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M O D U L E

Assessing Student Learning

Outline Learning Goals

Summary Key Concepts Case Studies: Re

ﬂect and Evaluate

Describe the ways assessment is used in educational decision making.

Explain why developing an assessment plan is an important part of being an effective teacher.

Communication of Classroom Assessment Information

Grading Procedures

Report Cards and Narrative Reports

Parent-Teacher Communication

Discuss the important considerations in determining grading procedures in the classroom.

Discuss different methods for communicating assessment information to parents and students.

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WHAT IS ASSESSMENT?

Assessing Student Learning

Module 26 :

If you are like many people, when you hear the word assessment the ﬁrst ideas that pop into your head are tests and
grades. While these are part of the picture, classroom assessment actually is a much broader term that includes
measurement and evaluation. You might hear the terms assessment, measurement, and evaluation used
interchangeably. However, our use of these terms in educational contexts should be more precise. Let’s begin by
clarifying what each of these terms means:

Assessment is the process of obtaining information to be used for making decisions about curricula, students,

programs, and educational policy (Nitko & Brookhart, 2007). This term also describes the actual tools (tests,
papers, projects, etc.) used to gather information.

Measurement refers to a quantitative or descriptive number assigned during the process of assessment to describe

the extent to which someone possesses a certain attribute or skill (Haladyna, 2002).

Evaluation is the process of making value judgments about the worth of a student’s product or performance.

Evaluation in classroom assessment often takes the form of assigning letter grades (Haladyna, 2002).

Simply put, measurement and evaluation are parts of the process of assessment.

Purposes of Assessment in Education

Assessment occurs in different forms and for different purposes throughout the learning process. It can take place
anywhere students are: in the classroom, in the gym, in a lab, or on a ﬁeld trip. The ultimate purpose of assessment
is to support students’ learning and development (Earl, 2003; Wiggins, 1998). Assessment involves a variety of
data-gathering tools that allow teachers to:

1. provide feedback on students’ progress and level of achievement, 2. guide and motivate students in their own

learning, 3. improve the general effectiveness of instruction, and 4. identify modiﬁcations that will better meet the

needs of individual students.
The assessment process provides a sense of accountability. Reporting results holds students, teachers, and school
districts responsible for learning.

Student assessment provides valuable information for educational decision making. Consider these uses of

assessment data (Kulieke et al., 1990):

diagnosis: monitoring students’ strengths, weaknesses, and progress in speciﬁc areas;

placement: matching students to appropriate levels of instruction, as in determining whether to place an

elementary school student in a beginning or advanced reading group or deciding whether to place a
secondary school student in a basic or honors-level English course;

guidance and counseling: helping students make appropriate educationa l and vocational decisions that

match their skills and interests;

admissions: choosing students to be admitted into various programs, for example, eligibility for a gifted and

talented program, referral for special education evaluation and services, or admission to speciﬁc organizations
such as the National Honor Society; and

Accountability: See page 541.

Assessment for Admissions. Assessment data are used to make decisions, including admission into the National Honor Society.

Used with permission of the National Association of Secondary School Principals, parent organization of the National Honor Society.

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A Wider Range of
Student Outcomes.

Assessment today is not tied only to testing but includes a broad range of
student outcomes, such as the dispositions indicators listed here.

Disposition Concerns

Disposition Indicators

Disposition concerns are very important for teacher candidates as
disposition becomes increasingly important to the development of
collaboration skills and other professional behaviors. Concerns
need to be identified early and problems need to be resolved as
soon as possible. All teacher candidates will be evaluated on the
following disposition indicators*, but only those candidates who
have engaged in behaviors that suggest a negative disposition
should be reported.

Collaboration Issues: The ability to work together, especially in a joint intellectual effort.

Honesty/Integrity: The ability to demonstrate truthfulness to oneself
and to others; demonstrate moral excellence and trustworthiness.

Respect: The ability to honor, value, and demonstrate consideration and regard for oneself
and others.

Reverence for Learning: Respect and seriousness of intent to acquire knowledge.

Emotional Maturity: The ability to adjust one

’s emotional state to

suitable level of intensity in order to remain engaged with one

’s

surroundings.

Reflection: The ability to review, analyze, and evaluate the success of
past decisions in an effort to make better decisions in the future.

Flexibility: The willingness to accept and adapt to change.

Responsibility: The ability to act independently, demonstrating
accountability, reliability and sound judgment.

Explanation of Concern(s):

Student

’s Name (please print)

UID # Major

This concern has been discussed with the teacher candidate. My
signature verifies that I am aware of the document

’s contents and

existence.

Faculty/Staff Signature Student Signature

Faculty/Staff Name (please print) Date
Department

certiﬁ cation: determining mastery of speciﬁed criteria, such as

satisfying the requirements to advance from one grade level to the
next or to graduate from a program.

Think of examples from your own life. How have assessment
data on your abilities been used to determine placement in
educational programs or admission into organizations? How
might your assessment data be used in the future for
certi

ﬁcation?

Standards for Teacher Competence

Up until the 1980s, very little information was available to teachers
about how to design tests or develop other types of assessments for
use in the classroom. Experts argued that, whenever possible,
teachers should use tests developed by experts outside the classroom,
and they made little distinction between the kind of assessment data
gathered for large-scale policy decisions and that needed by teachers
for everyday decision making in the classroom (Pellegrino,
Chudowsky, & Glaser, 2001; Shepard, 2006). Today our concept of
assessment has expanded beyond the exclusive use of tests.

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Educators have begun to extend their assessment practices to evaluate
a wider range of student outcomes, including knowledge, reasoning
skills, performance skills, and dispositions (Costa & Kallick, 2000;
Western and Northern Canadian Protocol for Collaboration in
Education, 2006).

In 1987, three professional education associations began working

to develop standards to address a broader view of teacher competence
with regard to student assessment. Representatives from the

American Federation of Teachers, the National Council on
Measurement in Education, and the National Education Association
came together to develop standards that call on teachers to
demonstrate skill at selecting, developing, applying, communicating,
and evaluating student assessment information and student
assessment practices. The standards developed by these associations
outline seven skills teachers need in order to fulﬁll their assessment
responsibilities (Sanders et al., 1990). Teachers must be able to:
  1. Choose assessment methods appropriate for instructional decisions.
  2. Develop assessment methods appropriate for instructional decisions.

3. Administer, score and interpret the results of both externally
produced and teacher-produced assessment methods.

4. Use assessment results when making decisions about individual
students, planning instruction, developing curriculum, and school
improvement.

5. Develop valid grading procedures.
6. Communicate assessment results to students, parents, and other educators.

7. Recognize unethical, illegal, and otherwise inappropriate
assessment methods and uses of assessment information.

The scope of a teacher’s professional responsibilities for student
assessment at the classroom level can be described in terms of what
happens before, during, and after instruction, as detailed in Table
26.1.

ASSESSMENT PLANNING

What teachers assess and how they assess it reveal what they value in
students’ learning and help clarify learning objectives for their
students, for themselves, and for school administrators. Teachers
should not develop assessments post hoc, that is, after a lesson or unit
has been taught; rather, they should choose or design them carefully
in advance (Wiggins & McTighe, 1998). The ﬁrst step in assessment
planning is to identify the period the assessments will cover. Teachers
may plan for a year, a grading period (often organized in nine-week
segments), a unit, or a single lesson. A comprehensive assessment
plan includes:

learning objectives,

a time frame,

types of assessment (e.g., in-class assignments, homework, tests, quizzes, self-assessments), and

types of evaluation (e.g., scoring rubric, weight given to each assessment).

Table 26.2 presents a sample assessment plan for a science unit at the elementary school level.

Choosing Assessment Methods

Teachers have many different assessment options available, as listed
in Table 26.3. When thinking about how to assess student learning,
teachers must make several decisions about the types of assessment
that will best serve their purposes.

Should the assessment be formal or informal? Formal assessment

is typically a preplanned, systematic attempt to discover what
students have learned. Formal assessments, which may include tests,
quizzes, homework assignments, and projects, are announced ahead
of time to give students time to prepare or study. Informal

assessment is the spontaneous, day-to-day observation of how
students behave and perform in class. It may involve techniques such
as listening, observing students’ interactions, and asking questions.

Is the purpose of the assessment formative or summative?

Formative and summative refer to how certain assessments are used.
Formative assessment helps both the teacher and the students to
determine progress, check for understanding, and make adjustments
to improve students’ learning while

Assessing Student Learning

Module 26 :

Choosing learning objectives for effective instruction: See page
360.

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TA B L E 2 6 .1

Assessment Responsibilities, Before, During,

and After Instruction

Stage Teacher responsibilities

Prior to instruction

Understanding students

’ cultural

backgrounds, interests, skills, and abilities as they apply across a
range of learning domains and/or subject areas

Understanding

students

’ motivations and their interests in speciﬁc class content

Planning instruction for individuals or groups of students

Matching assessments to instructional objectives

Developing a comprehensive

assessment plan During instruction

Monitoring student

progress toward instructional goals

Identifying gains and dif

ﬁculties students are experiencing in

learning and performing

Adjusting instruction

Giving contingent, speci

ﬁc, and credible praise and feedback

Motivating students to learn

Judging the extent of student attainment of instructional goals

After instruction (e.g., at the end of a

lesson, class, grading period)

Determining the extent to which each student has attained

both short- and long-term instructional goals

Communicating strengths and weaknesses based on

assessment results to students and to parents or guardians

Recording and reporting assessment results for school-level

analysis, evaluation, and decision making

Analyzing assessment information gathered before and

during instruction to understand each student

’s progress to

date and to inform future instructional planning

Evaluating the effectiveness of instruction

Evaluating the effectiveness of the curriculum and the

materials in use

Source: Adapted from http://www.unl.edu/buros/bimm/html/article3.html.

Test item formats: See page 487.

it is still in progress. Both formal and informal methods can be used
to gather formative data, but informal assessments tend to be used
more often for this purpose. Summative assessment helps the
teacher evaluate students’ progress as well as the effectiveness of
instructional methods at the end of a unit or grading period.
Summative information often includes written documentation such as
tests, quizzes, papers, scores on rating scales, or a student portfolio to
determine a student’s progress toward achieving speciﬁc goals in a
class. Summative information may be used to assign grades for report
cards, to inform remedial or advanced placement decisions, or to
provide accountability and feedback about the teacher’s own
effectiveness. Formative assessment guides student learning and
informs instructional efforts, while summative assessment documents
achievement (Shepard, 2006). Ideally, formative and summative
assessment work in concert to track progress toward important
learning goals and provide information about student understanding
and mastery of instructional material.

Is it better to use a paper-and-pencil test or a performance-based

assessment task? Teachers often rely on traditional test formats, in
which students write their responses on paper. In some cases it may
be more appropriate to use performance assessment, in which
students demonstrate skills they have learned.

Is it important that the assessment be authentic? Authentic

assessments measure important abilities using methods that simulate
the application of those abilities to real-world intellectual problems,
roles, or situations. Rather than relying exclusively on a
paper-and-pencil test format, authentic assess-

Performanceassessment design: See page 498.

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TA B L E 2 6 . 2

Sample Assessment Plan for a Science Unit at the

Elementary Level

Assessing Student Learning

Module 26 :

UNIT 1:
The Water Cycle

General learning goals Understanding what the water cycle is, how

it works, and how it helps living things. Ability to explain the water

cycle and apply this understanding in a real-life context.
Time frame Unit will take two weeks to complete.

Formative assessment a. Three homework
assignments (taken from Chapter 8 in the
science textbook).

b. Condensation demonstrations (group
activity). Teacher will ask students to explain
what they are doing, how it relates to the
water cycle, and how it relates to real life.

c. Short quiz on basic concepts at the end of
week one. Summative assessment A written
test at the end of the unit (several
short-answer questions and one essay task).

Weights a. Homework: 30%

b. Quiz: 10%

c. End-of-unit test: 60%

Observation Systematic observation of how students behave or

perform, documented through sources such as anecdotal records

or observational checklists

Questioning Asking focused questions in class to elicit

understanding Learning conversations or interviews

Investigative discussions with

students about their understanding and sources of confusion

Homework Assignments to elicit understanding Demonstrations,

presentations Opportunities for students to show their learning in

oral and media performances, exhibitions Projects and

investigations Opportunities for students to show connections in

their learning through investigation and the production of reports or

artifacts

Portfolios Systematic collection of students

’ work that demonstrates

accomplishments, growth, and re

ﬂection on their learning

Simulations Simulated or role-playing tasks that encourage

students to show connections among concepts and apply their

learning in contexts that emulate real life

Descriptions students maintain

of the process they are achieving in their learning

Quizzes and tests Opportunities for students to demonstrate their

learning through written response

Self-assessments Process in which students re

ﬂect on their own

performance and use de

ﬁned criteria for determining the status of

their learning

Peer assessments Process in which students evaluate the

performance of their peers based on preset criteria

Source: Adapted from Western and Northern Canadian Protocol for
Collaboration in Education (WNCP), 2006, p. 17.

TA B L E 2 6 . 3

Assessment Tool Kit

Method Description

Learning logs/
re

ﬂective journals

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Electronic Assessment
Methods. Technology is used extensively for assessment of student learning,
with programs like WebCT and Blackboard.

ments may require students to carry out an activity or develop a
product in order to demonstrate skill or knowledge. For example,
instead of completing a test matching vocabulary terms with their
deﬁnitions, students might be asked to deﬁne their stand on a
particular issue and write a letter to their representative in Congress
using rich vocabulary taken from a list of words the class has been
studying.

Will assessment involve the use of technology? Traditionally,

computers were used primarily to score tests. Today the role of
computers in assessment has expanded to include numerous uses
(Bitter & Legacy, 2006; Britten & Cassidy, 2006; Gronlund, 2006).
For example, software is available that administers quizzes and tests
as well as records scores (e.g., WebCT, Blackboard). Other software
programs allow electronic portfolios to be created, and hypermedia
programs (e.g., HyperCard) can help students develop their own
multimedia presentations. In science classrooms, computers can be
used to simulate hands-on investigations (Shavelson & Baxter, 1991).
The beneﬁts of providing computers as a part of the learning process
vary depending on the age of the students, the kind of computer
experiences offered, and the frequency of student access to
computers. The potential gains, even for kindergarten and primary
children, include improved motor skills, enhanced mathematical
thinking, increased creativity, higher scores on tests of critical
thinking and problem solving, and higher scores on standardized
language assessments (Cardelle-Elawar & Wetzel, 1995; Clements &
Sarama, 2003; Denning & Smith, 1997; Haugland & Wright, 1997).
Computer-based writing programs can be successfully integrated into
process-oriented writing programs in order to:

provide critical support—or scaffolding—for young writers,

enabling them to perform tasks they could not perform by
themselves (Clements & Nastasi, 1993);

allow students to compose longer and more complex stories and worry less

about making mistakes

(Davis & Shade, 1994); and

help students gain conﬁdence in their writing and increase their motivation to

write more (Apple

Classrooms of Tomorrow, 1995).

Computers also provide lower-achieving students with a supportive
tool for practice while learning, without exposure to public failure
(Bredekamp & Rosegrant, 1994).

Creating an assessment plan can be a challenging task, but it has

several beneﬁts for the classroom teacher (Nitko & Brookhart, 2007).
Knowing how to choose and/or design assessment components

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increases the quality of teaching decisions and offers the teacher more
ﬂexibility (Stiggins, Rubel, & Quellmalz, 1986). As teachers gain
experience in developing classroom assessments, they develop an
appreciation of the strengths and limitations of each type of
assessment procedure and improve the accuracy of their
interpretations and uses of assessment data (Boothroyd, McMorris, &
Pruzek, 1992; Plake, Impara, & Fager, 1993).

Using Assessment Data

In today’s educational climate, assessment should be a dynamic
process rather than an “event” signaling completion of instruction.
Assessment data help teachers evaluate the effectiveness of
instruction and curricula. Frequent and varied classroom assessment
also gives teachers an opportunity to learn a great deal about their
students. During instruction, the effective teacher continually
monitors students’ progress toward instructional goals. If students
seem to be struggling to understand a concept or perform a skill, the
teacher can adjust instruction to better meet the students’ needs.
Assessment facilitates student learning when teachers (Lambert &
McCombs, 1998; Shepard, 2000):

use classroom assessments as a tool to help them become more

aware of the knowledge and skills students bring to a task,

use this knowledge as a starting point for new instruction, and

monitor students’ changing perceptions and understanding as instruction proceeds.

Students also can learn about themselves through assessment. When
assessment is used to provide students with feedback about their own
learning, students are given the tools to monitor their learning, make

corrections, and develop the habit of continually reviewing and
challenging what they know (Costa, 1989, 1996). Effective
assessment can help students set personal academic expectations and
improve their performance.

Think about the developmental level or the subject you intend to
teach, and take a look at Table 26.3. What types of assessments
will you use for that speci

ﬁc developmental level or speciﬁc

subject area? How will you evaluate those types of
assessments?

COMMUNICATION OF CLASSROOM
ASSESSMENT INFORMATION

At the end of an assessment cycle, the teacher is expected to
determine whether each student has met learning goals and to
communicate students’ strengths and weaknesses to the students and
their parents or guardians. The teacher also may report assessment
data for school-level analysis and decision-making purposes, such as
deciding whether a student has met the criteria for advancement to the
next grade level. In order to effectively communicate assessment
information, a teacher needs a clear set of grading procedures, a
reporting system, and an understanding of what constitutes
appropriate, conﬁdential use of assessment information.

Grading Procedures

Grading students’ work can be a challenging and controversial task
(Marzano, 2000; Trumbull & Farr, 2000). Many forms of assigning
grades exist, and it is important that a teacher select grading
procedures that are both credible and defensible (Guskey & Bailey,
2001; Linn & Gronlund, 2000). Assessment experts generally
recommend that teachers keep the meaning of grades clear by basing
them on a student’s achievement in meeting prespeciﬁed learning
goals; however, many teachers confound the grading process by
assigning grades that reﬂect a mixture of attitude, effort, and
achievement (Stiggins, Frisbie, & Griswold, 1989; Waltman &
Frisbie, 1994). For example, in some classrooms, if a student meets
the mastery criteria on a reading assignment but misbehaves during
class, the teacher may dock the reading grade by 10% or more. In
others, the teacher may award an A to a student who actually earned a
B but seemed

Assessing Student Learning

Module 26 :

Parent-teacher conferences. Teachers

’ responsibilities for assessment

include communicating students

’ strengths and weaknesses to parents.

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BOX 26.1

Grading Guidelines

1. Explain your grading policies to students early in the year.

2. Set reasonable standards and prepare students to be successful.

3. Base grades on as much objective evidence as possible. Guard against bias.

4. Eliminate the mixing of nongrading variables (e.g., deductions for
misbehavior) into an academic grade. 5. Grade consistently.
6. Keep students informed of their standing in class.

7. Give students the bene

ﬁt of the doubt when determining a borderline grade.

All measurement techniques involve error.

8. Weight the assessment categories in a rational way. When deciding how
many points a task is worth, consider relevance, relationship to what was taught
in class, thinking processes and skills required, fairness to all students,
objectivity, and reliability of the assessment results.

9. Consider the impact of failure on students. Use an F to represent low
achievement rather than

“failing to try” or “failing to turn in assignments.”

10. Be aware of how much a zero can affect a student

’s

composite score, and consider alternatives to giving a zero.

Sources: Drayer, 1979; Nitko & Brookhart, 2007.

to put in a lot of effort. What do those grades mean? They are no
longer a pure reﬂection of academic achievement or progress toward a
speciﬁc learning goal. For the steps necessary to increase the
credibility and effectiveness of a grading system, see Box 26.1.

Grading model. Teachers have three different models to choose

among as they assign grades based on purpose and context:
criterion-referenced, norm-referenced, and growth-based grading.

Criterion-referenced letter grades: In criterion-referenced

grading, the grade represents the degree to which learning objectives
have been met. Criteria for each grade level usually are speciﬁed in
advance (e.g., 60% to 69% = D, 70% to 79% = C, 80% to 89% = B,
90% and above = A). In this system, all students could theoretically
earn an A if they meet the preset criteria. Criterion-referenced
grading is appropriate for giving students feedback about how close
they are to meeting learning goals (a formative use) and can also be
appropriate for documenting students’ accomplishment of a
particular learning goal or standard at the end of a marking period (a
summative use).

Norm-referenced letter grades: In norm-referenced grading, the

main inﬂuence on a student’s grade is comparison with other
students in the class. One common type of norm-referenced grading
is grading on the curve. In this system, a student could study very
hard and answer 92% of the questions on a test correctly yet still get
a C if the class average was around 92%. Teachers typically have
used this model when the class average is very low in an attempt to

increase the number of students receiving high grades. Still, this type
of grading generally damages the relationships among students and
between teachers and students, and it also diminishes motivation for
most students (Krumboltz & Yeh, 1996). Norm-referenced grading
is not appropriate when assessment is viewed an as integral part of a
standards-based program, because it does not accurately reﬂect
mastery of knowledge. For example, the mean score of students
could be 50%, indicating that few students had mastery of
knowledge, yet many students would receive passing or even
relatively high grades.

Growth-based grading involves assigning grades by comparing

students’ performance with the teacher’s perceptions of their
capability. Students performing at or above the level at which they
are perceived to be capable would receive better grades, regardless
of their absolute level of attainment or their standing in comparison
to their classmates. Because the perceptions of teachers often are
subjective and can be tinged with personal bias, objective measures
of capability should be included. For example, a student who began
a unit with very little prior knowledge (based on a pretest score) but
made great strides in learning new material might be given the same
grade as a student who actually knows more (based on a posttest
score) but began with more prior knowledge. Growth-based grading
can be an effective tool in formative assessment when the purpose is

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to provide feedback about how much progress a student has made,
but it can be criticized as being an unfair way to determine ﬁnal
grades in a class.

Calculating grades. To calculate grades during a semester or

marking period, a teacher must decide whether to use a point-based or
percentage-based system. The point grading system is a popular
approach in which each test, quiz, assignment, or project is given a
certain number of points, depending on its overall importance. For
example, a test might be worth 100 points, a writing assignment 50
points, and a quiz 10 points. Points are then awarded based on
speciﬁc criteria, for example, 2 points per correct answer. The
percentage grading system is another option, in which teachers
assign grades based on what percentage of information a student has
answered or completed correctly. To determine a ﬁnal grade at the
end of a marking period, the teacher averages all percentage grades
the student has accumulated.

In both the point system and the percentage system, a student’s

score can be converted to a letter grade based on a predetermined
cutoff. For example, a student who earned 450 out of 500 possible
points or an average of 90% might be given an A. School systems
often establish equivalent percentage categories for earning an A, B,
C, and so forth; however, the percentages may vary from one school
district to the next. In one district, 90% to 100% might be considered

A work, while in a neighboring district 94% to 100% might be the
range for receiving an A.

Grades and motivation. In the 1960s and 1970s, views of

motivation were heavily inﬂuenced by behaviorist psychology, in
which a schedule of rewards and punishments led to either increasing
or decreasing the likelihood of a particular behavior. In that
educational climate, teachers and administrators generally believed
that assessment and grading motivated students to work hard
(Brophy, 2006; WNCP, 2006). In recent years, however, research has
shown that the relationship between grades and motivation is more
complex and less predictable. Students who receive low grades may
withdraw, blame others, decide that the work is “dumb,” or feel
helpless (Tomlinson, 2005). Low grades may encourage some
students to simply give up on themselves or on school. This does not
mean that students should never be given low grades or that they
should expect only success in the classroom (Clifford, 1990, 1991).
Students should be allowed to make mistakes—and even fail
sometimes—as part of the learning process. However, the
assessments given in class should support students’ motivation to
learn and improve. For example, teachers need to provide a number
of assessment tasks so students have the opportunity to learn from
their mistakes and show improvement on subsequent tasks. Students
are more likely to show improvement if a low grade is accompanied
by speciﬁc, constructive feedback designed to prevent them from
making the same mistakes.

Think about what you will do if a student in your class receives
89.3% on an assignment and 90% is needed for an A. Will you
round up, or will you have a

ﬁrm and consistent policy that the

exact grade earned is the exact grade received? How will you
justify your decision?

Report Cards and Narrative Reports

Teachers have many methods at their disposal for recording students’
achievement and reporting student progress. Letter grades frequently
are used at the upper elementary, middle school, and high school
levels, while checklists of skills mastered, abbreviated letter grades (E
for excellent, S for satisfactory, or N for needs improvement), or
narrative progress reports are used more often at the early childhood
level. Narrative progress reports provide detailed, written accounts
of each student’s learning and performance in class. Box 26.2
provides an example of a narrative report.

Schools may use a combination of methods on a single report card.

For example, letter grades may be used to indicate subject-matter
achievement, but a checklist or rating scale may be used to convey
additional information about student behavior or work habits, with
space provided for narrative comments. School administrators and
outside evaluators might need a concise, somewhat quantiﬁable
summary of each student’s progress for accountability and
record-keeping purposes, but parents might want more detailed
information about the standards mastered, areas of strength and
weakness, or their child’s level of attainment compared to that of
peers. While a rich description of a student’s learning and
development may be much appreciated by parents, such reports can
be very time-consuming for teachers to prepare, and skill in writing

narrative reports requires practice guided by expert teachers (Nitko &
Brookhart, 2007). Modiﬁed narrative reports that combine a checklist
or rating scale with short written comments are a viable compromise.

Any teacher with access to a personal computer can use a simple

spreadsheet program to record and calculate student grades.
Gradebook software programs allow teachers to choose among a
variety

Assessing Student Learning

Module 26 :

Behavioral theories of motivation: See page 266.

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Narrative Report

BOX 26.2

Date: November 2008
Child: Xavier Roberts

Class: Kindergarten

Xavier is one of the younger kindergarteners in the class this

year. At the beginning of the year, he was very tentative about
entering the classroom. Over the course of the ﬁrst month as
Xavier took the time to get to know his new classmates, he
became more comfortable and he is now very willing to jump
right into one of the morning learning centers when he arrives.
Xavier plays well with a variety of children in the class, but he
has developed the strongest bond with Nick and Everett. They
like to build structures in the block area, play with the Brio
trains, and gather on the beanbags in the reading area to look
at picture books.

Xavier has shown an interest in reading in the past month,

and he often asks for help in sounding out words. He
recognizes many sight words and can easily identify the printed
names of his classmates when we do our name card activity in

morning circle. We’ve been working on letter recognition and
letter formation this semester. Xavier recognizes all uppercase
and lowercase letters of the alphabet, but he is still learning
how to write them independently. He can copy letters
accurately but sometimes writes them backward when recalling
them on his own. That is very typical for this age.

We’ve been encouraging the children to take responsibility

for cleaning up their own materials, and this has been a bit of a
struggle with Xavier. He gets wrapped up in the activity he is
doing, and it often takes two or three reminders to get him to
put away the things he got out and get ready for the next class
activity. This will get better with practice. Overall, Xavier is a
joy to have in class. He is friendly and curious and has a great
imagination.

of options for recording and reporting grades. School districts
sometimes provide and require the use of a particular gradebook
program. Some of these programs are linked to conﬁdential Web sites
where parents can log in (with a username and unique password) to
check their children’s grades at any time during the grading period.

Parent-Teacher Communication

Research on home-school communication indicates that parents want to be
(Cuttance & Stokes, 2001):

kept well informed about their children’s progress in both academic and

nonacademic areas,

informed about the perceived strengths and weaknesses of their children, and

provided pertinent and constructive advice about how they can support their

children’s learning.

Parent-teacher conferences are an effective way to build strong
home-school connections. They provide parents with a better
understanding of children’s learning and give teachers the
opportunity to gain valuable insights from parents about their
children. Parents and teachers may have very different ideas about the
meaning of grades, so clear communication with parents about what
grades represent within your classroom is very important (Waltman &
Frisbie, 1994). Table 26.4 provides a set of guidelines to follow
before, during, and after parent-teacher conferences to make the most
of the conference opportunity.

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module twenty-six

assessing student learning

477

Before the conference

Have a clear purpose and a clear understanding of the outcome you would

like.

TA B L E 2 6 . 4

Guidelines to Follow for Parent-Teacher Conferences

Assessing Student Learning

Module 26 :

Plan the points you want to discuss.

Plan to have a translator available if necessary.

Gather samples of student work, including progress reports

and other information related to grades.

Anticipate parents

’ reactions and questions and jot down notes

to address any questions you think may be raised.

Identify the student

’s strengths and weaknesses.

Create a seating arrangement that will be comfortable for adults.

Make sure you have pen and paper for yourself and the parents.

Make a conference schedule and a

“Do Not Disturb” sign to

post on your door so you can meet with parents without
distraction.

Meet parents and escort them to your room.

During the conference Opening:

Be prompt and ready to begin.

Begin by expressing your appreciation that the parents have

come to the conference. Try to establish a tone of goodwill and

friendly cooperation as quickly as you can.

Begin with positive

remarks about the student. Talk about the student

’s aptitude,

special talents, improvements, and potential. Focus on strengths
even if the problem you are meeting to discuss is a serious one.
Never lose sight of the fact that the child or adolescent is very
important to the parents.

During:

Give parents your full attention.

Use language that will make parents comfortable. Avoid educational jargon.

Convey the attitude that the student

’s welfare is your primary concern.

Discuss speci

ﬁc examples of the student’s work and/or behavior.

If you have a problem to discuss, state the problem in simple,

factual terms and express your desire to work together for a

successful resolution.

If discussing a recurring problem, let

parents know of any improvement you have seen. State what

steps you have taken to correct the situation.

Always allow

upset or angry parents to speak

ﬁrst.

Concluding:

End the conference by recapping important points.

Determine what you will do to follow up after the conference.

Express appreciation again for the parents

’ concern and the

time they have spent with you.

After the conference

Take the time to jot down detailed notes about what was discussed.

Write down any steps you agreed to take to follow up.

Keep in contact with the parents.

Source: Adapted from Thompson, 2002.

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478

cluster eight

classroom assessment

Teachers at all grade levels should make an effort to maintain open

lines of communication with parents throughout the school year, not
just during the week report cards are distributed. In addition to
parent-teacher conferences, home-school communication may
include:

weekly newsletters,

information and assignments sent home in “Friday folders,”

information posted on a class or school Web site,

phone calls, or

e-mails and notes sent to parents.

Although home-school communication is important, beyond this
teachers need to keep students’ educational records conﬁdential. For
speciﬁc uses of educational records, teachers should be familiar with
the Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA) of 1974.
FERPA, also called the Buckley Amendment, speciﬁes that parents of
children under 18 years of age may review the student’s school
records; however, the school must have parents’ written permission in
order to release information about a student’s educational record to
other sources.

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case studies: re

ﬂect and evaluate

479

Summary

Describe the ways assessment is used in educational decision making. Assessment data provide
information about individual students, quality of teaching, and effectiveness of educational
programs. Assessment can be used to diagnose student strengths and weaknesses, match students to
appropriate levels of instruction, and help students make appropriate educational and vocational choices
that match their skills and interests. It also is used to determine eligibility for admission to various
programs and to provide certi

ﬁcation of skills. Assessment helps determine the value and effectiveness of

instructional programs and provides direction for modi

ﬁcations that will better meet students’ needs.

Explain why developing an assessment plan is an important part of being an effective
teacher. A comprehensive assessment plan describes the learning objectives, time frame, and
types of assessment and evaluation for each lesson or set of lessons. Speci

ﬁcally, it indicates how often

assessments will be used, what typesof    assessments    will    be    used    (formal,    informal, formative,
summative,    authentic,    technology-based, tests, performance-based), how they will be graded, and how
the assessment data will be used to provide helpful feedback to students and to help teachers improve
their instructional practices.
Discuss the important considerations in determining grading procedures in the classroom.
Teachers have three different models to choose from as they assign grades: criterion-referenced,
norm-referenced, and growth-based    grading.    Teachers    also    must    decide whether to calculate

grades using a point system or a percentage system. Finally, grading procedures should be designed to
support students

’ motivation to learn and improve, with measures such as providing frequent

assessments with speci

ﬁc feedback.

Discuss different methods for communicating assessment information to parents and
students. Assessment information can be communicated to parents and students through report
cards that include speci

ﬁc letter grades, a rating scale for student behaviors, or a narrative description

of    student    progress.    Parent-teacher    conferences    allow    teachers    to    communicate exactly what
grades indicate in their classroom. In addition to report cards and parent-teacher conferences,
home-school communication may include weekly newsletters, information posted on a class or school
Web    site,    phone    calls,    or    notes    sent    to    parents    or guardians. All methods of communication
should be in accordance with the Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA) of 1974.

Key Concepts

assessment assessment plan authentic assessments criterion-referenced letter grades evaluation Family Educational

Rights and

Privacy Act (FERPA)

formal assessment formative assessment growth-based grading informal assessment measurement

narrative progress reports norm-referenced letter grades percentage grading system point grading system summative

assessment

Case Studies:

Refl ect and Evaluate

Early Childhood

“Education: The Zoo”

These questions refer to the case study on page 458.
1. Initially, this case might seem to have nothing to do with assessment. As you take a closer look, what types of

skills do you see an opportunity to assess?

  2. What steps did teacher Sanjay Baterdene take to collect and record assessment information?
  3. How can observation be used as a type of formative assessment?
  4. What kinds of documentation might be appropriate to use when assessing young children?

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case studies: re

ﬂect and evaluate

5. Would it be meaningful and/or appropriate to issue a report card
with letter grades to communicate assessment information about
these preschool children? Why or why not?
6. What are the advantages of providing a narrative report to
parents, especially when working with four- and

ﬁve-year-olds?

7. What evidence did you see that the teachers modi

ﬁed their plans

based on information gathered from informal observation of the
students? Why is this process important?
8. If Vivian Stanich, the more experienced teacher, wants Sanjay to
develop an assessment plan for the coming week, what advice
should she offer to guide him through the process of developing an
effective plan?

Elementary School:

“Writing Wizards”

These questions refer to the case study on page 460.

1. Does teacher Brigita Blaydes appear to have a well-designed
assessment plan in place with respect to writing skills? Explain your
answer.
2. Which assignments or activities in this fourth-grade classroom
might serve as sources of formative assessment?

3. Which activities serve as sources of summative assessment?
4. Describe the ways in which students are involved in the assessment process in
Brigita

’s classroom.

5. Students in this classroom correct their Grammar Slammer
sentences together as a class. Do you think it is necessary for Brigita
then to collect these assignments and record a grade for them? Why
or why not?
6. Referring to the standards for teacher competence in
assessment, which areas do you see as a clear strength for Brigita?
Explain your answer.

Middle School:

“Assessment: Cafeteria Style”

These questions refer to the case study on page 462.
1. How would you describe the purpose behind Ida

’s assessment approach?

2. Are the test option and the project option likely to be equivalent in
assessing how well students understand the content presented in the
ﬁnal unit of the semester? Explain your answer.

3. What conclusions about student learning will Ida be able to draw from the test
results?
4. What conclusions about student learning will Ida be able to draw from the
projects she receives?

5. How could Ida use the assessment data she gathers on the project/test option
to make decisions about the way she teaches? to make decisions about the
effectiveness of her assessment plan?
6. What options are available to Ida for determining grades to be given on the
project?

7. What are some ways information about the students

’

performance could be communicated to parents?

High School:

“Innovative Assessment Strategies”

These questions refer to the case study on page 464.

1. Referring to the descriptions of assessment practices in Joe

’s

memo, identify the practices that are examples of formative
assessment.

2. Referring to the descriptions of assessment practices in Joe

’s

memo, identify the practices that are examples of summative
assessment.

3. Which standard(s) for teacher competence in educational
assessment is Joe addressing in the memo?

4. How would you describe the purpose of the Senior Project used in Oregon?

5. In the New Hampshire humanities course, what advice would you
give the teacher about grading the students

’ work?

6. Give examples of ways teachers can communicate to parents the
assessment information described in the memo.

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