Pedagogical University of Cracow

Faculty of Humanities

Institute of Modern Languages

English Philology

Teaching Specialisation

Anna Gajda

Teaching Reading Comprehension in

Primary School

B.A.paper

written under supervision

of Mariusz Trawiński, PhD

Cracow 2011

Uniwersytet Pedagogiczny

im. Komisji Edukacji Narodowej

W Krakowie

Wydział Humanistyczny

Instytut Neofilologii

Filologia Angielska, Specjalność Nauczycielska

Anna Gajda

Nauczanie czytania ze zrozumieniem w

szkole podstawowej

Praca dyplomowa

napisana pod kierunkiem

dra Mariusza Trawińskiego

Kraków 2011

INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................... 1
CHAPTER I: THEORETICAL BACKGROUND ...................................................... 2

1.FOUNDATIONS OF READING ........................................................................... 2
1.1.LOWER-LEVEL PROCESSES .......................................................................... 2
1.1.1. WORD RECOGNITION ................................................................................. 2
1.1.2. ORTHOGRAPHIC PROCESSSING ............................................................. 3
1.1.3. PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSING ................................................................ 3
1.1.4. SEMANTIC AND SYNTACTIC PROCESSING .......................................... 4
1.1.5. LEXICAL ACCESS ......................................................................................... 4
1.1.6. MORPHOLOGICAL PROCESS .................................................................... 4
1.1.7. AUTOMATICITY AND WORD RECOGNITION ...................................... 5
1.1.8. CONTEXT EFFECTS ...................................................................................... 5
1.1.9. SYNTACTIC PARSING (WORD INTEGRATION) ................................... 5
1.1.10. WORKING MEMORY IN LOWER- PROCESSES .................................. 6
1.2. HIGH-LEVEL PROCESSES ............................................................................. 7
1.2.1. BUILDING A TEXT MODEL OF READER COMPREHENSION ........... 7
1.2.2. BUILDING A SITUATION MODEL OF READER INTERPRETATION7
1.2.3. ADDITIONAL HIGHER-ORDER PROCESSING COMPONENTS......... 8
1.2. APPROACHES TO TEACHING READING COMPREHENSION ............. 9
1.2.1. A SKILL APPROACH ..................................................................................... 9
1.2.2. A READING STRATEGIES APPROACH ................................................... 9
1.2.3. WHOLE WORDS APPROACH ..................................................................... 9
1.2.4. PHONICS APPROACH ................................................................................. 10
1.3. MODELS OF READING .................................................................................. 11
1.3.1. TOP-DOWN MODEL OF READING ......................................................... 11
1.3.2. BOTTOM-UP MODEL OF READING ....................................................... 11
1.3.3. INTERACTIVE MODEL OF READING .................................................... 12
1.4. ROLES AND PURPOSES OF READING IN 2ND LANGUAGE ................ 12
1.4.1. READING FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES ..................................................... 12
1.4.2. READING FOR GENERAL PURPOSES ................................................... 13
1.4.3. READING FOR PLEASURE ........................................................................ 13
1.5. TYPES OF READING ...................................................................................... 13
1.5.1. READING ALOUD ........................................................................................ 13
1.5.2. SILENT READING ........................................................................................ 14
1.5.5. SKIMMING .................................................................................................... 15
1.5.6. SCANNING ..................................................................................................... 15

CHAPTER II: PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING ......................................................... 16

2.1. LEARNING TO READ IN SECOND LANGUAGE...................................... 16
2.1.1. IMPACT OF READING IN L1 ..................................................................... 16
2.1.2. THE LEARNER'S KNOWLEDGE OF THE FOREIGN LANGUAGE .. 16
2.1.3. AGE OF LEARNER ....................................................................................... 17
2.2. STAGES OF LEARNING TO READ IN SECOND LANGUAGE .............. 17
2.2.1. THE INITIAL STAGES ................................................................................ 18
2.2.1. 1.ENVIROMENTAL PRINT ........................................................................ 18
2.2.2. THE LATER STAGES .................................................................................. 18
2.3. TEXT SELECTION .......................................................................................... 19
2.3.1. COMMUNICATIVE POTENTIAL OF TEXT ........................................... 19
2.3.2. LEARNING POTENTIAL ............................................................................ 20
2.3.3. AGE OF READER ......................................................................................... 20
2.3.4. TEXT DIFFICULTY ...................................................................................... 20
2.3.5. TOPIC .............................................................................................................. 21

4

2.3.6. READING SKILL .......................................................................................... 21

CHAPTER III: TEACHING TECHNIQUES ........................................................... 22

3.1. TECHNIQUES FOR BEGINNING READER ............................................... 22
3.1.1. LETTERS IN THE AIR ................................................................................. 22
3.1.2. PLASTICINE LETTERS............................................................................... 22
3.1.3. WORD SHAPES ............................................................................................. 22
3.1.4. WORD SEQUENCE....................................................................................... 23
3.1.5. RIDDLE TIME ............................................................................................... 23
3.1.6. SPEECH BUBBLES ....................................................................................... 24
3.1.7. MAKING GREETING CARDS .................................................................... 24
3.2. TECHNIQUES FOR LITERATE CHILDREN ............................................. 24
3.2.1. DATE PUZZLE .............................................................................................. 24
3.2.2. SECRET CODE .............................................................................................. 24
3.2.3. READING GRID ............................................................................................ 25
3.2.4. READ AND ORDER ...................................................................................... 26
3.2.5. GUESS AND FIND OUT ............................................................................... 26
3.2.6. TEXT TYPES .................................................................................................. 26
3.2.7. PROBLEM SOLVING ................................................................................... 27

Bibliography .................................................................................................................. 28
APPENDICES ............................................................................................................... 29
STRESZCZENIE .......................................................................................................... 32

1

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this paper is to present teaching reading comprehension in

primary school. It presents basics of reading process as well as principles of teaching

and lists techniques best for primary school students.

Chapter I provides a coherent and concise explanation of reading process. It

expains roles and types of reading as well as reviews approaches to teaching reading.

Chapter II is fully devoted to principles of teaching reading comprehension in

primary school. It provides simple rules about text and vocabulary selection and it

reviews difference and levels of reading abilities among young readers.

Chapter III demonstrates techniques used to teach reading comprehension in

primary school and which are recommended to specific age groups. This chaper

presents techniques of teaching reading divided accordingly to pupils level of literacy

and age.

2

CHAPTER I: THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

The first chapter focuses on fundamental processes in reading, namely lower-

level processes and higher-level processes. Together, they determine a cogent

explanation for how reading works. The chapter also includes types, roles, models and

approaches to teaching reading.

1.FOUNDATIONS OF READING

Reading is a complex process consisting of many component skills which

involves lower-level processes (word recognition, syntactic parsing,...) and higher-level

processes (building text model and situation model, etc).

1.1.LOWER-LEVEL PROCESSES

The term lower-level processes refers to a group of processes which have the

ability to become automatic. Thus lower-level processes are not undemanding and

effortless.

1.1.1. WORD RECOGNITION

Word recognition is now recognised as a major predictor of later reading

abilities as well as one of most important processes contributing to reading

comprehension (Grabe, 2009). However critics of cognitive research sometimes say that

word recognition is not reading comprehension. But what they do say is that fluent

reading comprehension is not possible without automatic word recognition which is

unique to reading (ibid).

Its importance for reading is hard to overestimate. When people read they focus

visually on almost all (about 80%) of the content words an about 50% of the function

words. People also recognize a word in less than 100 milliseconds. Keeping this in

mind, it is easy to see that a fluent reader can read a text at 250-300 wpm (ibid).

In order for fluent word recognition occur, a reader must activate

(subconsciously) links between the graphic form and phonological information, activate

adequate semantic and syntactic resources, recognize morphological affixation in more

complex word forms and access his or her mental lexicon. Fast and automatic word

recognition occurs only when visual input activates the reader's lexicon that has

information of four types: orthographic, phonological, semantic and syntactic (Grabe,

2009).

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1.1.2. ORTHOGRAPHIC PROCESSSING

An important component skill in reading is the visual recognition of word forms

from the text (Grabe, 2009). Namely, these forms include letters, groups of letters,

visual word shapes, and key shapes which are letter parts. In accordance with current

connectionist theories of word recognition, all of this data is processed concurrently.

Yet the fact remains, however, that there is a correspondence between time needed for

visual processing and the length of a word -the more letters in a word, the longer word-

recognition time (ibid).

In addition, orthographic processing involves larger letter groups that are highly

consistent e.g. -ache, -ight, -ogy, -able. Words read by sight (partially processed

phonologically) show that readers make use of orthography (ibid). This kind of

processing is also important for more complex words with more than one morphological

affixes e.g. un-believ -able. Knowledge of how words are built to form derived words is

a great contributor to vocabulary development and reading comprehension. In other

words the knowledge of graphic and morphological forms and how they may change

meaning is vital (ibid).

1.1.3. PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSING

Large majority of words build phonological activation prior to lexical access as

part of the process that includes interactions among orthography, phonology and

meaning (Grabe, 2009). At the same time, however, most words are processed while

reading, thus phonological activation of the form plays a crucial part. Considering that

phonological processing skills are early indicators of later reading progress, it is

apparent that phonological processing is a key to reading disabilities. In addition,

interventions to improve phonological awareness abilities lead to significantly improved

reading abilities (ibid).

Over the years as readers become fluent they develop phonological recoding

ability (ibid). Recoding ability consists of 2 components: decoding and encoding.

Decoding is a process of relating a word's written form with to its verbal form. Whereas

encoding is an opposite process in which the word's verbal form is encoded into a

written form. Phonological awareness is essential in both of these processes because

knowledge of sounds in words helps relate them to the letter sounds (ibid). Furthermore

this ability stops being a great source of distinct differences amid fluent readers.

4

1.1.4. SEMANTIC AND SYNTACTIC PROCESSING

It remains an open question whether semantic and syntactic information

contributes to lexical access (Grabe, 2009). It is agreed that this kind of information

becomes available after word recognition. Semantic and syntactic information make

contributions mainly through automatic spreading activation mechanism: namely, words

that are recognized prompt some activation to their semantic neighbours (similar

meanings or collocates). What is more after a related word is accessed it will be

activated by the association with an earlier word. This effect is called the priming effect

(ibid). Grabe (ibid) stresses that semantic activation processes are much slower than

phonological or orthographic processes and its effect is still less apparent in other

respects. Yet, they are observable among nonfluent readers and words that are difficult

to process.

1.1.5. LEXICAL ACCESS

In order to understand what lexical access is, firstly it is crucial to explain what

the mental lexicon, lexical storage and lexical entries are. According to Grabe (2009)

term lexicon refers to a systematic organization of word-stock, which is stored in the

mind in the form of individual lexical entries, also known as our mental dictionary.

Lexical entries are the datas stored in the mind with a regard to a specific word. In order

to recognition and comprehension words (lexical items) appear information about its

content is necessary. It is said that lexical entries consist of two types of information

that allows readers to recognize and understand words (ibid). This information includes:

−

content about the form (refers to phonological and morphological information)

−

meaning of lexical items(refers to the syntax and semantic information of lexical

entries).

1.1.6. MORPHOLOGICAL PROCESS

It is agreed that those readers with bigger knowledge of affixes attain better in

reading comprehension as well as in word-recognition measures (Grabe, 2009).

Simplicity with more compound and less common affixes develops through the school

years. Remarkably, researchers claim that derived words are 40% of readers' knowledge

of by 5

th

grade. The recognition of affixes helps to isolate the base form and reach

syntactic information.

5

1.1.7. AUTOMATICITY AND WORD RECOGNITION

All of aforementioned component processes required for efficient word

recognition depend on automaticity (Grabe, 2009). For fluent reading to occur, word

recognition skill must become automatized. The realization of the difference between

speed and automatization is crucial. The key distinction between them is that one cannot

stop themselves from carrying out or look into the process (ibid).

Automaticity is crucial when it comes to fluent readers. It is said that it is a way

to engage in multiple processes which occur almost simultaneously. However, it can be

achieved only by frequent practice of routine procedures to the point when one no

longer needs to attend the task itself. Mostly, automatization is the effect of processes:

attending, proceduralizing and then automatizing. In reading they are the effect of

thousands of hours of meaningful input. They do not place great demands on working

memory hence can be performed during focusing on other task (ibid).

1.1.8. CONTEXT EFFECTS

According to Grabe (2009) in normal reading conditions fluent readers do not

need context information for word recognition processes owing to the fact that the

context information takes some time while a fluent reader usually recognizes words in

about 200-250 milliseconds. But then it is a convenient help when reading slows down

due to processing difficulties, or a word is new, or ambiguous or not well acquired. In

such situations context brings additional information that might help with the difficulty.

One also should not overlook the fact that strong use of context is a feature of a weak

reader. The goal of word recognition processing is automatic recognition so cognition

can be focused on building on textual meaning (ibid).

1.1.9. SYNTACTIC PARSING (WORD INTEGRATION)

Both word recognition and syntactic parsing are subconscious processes

essential to comprehension (Grabe, 2009). One should not overlook the fact that

grammatical information from determiner, subordinate clauses, word ordering,

modality, tense, pronominal forms is constantly involved in comprehension (ibid).

What is more, many researches have shown that more complex sentences'

structures affect the time of reading processing. Remarkably, the basic meaning

structures also know as semantic proposition units cannot appear without the syntactic

parsing. Thus, defying the predicate, subject and object position can be determined form

syntactic parsing (ibid).

6

1.1.10. WORKING MEMORY IN LOWER- PROCESSES

Psychologists recognize two kinds of memory, that is, short-term memory also

known as working memory and long-term memory. All information that is received by

senses enters short-term memory and is held there shortly. By contrast, long-term

memory can store much larger quantities of information and information is held there

more permanently.

Working memory is the key to reading comprehension. The term working

memory in the context of reading includes:

-information (active for processing),

-the processing directions.

Thus working memory has active storage as well as processing functions. This

type of memory is limited in many ways i.e. limited capacity, limited links to long-term

memory and limited capability of performing multiple processes at the same time

(Grabe, 2009).

With respect to reading, working memory includes all activated and available

information for process of comprehension. This comprises:

−

information that is open to mental insight through reflection and conscious

attention,

- automatic processes which do not require much attention,

−

the diverse processing routines which can be correlated to this information.

The role of working memory in lower-level processing is support of

phonological, morphological and orthographic processes (storage and association of

activated words, storage of the relevant suppression of unwanted information). It is also

a base for higher-level text processing (ibid).

According to Baddeley Model of working memory, the memory is not single storage of

limited capacity. The memory consists of several subsystems which complement and

support each other work and at the same time work party independently. Working

memory consists of three main subsystems:

- the central executive,

- the phonological loop,

- the visuo-spatial sketchpad (Baddeley, 1997).

The central executive acts as supervisory system that manages flow of information from

and to its so called slave systems: the phonological loop and the visuo-spatial

sketchpad. The phonological loop deals with information based on speech whereas the

7

visuo-spatial sketchpad controls visual and spatial information (ibid).

Working memory accounts for understanding of reading above all other reading skills.

Not only it explains how reading comprehension works but also it shows how learners

vary in their reading comprehension abilities (Grabe, 2009).

1.2. HIGH-LEVEL PROCESSES

The higher-level processes contribute to comprehension. Namely, the ability to

match events in the text and create an understandable image of what the text is about.

1.2.1. BUILDING A TEXT MODEL OF READER COMPREHENSION

According to Grabe (2009) comprehension of a text begins from the first

processed words. However, creation of a general understanding requires more

processing information. Namely, a set of information from emergent proposition (with

active meaning elements linked into a network of ideas from textual input). The most

activated information matches the principal ideas. As i.e. a sentence is read new

proposals are active by allusion to some idea or element in the created network (ibid).

The new one may overlap with already present information -in this way it strengthens

and provides direct link in the network. What is more it may be extension of already

existing element or it may indicate contrast, example. As the network spreads, the less-

active elements often disappear. The principal goal of a text model is to represent the

information intended by the author of the text as well as possible (ibid).

1.2.2. BUILDING A SITUATION MODEL OF READER INTERPRETATION

Grabe (2009) states that he situation model refers to the reader's projection of

circumstances to which a text alludes. When reading begins, readers bring their own

information to the text processing: understanding of text structure, specific knowledge

and links to some previously read texts, attitudes toward the text, the writer, the

situation and the genre. This information builds the situation model of interpretation

(ibid). A second model overlaps the text model of comprehension. This model

“represents the mental circumstances generated in response to the text, or the

interpretation of the text, but not necessarily the specifics of the text model itself” (ibid:

43). Therefore the reader is able to discuss the text in terms of what the author wants to

convey and how he or she understands the text. During situation-model building a

number of factors are taken into account:

- purpose of reader,

8

- task expectation,

- genre activation,

- examples of similar stories,

- general background knowledge,

- assessment of importance, enjoyment value of information,

- attitude toward writer, story, genre, episode,

- conclusion necessary for interpretation (ibid).

The idea of a situation model is strictly tied up to the creation of a proper mental model

of a situation demonstrated in the text. The mental model is also responsible for what is

learnt and then transferred to long-term memory. It is also worth mentioning that

readers with limited lexical stock will over rely on a situational model because it

imposes some level of understanding on an interpretation. However, such readers will

not comprehend the text fully (ibid).

1.2.3. ADDITIONAL HIGHER-ORDER PROCESSING COMPONENTS

Grabe remarks (2009) that there are also additional higher-order processing

components that are crucial part of comprehension. More specifically, they are part of

working memory, as all aspects of comprehension processes are carried out in working

memory, i.e. the ability to suppress irrelevant information. It must comprehend:

attentional processes, especially while reading difficult texts and when learning or

assessing goals are crucial; goal setting, because it provides reasons for action and

based on aims, readers will decide what information is worth focusing on; strategy use,

strategies that people use to comprehend the text, i.e. focusing on the gist and skipping

unknown things (unfamiliar words); metacognitive awareness, the reader can devote

attention to determine whether or not comprehension occurred, the reading goals are

achieved, and linguistics resources can assist comprehension; and comprehension

monitoring, since all people are aware of their language comprehension from an early

age, it is part of the human survival mechanism to have a sound theory of the world

around us (ibid).

Comprehension monitoring, strategic uses as well as goal setting are closely related to

an individual’s effort to establish a proper standard of coherence. To be more specific

reader's standard of coherence is a way to determine the level of attention required to

ensure that a proper text and situation models are formed (ibid).

9

1.2. APPROACHES TO TEACHING READING COMPREHENSION

An elementary knowledge of different reading approaches is essential not only

in understanding reading process itself but also in connection with the teaching and

learning.

1.2.1. A SKILL APPROACH

A skill approach is the approach which sees learning to read as building up

discrete skills (Wallace, 2007). This approach states that reading is atomistic process

thus the text we are dealing with can be divided into learning chunks. Wallace (2007)

stresses the importance is on what is taught, rather than on how it is taught. Strictly

speaking, reading skills will be exemplified by using motor skills, differentiating

between shapes, patterns or phonics and word recognition skill (ibid). Nevertheless

there is a problem with teaching specific skills. Researchers have failed to set any order

of skills through which progress can be achieved in reading. As a matter of fact in the

case of young learners the skill relates to reading marginally, if at all.

1.2.2. A READING STRATEGIES APPROACH

The alternative approach to skill approach is a strategy approach (Wallace,

2007). This strategy-founded approach states that reading is unitary process thus cannot

be divided into component skills. Strategies involve ways of dealing with the text which

will differ according to the text, the reader's purpose and the context (ibid). The

strategies include: skipping unimportant words, guessing from context, not stopping

reading even if reader encounters decoding problem, reading in broad phrases.

Considering that through strategy approach young learners are encouraged to explore

features of English by experience rather than being taught about its rules it is not

surprising that this approach has many followers. Another feature of the approach is the

use of real-life print (letters, notices, articles, books, labels, leaflets, etc.). It is also

worth mentioning that the strategy-oriented approach concentrates on process of reading

as well as on its products (ibid).

1.2.3. WHOLE WORDS APPROACH

The whole-word approach, also known as key words approach, is a method of

teaching reading by introducing words to children as whole units. „It starts from word

level, with children looking at single words on cards (...) to encourage rapid whole word

recognition.” (Cameron, 2001:148) Easy sets of 5 or 6 words are taught, such as

10

'mummy'. Pupils practise them by saying aloud the word when they see the card, and

once the pupils become familiar with the set, they are introduced to new one. When

children mastered about 15 words, simple books with known vocabulary can be

introduced. This approach is also called 'key words' due to the fact that it teaches the

most frequently used words in English (ibid). The advantages of whole word approach

include:

-pupil practice fast recognition of words,

-pupils have motivation and a good sense of achievement by being able to read quite

early,

-this approach provides a resource of information on how letters combine into syllables.

Nevertheless one must realize that this approach has several drawbacks, namely:

-limited texts selection due to particular and fixed number of words

-most of frequent words are function words (were, are, for) which fail to carry clear

lexical meaning,

-after learning about 50 words it becomes impossible for a child to remember each

lexical item as a separate unit.

Cameron (2001) states that to achieve a progress in this method a child needs notice

regularities and patterns in learnt words (information about letter and sound and

correspondence between them). When literacy emerges, some pupils do this

automatically and those who cannot may need focused help.

1.2.4. PHONICS APPROACH

The phonic approach focuses on the correlation of the letters (graphemes) to the

sounds (phonemes). “The usual way involves showing children the sounds of different

letters in the alphabet, then how letters can be combined.” (Cameron, 2001:149) In this

manner, the literacy of a young learner is built from the bottom-up. Children begin with

sounds and learn which letters make them which is more natural for them (ibid).

Phonics approach is considered to be analytical process during which children analyze

the letters, letter blends, syllables in a word; in an effort to get:

-the sounds represented by the letters,

-the meaning of the text.

The advantage of the phonics approach is that it enables pupils to "sound-out" a word

they have in their speaking vocabulary.

However, this approach may be boring and demotivating for them and thus, should not

be done in isolation but rather as during other activities, such as story reading, song and

11

rhymes, recycling vocabulary or sentences writing activities (ibid). Other drawbacks of

this approach include:

-some very common words fail to follow common phonic patterns,

-there are many homonyms in English language,

-some phonics texts may be of low-interest for children.

1.3. MODELS OF READING

Singer and Ruddell (1985) see a reading model as an attempt to depict how an

individual perceives a word, processes a clause, and comprehends a text.

1.3.1. TOP-DOWN MODEL OF READING

The "top down" approach focuses on readers bringing meaning to text based on

their prior knowledge, common sense and intelligence (Dakowska, 2005). The readers

search the text for information and compare it to their world knowledge, helping to

make sense of what is written. The focus here is put on the readers and their interaction

with the text (Grabe, 2009).

This model is good for fluent readers:

-for whom perception and decoding have become automatic,

-they are able to see the overall purpose of the text,

-they see the writer's pattern of argument,

-they are able to interpret difficult parts of the text.

According to Singer and Ruddnell (1985) this approach has several advantages, namely:

-readers can comprehend a selection even though they do not recognize each word,

-readers should use meaning and grammatical cues to identify unrecognized words,

-reading for meaning is the primary objective of reading rather than mastery of letters,

letter/sound relationships, and words,

-reading requires the use of meaning activities rather than the mastery of a series of

word-recognition skills,

-the primary focus of instruction should be the reading of sentences, paragraphs, and

whole selections,

-the most important aspect about reading is the amount and kind of information gained

through reading.

1.3.2. BOTTOM-UP MODEL OF READING

The 'bottom-up' approach focuses on building up a meaning from the words on

12

the page: recognizing letters and words, working out sentence structure (Dakowska,

2005). This approach is essential on initial reading level. “Bottom-up processes are

initiated and dominated by the textual information on the printed page; the text form,

also referred to as the stimulus structure, is said to define the intention extracted from

the passage.” (Dakowska, 2005:192) Bottom-up approach advocates believe that the

readers need to:

-identify letter features,

-link these features to recognize letters,

-combine letters to recognize spelling patterns,

-link spelling patterns to recognize words, and

-then proceed to sentence, paragraph and text-level processing (ibid).

1.3.3. INTERACTIVE MODEL OF READING

An interactive reading model attempts to combine the specific advantages of

both, bottom-up and top-down models (Grabe, 2009). In another words, the interactive

reading model is the reading model that recognizes the interaction of bottom-up and

top-down processes at the same time during reading. Singer and Ruddnell (1985)

remark the fact that it attempts to take into account the strong points of the bottom-up

and top-down models, and tries to avoid the criticisms levelled against each, making it

one of the most promising models of reading. Worth noticing is the fact that the reader

provides input, and thus while interacting with the text, the reader is selective in using

just as little of the cues from text as necessary to construct meaning.

1.4. ROLES AND PURPOSES OF READING IN 2ND LANGUAGE

The purpose of reading is crucial. Readers must know what they want to get

from text. To achieve successful reading, readers must adjust processing the text in

such way that their purposes are obtained.

1.4.1. READING FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES

As many students learn language for particular purposes, reading for specific

purposes appears. Namely, it can be done for educational, professional or occupational

purposes (Grabe, 2009). In mentioned settings a great deal of reading must occur

because:

-learner not only reads texts but also interprets them accordingly to their goals,

-reader must be able to recall needed information.

13

This type of reading is usually relatively slow. Moreover, the reader has to carry out

several processes such as interpretation, evaluation, synthesis and elimination of

information. According to Grabe (2009) this type of reading often requires readers to

synthesize information form multiple texts. The level of difficulty increases when there

are several texts that refer to sought information but they represent contradictory datas.

In such situations reader must decide how to evaluate and prioritize information.

1.4.2. READING FOR GENERAL PURPOSES

Reading for general purposes refers to “everyday reading”. During a day we

encounter different types of text because messages and print is ubiquitous. We read

newspapers and magazines, flyers and advertisements, e-mails and text messages, tv

guides and web pages (Wallace, 2007).

1.4.3. READING FOR PLEASURE

Reading for pleasure is also known as light type of reading. Readers are able to

choose a pace at which they read, skip irrelevant passages and reread fragments. This

form of reading does not generally require detailed concentration. Reading for pleasure

occurs when one wants to expand his or her knowledge or culture, i.e. reading a novel,

magazine, article (Wallace, 2007). It usually occurs among fluent readers when

relaxing. Though it is called sometimes light type of reading it is by no means easy

reading. This type of reading is usually carried out over extended period of time and due

to less input of L2 than of L1 reading for pleasure in foreign language is difficult (ibid).

1.5. TYPES OF READING

In order to successful reading comprehension occur a reader must adjust

processing of text in such manner that goals are achieved. “Reading ability can be

improved by teaching, how to read for particular purposes.” (Alderson, 2000:397) Thus,

choice of type of reading is vital.

1.5.1. READING ALOUD

Reading aloud requires decoding the text into spoken language. This form of

reading fails in deep comprehension as readers are focused on transforming the written

material to the spoken one (Chodkiewicz, 1986).

However, reading aloud in foreign language has its beneficial side, i.e. learning

pronunciation, intonation and accent. Thus, this the most useful form of reading in the

14

early stages of languages acquisition (ibid).

Another type of reading aloud is choral reading. Choral reading is reading a

piece of text in a chorus. The advantage of reading in this way is that readers have

instant cues for words they may not recognize immediately. The aim of this form of

reading is to make letter sound and word identification quicker.

1.5.2. SILENT READING

After a long period of domination of reading aloud as important aspect of

learning to read a role of silent reading was appreciated and promoted to the vital

position of reading skill (Chodkiewicz, 1986). Silent reading relies on a direct

processing of visual form of text, which is without decoding it to spoken language.

Therefore it enables quick pace of reading. In school environment silent reading is

convenient when the aim is reading comprehension. Strictly speaking, during silent

reading readers focus on attaching meaning to graphic forms and comprehending the

reading material (ibid).

It is beyond doubt that silent reading is the kind of reading that is used in

everyday situation. In other words, reading aloud is vital in the beginning of learning,

while silent reading is beneficial for a lifetime.

1.5.3. EXTENSIVE READING

“The object of such reading is to cover the greatest possible amount of text in the

shortest possible time. A relatively low degree of understanding is perfectly adequate

for this” (Broughton, 2003:92) (global understanding). By pursuing the activity of

extensive reading rapid and efficient reading can be achieved. It is also worth

mentioning that this type of reading activity provides language input as well as source

of factual and cultural knowledge (Chodkiewicz, 1986).

1.5.4. INTENSIVE READING

“The concern is for detailed comprehension of very short texts. Intensive reading

is typically concerned with texts of no more than 500 words in length. The objective is

to achieve full understanding of the logical argument, the rhetorical arrangement or

pattern of the text, of its symbolic overtones or purposes of the author” (Broughton,

2003:93). It benefits in developing reading comprehension, reading strategies and

learning vocabulary. Both types of reading intensive and extensive complement each

other thus both of them should be practiced (Chodkiewicz, 1986).

15

1.5.5. SKIMMING

Skimming is looking over the text quickly to get a general idea of the content,

the structure of the text, the intention of the writer (Hrehovcik and Uberman, 2003).

Skimming as complex task requires the reader to organize and remember some of the

information given by the author, not just to locate it, such as getting the clues from the

structure of text (its appearance, the title, topic sentences, key words, subtitles,

conclusions, illustrations and photos). Since skimming requires greater fluency, it

should be introduced later (Dakowska, 2005).

1.5.6. SCANNING

Scanning is used to find a certain piece of information, such as a name, date, time,

formula, or phrase. Scanning is a useful type of reading in reading comprehension,

especially for second language learners to develop because they often do not require a

detailed reading of a text (Hrehvcik and Uberman, 2003). There are many everyday uses

for scanning, i.e. reading a schedule.

The first chapter has been focused on explaining reading process. Furthermore, it has

presented types, roles, models and approaches to teaching reading in English classroom.

The aim of next chapter is to present aspects and principles of teaching reading to young

learners.

16

CHAPTER II: PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING

The second chapter focuses on young readers. It will also provide clear insight into

factors that affect young reader's reading ability and discuss principles of texts and

vocabulary selection.

2.1. LEARNING TO READ IN SECOND LANGUAGE

Several factors affect an individual's ability to read:

-the nature of the written text of the L1

-the learner's experience in reading in L1

-the learner's knowledge of the foreign language,

-the learner's age.

2.1.1. IMPACT OF READING IN L1

There is an element of truth in the notion that development of reading skill in

second language is dependent on reading skill in first language. Accordingly children

are able to transfer L1 reading skill to the L2. Therefore some researchers encourage

speaking prior to reading, especially when learners are not literate in their first language

(Brewster, et al., 2010).

When learning to read in L1 was achieved, children develop several forms of

knowledge and awareness (awareness and knowledge about print, graphophonic

knowledge, lexical knowledge, syntactic knowledge, semantic knowledge). If a child

has managed to develop all of mentioned awarnesses in one language it is possible that

they will apply them to the new one. However, if learners are still learning to read in

their L1, too many reading demands should not be placed on them (Cameron, 2001).

2.1.2. THE LEARNER'S KNOWLEDGE OF THE FOREIGN LANGUAGE

Oral skills are crucial factors in learning to read in a foreign language (Cameron,

2001). One of them is phonological awareness which develops from oral activities

(rhymes, chants, songs). Yet another oral skill important for reading is vocabulary

knowledge. This kind of knowledge is important due to several facts:

- during reading out written words, familiar words speed up recognition.

-during reading a sentence, familiar words are easier to hold in short-term memory as

meaning is created.

Thus, if reader encounter unknown words in a text, its meaning need to be

17

explained sooner or must be obvious from its context (ibid). Last but not least,

pronunciation skill affects development of learning to read. Due to the fact that written

forms of words are changed into spoken words during the process of reading aloud, any

mispronunciation may lead to creating impediments in understanding. When learner

sees written words it facilitates proper pronunciation because of the presence of all the

letters of a given word (which may not be noticed during listening because some of

them are not stressed).

2.1.3. AGE OF LEARNER

Learning to read in a second language and first language reading experience

often starts at the same age. Yet the fact remains, however, that there are other mediums

that may make learning to read in a foreign language an individual experience for

children of different ages (Pfeiffer, 2001). The youngest pupils are starting to get know

how written texts work and accordingly they may not be able to realize the most basic

ideas about print and text. What is more, their attentional spans are also very limited.

Not to mention constraints of memory -children while reading a sentence by the time

they have reached the end may not be able to recall the beginning (Cameron, 2001).

Thus, at this level readings should be very simple (environmental uses of English texts,

reading words or sentences, tracing their names).

While teaching reading to children between ages of 6 and 9 years teacher may

use some methods used in teaching children for whom English is mother tongue. It is

also worth mentioning that in such cases extra emphasis should be put on these aspects

of English language which differ the most with pupils' native language (Brewster,

2010).

At the age of 10 years pupils' literacy in first language is solidly systematized.

Therefore reading in a foreign language can utilise knowledge and skill from first

language that can be transformed (sounding out words, dividing them into morphemes

or syllables). Also teaching at this age can use strategies that have not been used sooner

because they were too elaborate and difficult.

2.2. STAGES OF LEARNING TO READ IN SECOND LANGUAGE

Learning to read is a process that can not be rushed and none of its stages can be

omitted. During every stage different processes occur and thus, different methods and

techniques are used.

18

2.2.1. THE INITIAL STAGES

At the moment young learners are introduced to the English text they realize that

English spelling fails to help them in reading due to the fact that English is not a

phonetic language (Brewster, 2010).

The most popular and effective way of teaching reading is a balanced approach

which includes several methods. Namely, phonics, which focuses on learning sound-

letter correlation to achieve 'word-attack' skills and one that put emphasize on meaning

and word recognition.

The importance to use phonics method as well as extracting meaning has been stressed

by many researchers. Using only phonics method effects in reading aloud properly but

lacks in understanding (ibid).

Reading in English should be introduced after some spoken input, in this way it

is meaning based and not simply decoding. Thus the teacher should make sure that

reading is purposeful and enjoyable activity. Simple games, i.e. domino, bingo, puzzle

help young learner to become familiar with common letter clusters. At this stage of

learning learners rely more on pictorial information to understand the written message.

Gradually, the learners will become more confident and visual aids stop being necessary

(ibid).

2.2.1. 1.ENVIROMENTAL PRINT

Environmental print is the kind of print available in the local area or immediate

environment (the print on commercial signs, labels, T-shirts, flyers, menus, cereal

packages). Displaying environmental print in the classroom not only introduces students

to a wide variety of written messages but also have a concrete reference to everyday

print. Since the classroom where English is taught may be the only place where pupils

will be exposed to environmental print in English, teacher should make the most of it

(Brewster, 2010).

Another way of developing children's print awareness is functional print.

Functional print is the kind of gives pupils a reason to read by providing information

needed. This will include: flashcards, poster, lyrics, labels for equipment in the

classroom, center labels, schedules, routines, graphs, sign in sheets. Functional print

also provokes responses from children as it stimulates their interest, motivation (ibid).

2.2.2. THE LATER STAGES

As learners become more fluent in reading, the role of reading changes. Its

19

purpose is learning. They are exposed to the independent reading from a coursebook.

Through reading short stories, dialogues, descriptions pupils learn new vocabulary and

grammar. By reading they also learn how to learn (Brewster, 2010).

It is also worth mentioning that at this stage when pupils are given the purpose

of reading they will do it in a different way, i.e. if readers know that they are reading for

details they will read text carefully whereas when they are reading to get a gist they will

read it quickly. In this way readers develop strategies to help them understand and cope

with the text and deal with unknown vocabulary. More specifically these are: rereading

every paragraph to gather more datas, assessing importance of unknown vocabulary

(whether it could be omitted or not), using context clues, using dictionary for new

words, using knowledge how particular types of texts are composed (ibid).

At this level of reading, reading often becomes integrated with other skills (listening,

speaking or writing) (Komorowska, 2005).

2.3. TEXT SELECTION

In texts selection for reading activities in language classroom the most

important factor is the teaching aim (Hrehovcik, 2003). There are two types of texts:

-presentation texts,

-skill-practice texts.

The presentation texts are used to show a structure. These texts are usually non-

authentic, short and easy to understand and the target structure or lexical item is

repeated. Whereas skill-practice texts are used to practice and improve reading skill.

The texts are mainly authentic and are used to practice finding out information which

are not clearly stated (deducting). There are several factors that influence text

selection, namely:

-the level of communicative potential,

-the language learning potential,

-the age of reader,

-the text difficulty,

-the topic of the text,

-the reading skill level (ibid).

2.3.1. COMMUNICATIVE POTENTIAL OF TEXT

According to Dakowska (2005) in order to assess the communicative (also

known as interactive) potential of texts teacher should analyse it in respect of several

20

features, namely: type of communication situation, the purpose, the content area, the

genre, the style use of devices, the message, reference to learner's experience, the

learner's instant response, productive tasks that would follow the reading activity.

2.3.2. LEARNING POTENTIAL

The language potential also known as cognitive potential is connected to the

communicative potential of the text (Dakowska, 2005). Its function is storing the

language material and the information which the text contains. In order to assess the

text's learning potential several aspects must be taken under account: cultural and

factual information from the text, vocabulary that can be learnt from it, the text

structure, productive use of the form of text, i.e. especially in parallel writing task,

activities that will retain the material (ibid).

2.3.3. AGE OF READER

The age of readers is one of the most crucial factors that influence texts

selection in English reading class. The age is inseparable from learners' abilities and

interests (Pfeiffer, 2001).

Thus materials for pupils in primary school should be short, easy and should

not ignore the fact of enormous differences in psyche and development of young

learner. Therefore for children of 7-9 the most appropriate texts will be songs, rhymes,

tales; whereas for children of 10-12 years teacher may use longer text such as

descriptions, short stories, comic stories (Cameron, 2001).

2.3.4. TEXT DIFFICULTY

It is generally accepted that the task not the text should be proper to the

learner's level (Hrehovcik, 2003). However, there are some characteristic which may

make some texts more challenging than others despite its tasks. This includes:

- unfamiliar subject, topic

- unfamiliar genre

- texts with a lot of infrequent lexis

- long texts

- uncontemporary texts

- texts written in dialect, poetry (ibid).

21

2.3.5. TOPIC

It is mostly impossible to predict what topics learners want to read about due to

the fact that it is “rather pictures or pre-reading activities that motivate students to read

a text”(Hrehovcik 2003:194). Nevertheless there are certain topics that are highly

inappropriate in primary school such as politics, religion. There are specific features of

text that make it interesting:

- surprise - texts that state something unexpected are more interesting that those which

are completely predictable;

- teacher interest – if the text is boring for teacher it will be probably boring to learners

too;

- texts that relate to learners experience -such as personality quizzes, relating to

people, dilemmas;

- texts which students would read in their mother tongue;

- texts which are suitable for their age group (ibid).

2.3.6. READING SKILL

When approaching the topic of texts selection one must not forget about an

efficiency of readers. If learner still needs to practice the skills then texts should be

used. When teacher decides that students need to practice more a specific skill then

what they need is a text that is appropriate for that, i.e. description for skimming or

advertisements for scanning (Hrehovcik, 2003). Thus the text must be proper for the

skill that is trained. However, usually texts are used to train more skills at once, i.e.

skimming then scanning, scanning a deducting, etc. One also should not overlook the

fact that as interesting as text may be, a certain skill must be trained during reading

otherwise the text serves not much use in the reading class (ibid).

The second chapter has provided clear explanation of factors affecting young reader

ability to read as well as presented sets of rules in selecting proper texts for a reading

lesson.

22

CHAPTER III: TEACHING TECHNIQUES

This chapter will provide a set of techniques for reading activities. Moreover, the

techniques will be divided accordingly to learner's level in primary school.

3.1. TECHNIQUES FOR BEGINNING READER

“The learning of English by younger children is by no means as common as at

later stages and the nature of the younger learner probably affects content and methods

more than with other age groups.” (Broughton, 2003:166) The following activities are

intended to provide opportunities for the beginning learner to learn simple but basic

concepts, such as alphabet, shapes and sounds connected with letters, short utterances.

3.1.1. LETTERS IN THE AIR

This activity aim is to recognize the shapes of letters. The advantage of this

activity is to relate letters and sounds and develop pupils' motor skills.

After the teacher shows students a picture or a flashcard of a known word pupils

say out aloud the word and draw in the air the initial letter with their index finger. When

pupils recognized all the letters of alphabet or all the letters that the teacher wanted to

cover during one lesson the teacher may ask pupils if they can make up any other words

that start with the given letters.

3.1.2. PLASTICINE LETTERS

This activity concentrates on making letters of the alphabet out of plasticine. The

technique of ‘plasticine letters' is very similar to the previous one in identifying the

shapes of letters. This technique helps learners to memorize shapes of letters and also

develop their motor skill and hand-eye coordination.

In this exercise students are asked to form out of strips of plasticine the shape of

any letter they will choose, i.e. the initial letter of their first or last name. When they are

ready teacher collects all letter and asks students to read them aloud (all or pointed by

the teacher) or blindfolds students and asks them to try and identify the letters.

3.1.3. WORD SHAPES

The goal of this technique is to recognize the shapes of known words. The asset

of this technique is that “this activity helps to develop sight recognition of whole words

which are a familiar part of children’s vocabulary. It also draws children's attention to

the importance of reproducing stalks and tails of letters above and below the line in their

23

writing.” (Read, 2007:53)

In this technique children are asked to name, i.e. colours they know and to draw

a matching line between the name of colour and the shape (which is proper to write its

name inside it). This activity can be varied if children have crayons.

Figure.1.'Word shape' exercise (Read, 2007:53)

3.1.4. WORD SEQUENCE

The purpose of this technique is to deduce the pattern in word sequences.

In this activity teacher writes on a board a sequence of known words in a 1,2,1,2

pattern, i.e. shoes, boots, shoes, boots, ...,...., reads out them rhythmically and asks

children to join in and supply next positions. Then the teacher expands number of words

and repeats procedure. „Through reading the word sequences aloud in a rhythmic way,

children are helped to predict what comes next. The use of rhythm while reading also

helps children to memorize the written form of the words.” (Read, 2007:54)

3.1.5. RIDDLE TIME

The aim of this activity is to read and solve short riddles. In the exercise below

children read short riddle (about 3 sentences) and guess.

They can be divided into pairs and solve 1 or 2 riddles prepared by teacher on

A4 paper folded as shown on figure. The riddles should be all topic related, i.e. animals,

jobs, fruits, etc. This activity is really challenging for students so they participate

eagerly.

For this exercise see Appendix 1.

24

3.1.6. SPEECH BUBBLES

The aim of this activity is to read and match speech bubbles to characters in a

poster. Pupils work in pairs and from the set of speech bubbles they choose ones that are

appropriate for the situation on the picture, i.e. restaurant. To make the activity more

challenging and check if pupils understand short utterances one bubble can be extra.

This type of activity can be also done to create short comics or jokes.

3.1.7. MAKING GREETING CARDS

This technique is also called 'Read and draw'. In this activity students follow

simple written instruction to create a Mother's Day greeting card. Obviously, this type

of activity can be adapted for other occasions. The advantage of this technique is that it

develops intensive reading skill and develops motor skills.

For this activity see Appendix 2.

3.2. TECHNIQUES FOR LITERATE CHILDREN

The following activities are intended to provide opportunities for the literate

students to read longer text and acquire reading strategies, such as intensive reading or

developing comprehension.

3.2.1. DATE PUZZLE

This technique is very useful among children who can read. The aim of this

activity is to read a series of sentences and find out the date in a puzzle.

In this activity the teacher's role is to create a context for the puzzle, i.e. to find

out the date (teacher's birthday or of a secret spy meeting). Children are asked to draw

the calendar and read the clues given them by the teacher and find out the date. While

working with the youngest children the teacher should remember to work through

puzzle with them to model thinking. The asset of this technique is that the nature of this

puzzle makes reading at sentence level challenging, fun and purposeful.

For this activity go to Appendix 3.

3.2.2. SECRET CODE

This activity concentrates on developing familiarity with the alphabet. The

advantage of this activity is that it is very appealing to children and it practises reading

coordinated in a grid.

In this exercise the teacher presents a context for the activity, i.e. a gang has

25

stolen the Queen's jewels and the police have received a secret messaged which is

encoded. Children have to decode the message and help find the Queen's jewels. A grid

that shows how code works can be drawn on the board or be distributed among

children. The 'intercepted message' should be drawn on the board in upper case letters.

After pupils encoded the message they can work on creating their own secret message.

Figure.2.'Secret code' exercise (Read, 2007:58)

3.2.3. READING GRID

This is one of the most common and important techniques that checks students

ability to read for detail and provides basis for an oral activities.

In the exercise below students are to fill in the grid with information from a short

text. “(...) reading grid provides a flexible means of checking comprehension of text and

is easy to prepare.” (Read, 2007:62)

Figure.3.'Reading grid' exercise (Read, 2007:62)

26

3.2.4. READ AND ORDER

The aim of this technique is to read and order instructions. In this exercise

students are asked to read and order the instructions to make, i.e. vanilla fudge. They

simply number sentences that are jumbled. This activity is also useful in other contexts:

following certain steps (in shop), describing daily routines or an adventure.

Figure.4.'Read and order' exercise (Read, 2007:64)

3.2.5. GUESS AND FIND OUT

This technique motivates children to read because it makes pupils to predict or

guess whether some statements are true or not and then confront their guesses.

During this activity children should be divided into pairs. Their task is to decide

which statements are true and which are false and justify their choice. After expressing

their views they read the text to find out. “The true/false statements and class discussion

prepare the children for language they will reading the text and help to ensure that the

reading activity is focused and purposeful.” (Read, 2007:64)

For this activity see Appendix 4.

3.2.6. TEXT TYPES

This activity focuses on developing awareness of variety of text types and

noticing their distinguishing features. Children have to read several types of texts and

identify them (text messages, emails, newspapers, poems, menus, etc.). There are

several advantages of this technique, namely:

-it helps children to notice that there are various purposes for reading,

-every type of text requires different reading strategy,

-exposure to authentic texts.

27

3.2.7. PROBLEM SOLVING

The purpose of this technique is to solve easy mathematical problem. Students

have to read few sentences and try to solve it. To make it more appealing to them it

should have a short context of story. This activity develops their ability to read for detail

and deduct and think logically. Obviously, the level of difficulty of this exercise should

be adjusted to their actual arithmetical skill.

Figure.5.'Problem solving' exercise (Philips, 1993:54)

Summing up

This chapter has shown that chosen materials and techniques for children in

primary school should be enjoyable and interesting for them, so they will want to

participate in them. “Children have an enormous capacity for finding and making fun.”

(Halliwell, 1992:6)

28

Bibliography

Alderson, J. A.H. Urquahart. 1984. Reading in a Foreign Language. Longman

Baddeley, A. 1997. Pamięć poradnik użytkownika. Prószyński i S-ka

Brewster, J, G. Ellis and D. Girard. 2010. The primary English Teacher's Guide.

Pinguin English

Broughton, G. et al. 2003. Teaching English as a Foreign Language. Routledge

Cameron, L. 2001. Teaching Languages to Young Learners.Cambridge University Press

Celce-Murcia, M., L.McIntosh. 1989. Teaching English as a Second or Foreign

Language. Newbury House Publishers, Inc.

Chodkiewicz, H. 1986. O sprawności czytania w nauczaniu języka obcego. Warszawa:

WsiP

Dakowska, M.2005.Teaching English as a Foreign Language. Warszawa: PWN

Grabe, W. 2009. Reading in a Second Language: Moving from Theory to Practice.

Cambridge University Press

Halliwell, S. 1992. Teaching English in the Primary Classroom. Longman

Hrehovcik, T., A. Uberman. 2003. English teaching methodology. Rzeszów:

Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Rzeszowskiego

Komorowska, H. 2005.Metodyka nauczania języków obcych. Warszawa: Fraszka

Edukacyjna

Pfeiffer, W. 2001. Nauka Języków Obcych Od Praktyki Do Praktyki. Poznań:

WAGROS

Phillips, S. 1993. Young Learners. Oxford University Press

Read, C.2007. 500 Activities for the Primary Classroom. Macmillan

Singer, H., R.B. Ruddnell. 1985. Theoretical models and processes of reading. Newark:

International Reading Association

Wallace, C. 2007.Reading. Oxford University Press

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APPENDICES

Appendix 1. Riddle time.

Figure.6.'Riddle time' exercise (Read, 2007:60)

30

Appendix 2. 'Making greeting cards'

Figure.7.'Making greeting cards' exercise (Philips, 1993:159)

31

Appendix 3. 'Date puzzle'

Figure.8.'Date puzzle' exercise (Read, 2007:59)

Figure.9.'Date puzzle' exercise (Read, 2007:59)

Appendix 4. 'Guess and find out'

Figure.10.'Guess and find out' exercise (Read, 2007:63)

32

STRESZCZENIE

Praca ta ma na celu przedstawienie nauki czytania ze zrozumieniem w szkole

podstawowej. Prezentuje podstawy procesu czytania jak i zasady uczenia oraz

wymienia techniki, najlepsze dla uczniów szkoły podstawowej.

Rozdział I prezentuje zwięzłe wytłumaczenie procesu czytania. Tłumaczy

również role, typy, modele i podejścia do niego.

Rozdział II jest całkiem poświęcony zasadom uczenia czytania ze

zrozumieniem. Prezentuje proste zasady doboru tekstów jak i słownictwa i zwraca

uwagę na różnice pomiędzy różnicami i poziomami zdolności czytania uczniów.

Rozdział III przedstawia techniki używane do nauczania czytania ze

zrozumieniem w szkole podstawowej, które są dostosowane odpowiednio do wieku

uczniów. Rozdział ten również przedstawia techniki odpowiednie po poziomu czytania

uczniów.