Bulletin of the Section of Logic
Volume 11:1/2 (1982), pp. 84β87
reedition 2009 [original edition, pp. 84β88]
BogusΜ·law Wolniewicz
ON LOGICAL SPACE
1. Consider a classic propositional language πΏ. By the logical space of
πΏ we mean with Wittgenstein a metaphysical construction ππ comprising
all possibilities expressible in that language. These are situations, and π
β²
is
to be their totality. Thus, in a sense to be deο¬ned, every possible situation
is comprised in logical space:
β
πβπ
β²
π ββ ππ.
(1)
The situation presented by a proposition πΌ is π(πΌ). With Meinong
we call it the objective of πΌ. Objectives are equal iο¬ the corresponding
propositions are strictly equivalent:
π(πΌ) = π(π½) == πΌ β‘ π½.
(2)
If, however, πΌ is a contradiction, then it has no objective in π
β²
. To provide it
with one, the set π
β²
is argument with the impossible situation
β : π = π
β²
βͺ
{
β}. Thus π : πΏ β π is a function mapping propositions into situations.
2.
To deο¬ne our terms we start with a universe ππΈβ of elementary
situations. These correspond to conjunctions of atomic propositions; if
πΌ is such a conjunction, then for some π₯ β ππΈβ : π(πΌ) = {π₯}.
The
universe ππΈβ consists of two parts: of the set ππΈ of proper (=contingent)
elementary situations, and of the two improper ones: the empty one π, and
the impossible one π. I.e., ππΈβ = ππΈ βͺ {π, π}.
One elementary situation may obtain in another: π₯ β©½ π¦. This is a
partial ordering such that π β©½ π₯ β©½ π, for any π₯ β ππΈβ. Under it, ππΈβ is
a lattice. (Cf. (1)). The join π₯; π¦ = π π’π{π₯, π¦} corresponds to conjunction;
the meet π₯!π¦ = πππ {π₯, π¦} has no clear-cut counterpart in language.
On Logical Space
85
The minimal elements of ππΈ, if any, are logical atoms (or states of
aο¬airs).
The maximal ones are logical points (or possible worlds), and
logical space is the totality of them. I.e.: ππ΄ = {π} = π
π
, and ππ΄ =
{π} =
β. For any π€
π
β ππ the set π
π
= {π₯ β ππΈβ : π₯ β©½ π€
π
} is a maximal
ideal of ππΈβ. With Μ·LoΒ΄
s we call it a realization, and π is to be the totality
of them.
3. Situations are sets of elementary situations: π β π (ππΈβ). There are
several ways to determine π exactly, but the following is the simplest. Two
sets of elementary situations are said to be π -equivalent iο¬ they intersect
the same realizations:
π΄ βΌ
π£
π΅ ==
β
π βπ
(π΄ β© π = β β π΅ β© π = β ).
(3)
Situations are then the minima of the unions of π -equivalence-classes:
π = {π β ππΈβ :
β
π΄βππΈβ
π = π ππ(
βͺ
β£π΄β£
βΌ
π£
)}.
(4)
Under suitably deο¬ned operations (cf. [2]), π is a Boolean algebra. (π
π
is
its zero and the objective of tautology;
β is the unit). For any π΄, π΅ β ππΈβ,
we deο¬ne now:
π΄ ββ π΅ β
β
π₯βπ΄
β
π¦βπ΅
π₯ β©½ π¦.
(5)
Clearly, ββ
is a preordering, ππΈ ββ
ππ , and (1) is a theorem. This relation,
however, should not be confused with that of involvement β deο¬ned with
ββ©½β reversed β which is the counterpart of entailment, and the ordering of
the Boolean algebra of situations.
Taking the simplest case as an example, set ππΈ = β . Thus ππΈβ =
{π, π}, π (ππΈβ) = {ππΈβ, π
π
,
β, β }, and π = {π
π
}. Moreover ππΈβ βΌ
π£
π
π
, and
β
βΌ
π£
β . Hence π ππ(
βͺ β£ππΈββ£) = π
π
, and π ππ(
βͺ β£β β£) = β.
Consequently, π = {π
π
,
β}, i.e. there are in that case just two situations.
This is Frege, as interpreted by Μ·Lukasiewicz and Suszko. And, following a
suggestion by K. E. Pledger, the equation ππ = π
π
might be then taken
to mean that the logical space of πΏ is void of empirical content.
4.
Stipulating further conditions for ππΈ, or for ππ , gives rise to a
typology of logical spaces.
86
BogusΜ·law Wolniewicz
If every elementary situation is a join of atoms, i.e., if we have:
β
π₯βππΈβ
β
π΄βππ΄
π₯ = π π’ππ΄,
(6)
then ππ is said to be atomistic; otherwise β non-atomistic. An atomistic
ππ may be either dimensionally determinate, or indeterminate. It is de-
terminate iο¬ either ππΈ = β
, or the following holds: there is a partition of
logical atoms into logical dimensions such that in each possible world there
obtains exactly one atom of every dimension. I.e., if
β
π·βπ πππ‘(ππ΄)
β
π€βππ
β
π·βπ·
1
β
π₯βπ·
π₯ β©½ π€,
(7)
where β
1
β
π₯
β is the singular quantiο¬er.
A dimensionally determinate ππ is either zero-dimensional (if ππΈ = β ),
or one-dimensional (if ππΈ = ππ΄ = ππ ), or multi-dimensional (if ππΈ β= β
,
and ππ΄ β= ππ ). The zero-dimensional case is represented historically by the
ontologies of Logical Monism. The situation π
π
corresponds then to βthe
Oneβ of Parmenides, to βthe Substanceβ of Spinoza, to βthe Absoluteβ of
Hegel, and to βthe Trueβ of Frege. One-dimensional cases are represented
by Leibniz, by Laplace, and by modern possible-worlds semantics. The
multi-dimensional case leads to further subdivisions.
The logical dimensions of ππ are said to be orthogonal iο¬ the atoms of
diο¬erent dimensions are always composible; i.e., iο¬ we have:
β
π΄βππ΄
[
β
π₯,π₯
β²
βπ΄
(π₯ β= π₯
β²
β π·(π₯) β= π·(π₯
β²
)) β π π’ππ΄ β= π].
(8)
This is Logical Atomism, as propounded by Hume and Russell.
Now observe that each logical dimension consists of at least two atoms:
πππππ·
π
β©Ύ 2, for any π·
π
β π·. Thus a special case of an orthogonal, multi-
dimensional logical space is one with binary dimensions only: πππππ·
π
= 2,
for any π·
π
β π·. Marking then in each dimension one atom as βpositveβ,
one as βnegativeβ, we have: ππ΄ = ππ΄
+
βͺ ππ΄
β
. The dimensions being or-
thogonal, we have here also a one-to-one correspondence between ππ and
π (ππ΄
+
). Hence ππ΄
β
may be dropped, and so we arrive at the variant
of Logical Atomism represented by Wittgensteinβs Tractatus (1922). The
On Logical Space
87
elements of π4
+
are his βSachverhalteβ, and those of ππ are his βWahre-
heitsm¨
oglichkeiten der Elementars¨
atzeβ. Observe also that the former are
the βbasic particular situationsβ of Cresswellβs [3], and the latter are the
βπΏ-statesβ of Carnapβs [4].
Finally, the number of logical dimensions may be ο¬nite or inο¬nite. The
ο¬nite case has been investigated in [1] and [2], for logical spaces with or-
thogonal dimensions of an arbitrary cardinality.
References
[1] B. Wolniewicz, On the Lattice of Elementary Situations, this Bul-
letin, vol. 9 no. 3 (1980), pp. 115β121.
[2] B. Wolniewicz, The Boolean Algebra of Objectives, this Bulletin,
vol. 10 no. 1 (1981), pp. 17β23.
[3] M. J. Cresswell, Logics and Language, London 1973.
[4] R. Carnap, Introduction to Semantics, Cambridge Mass. 1946.
Institute of Philosophy
Warsaw Univeristy