the success of a lesson
plan. The process is cyclical, in that teachers re

ﬂect on

what works and what doesn

’t so that they can improve

their instruction for next time.
De

ﬁne learning objective and explain why it is

important for a lesson to have clear objectives. A
learning objective is a description of what students will
know or be able to do after they have completed the
lesson. Objectives form the foundation for a good lesson
and are the standard by which student learning is
evaluated. Bloom

’s taxonomy of cognitive objectives is a

useful tool for planning learning goals at six different
levels of thinking: remember, understand, apply, analyze,
evaluate, and create.
Describe the goals of mastery learning and direct
instruction, and discuss the advantages and
disadvantages of each approach. Mastery learning
encourages all students to achieve mastery of course
content by adjusting the amount of time and feedback
students need to progress through individual curricular
units. Mastery    approaches    are    applicable    to    all
grade    levels    and    to    material    of    varying
complexity,    but    they may widen the achievement gap
between lower- and

higher-achieving    students.    Direct    instruction    maximizes
academic learning time through use of teacher control,
structured lessons, practice, and feedback. The approach    is
effective    for    teaching    basic    skills,    especially with
lower-achieving students and students with disabilities, but it
may not be bene

ﬁcial when used with high-achieving or

task-oriented students or as a teacher

’s only instructional

method.
Explain how discovery learning and expository teaching
foster meaningful learning. Meaningful learning is a process
of forming new knowledge by selecting and organizing
information and relating it to prior knowledge. In discovery
learning, students actively discover and internalize a concept,
rule, or principle through unstructured exploration of
lesson content. Expository teaching promotes meaningful
learning in several ways: (1) by activating students

’ prior

knowledge through advance organizers, (2) by emphasizing
how new material relates to what students already know and
to real-life examples and situations, and (3) by providing
opportunities for students to practice their knowledge in many
different contexts.
Describe the techniques based on cognitive
apprenticeships that are used in constructivist
teaching. Inquiry learning, cooperative learning,

instructional conversations, reciprocal teaching, and reciprocal
questioning are all constructivist teaching methods
that use a variety of techniques based on cognitive
apprenticeships. Students engage in exploration, practice of
skills, explanations of their reasoning, re

ﬂection, and

articulation. Teachers use explanation whenever necessary,
as well as modeling, coaching, scaffolding, and fading. More
experienced students also use scaffolding and fading of
cognitive strategies to assist their less experienced peers.

long-range plans mastery learning meaningful

learning reciprocal questioning reciprocal teaching

unit plans

discovery learning expository teaching

guided discovery inquiry learning

instructional conversations learning

objectives

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cases studies: re

ﬂect and evaluate

371

Case Studies:

Refl ect and Evaluate

Early Childhood:

“Caterpillar Circle”

These questions refer to the case study on page 316.
1. What elements of Sarah

’s reading activity seem well planned for the developmental level of her

students?

2. How might you describe the behavioral objectives of Sarah

’s reading circle? State

possible objectives in terms of performance, conditions, and criteria.

3. What steps taken by Sarah and her assistant, Steve, are likely to increase academic learning time?

4. Explain how Sarah can use guided discovery with her preschool class. Choose a
speci

ﬁc topic or lesson and describe how she would need to structure the lesson for

optimal learning.

5. Explain how Sarah can use inquiry learning and cooperative learning with her
preschoolers. Describe any bene

ﬁts and caveats for using these instructional methods

with students with disabilities.

Elementary School:

“Ecosystems”

These questions refer to the case study on page 318.
1. What evidence of careful teacher planning do you see in this case?

  2. Does Leilani tell students the purpose of the activity? Does she identify behavioral
learning objectives? How does a statement of behavioral objectives relate to
assessment?
  3. Explain how Leilani could use inquiry learning for the ecosystem project. With such
a diverse class of students, what potential problems must Leilani anticipate when
forming inquiry groups?
  4. If you were the teacher, would you approach a lesson on ecosystems using an
expository teaching method or a guided discovery method? Why? What aspects of the
approach you

’ve chosen ﬁt with your philosophy of teaching?

5. Imagine that Leilani does a follow-up activity in which she has students in each
group engage in reciprocal questioning about ecosystems. Explain the bene

ﬁts of this

method and why it is more effective than having students summarize what they have
learned.
6. Assume that Leilani uses direct instruction to teach reading. What factors does she
need to consider to meet the needs of diverse learners such as Missy, Tamika, Steven,
Jackson, Alissa, and Jorge? What other speci

ﬁc teaching methods discussed in the

module could she use to complement direct instruction?

Middle School:

“Classroom Safety”

These questions refer to the case study on page 320.

1. What do you think the objectives were for Saul

’s group project? How could these

have been communicated to his students in terms of performance, conditions, and
criteria?

2. Which aspects of Saul

’s instruction seemed to be well planned? Which aspects needed more thought?

3. How might Saul

’s assignment of students to project groups impact academic learning time?

4. Identify techniques used in cognitive apprenticeships, and describe how Saul could
use these in his industrial technology class.
5. You are a colleague of Saul. Explain to him how he could use cooperative learning
to improve the effectiveness of the assigned project.

High School:

“Refusal to Dress”

These questions refer to the case study on page 322.
1. Identify two learning objectives that would be appropriate for Maria

’s ﬁrst-period class.

2. Maria teaches health and PE. How do you think lesson planning for a PE class
might differ from the planning for a traditional academic subject such as algebra or
physics?

3. Which instructional methods discussed in the module seem most applicable to Maria

’s class? Explain.

4. Assume from the details in the case that David uses direct instruction in his second-period English
composition class.

Pretend that you

’re his colleague, and explain to David the disadvantages of this method.

5. If you were teaching second-period English composition, describe the teaching
method(s) you would use with the students in the case. Provide a rationale for your
choice of teaching method(s).
6. Imagine that Brianna was walking into an AP English class during second period.
Describe the teaching method you might expect to see. Does your answer differ from