Perfume

Perfume

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Perfume (disambiguation).

"The perfume of this winter - Vogue“;
poster by Jupp Wiertz, 1926/27

Perfume Bottles

Perfume (UK /ˈpɜr.fjuːm/ US /pərˈfjuːm/; French: parfum) is a mixture of fragrant essential oils or aroma compounds, fixatives and solvents used to give the human body, animals, food, objects, and living spaces "a pleasant scent."[1]

Perfumes have been known to exist in some of the earliest human civilizations, either through ancient texts or from archaeological digs. Modern perfumery began in the late 19th century with the commercial synthesis of aroma compounds such as vanillin or coumarin, which allowed for the composition of perfumes with smells previously unattainable solely from natural aromatics alone.

Contents

History

Main article: History of perfume

Egyptian scene depicting the preparation of Lily perfume, 4th century BC

The word perfume derives from the Latin perfumare, meaning "to smoke through". Perfumery, as the art of making perfumes, began in ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt, and was further refined by the Romans and Persians.

The world's first-recorded chemist is considered[by whom?] a woman named Tapputi, a perfume maker mentioned in a cuneiform tablet from the 2nd millennium BC in Mesopotamia.[2] She distilled flowers, oil, and calamus with other aromatics, then filtered and put them back in the still several times.[3] In India, perfume and perfumery existed in the Indus civilization (3300 BC – 1300 BC). One of the earliest distillations of Ittar was mentioned in the Hindu Ayurvedic text Charaka Samhita and Sushruta Samhita.[4]

In 2004 – 2005,[5] archaeologists uncovered what are believed[by whom?] to be the world's oldest surviving perfumes in Pyrgos, Cyprus. The perfumes date back more than 4,000 years. They were discovered in an ancient perfumery, a 4,000-square-metre (43,000 sq ft) factory housing at least 60 stills, mixing bowls, funnels, and perfume bottles. In ancient times people used herbs and spices, such as almond, coriander, myrtle, conifer resin, and bergamot, as well as flowers.[6]

Etruscan perfume vase shaped like a female head, 2nd century BC

In the 9th century the Arab chemist Al-Kindi (Alkindus) wrote the Book of the Chemistry of Perfume and Distillations, which contained more than a hundred recipes for fragrant oils, salves, aromatic waters, and substitutes or imitations of costly drugs. The book also described 107 methods and recipes for perfume-making and perfume-making equipment, such as the alembic (which still bears its Arabic name.[7][8] [from Greek ἄμβιξ, "cup", "beaker"][9][10] described by Synesius in the 4th century[11]).

The Persian chemist Ibn Sina (also known as Avicenna) introduced the process of extracting oils from flowers by means of distillation, the procedure most commonly used today. He first experimented with the rose. Until his discovery, liquid perfumes consisted of mixtures of oil and crushed herbs or petals, which made a strong blend. Rose water was more delicate, and immediately became popular. Both the raw ingredients and the distillation technology significantly influenced western perfumery and scientific developments, particularly chemistry.

The art of perfumery was known in western Europe from 1221, taking into account the monks' recipes of Santa Maria delle Vigne or Santa Maria Novella of Florence, Italy.[citation needed] In the east, the Hungarians produced in 1370 a perfume made of scented oils blended in an alcohol solution – best known as Hungary Water – at the behest of Queen Elizabeth of Hungary. The art of perfumery prospered in Renaissance Italy, and in the 16th century the personal perfumer to Catherine de' Medici (1519–1589), Rene the Florentine (Renato il fiorentino), took Italian refinements to France. His laboratory was connected with her apartments by a secret passageway, so that no formulae could be stolen en route. Thanks to Rene, France quickly became one of the European centers of perfume and cosmetics manufacture. Cultivation of flowers for their perfume essence, which had begun in the 14th century, grew into a major industry in the south of France.

Between the 16th and 17th centuries, perfumes were used primarily by the wealthy to mask body odors resulting from infrequent bathing. Partly due to this patronage, the perfume industry developed. In 1693, Italian barber Giovanni Paolo Feminis created a perfume water called Aqua Admirabilis,[12] today best known as eau de cologne; his nephew Johann Maria Farina (Giovanni Maria Farina) took over the business in 1732.[13][need quotation to verify]

By the 18th century the Grasse region of France, Sicily, and Calabria (in Italy) were growing aromatic plants to provide the growing perfume industry with raw materials. Even today, Italy and France remain the center of European perfume design and trade.

Concentrations and Terminology

Original Eau de Cologne flacon 1811, from Johann Maria Farina, Farina gegenüber

Vintage atomizer perfume bottle

Perfume types reflect the concentration of aromatic compounds in a solvent, which in fine fragrance is typically ethanol or a mix of water and ethanol. Various sources differ considerably in the definitions of perfume types. The intensity and longevity of a perfume is based on the concentration, intensity and longevity of the aromatic compounds, or perfume oils, used. As the percentage of aromatic compounds increases, so does the intensity and longevity of the scent. Specific terms are used to describe a fragrance's approximate concentration by the percent of perfume oil in the volume of the final product. The most widespread terms are:

There is much confusion over the term "cologne," which has three meanings. The first and oldest definition refers to a family of fresh, citrus-based fragrances distilled using extracts from citrus, floral, and woody ingredients. Supposedly these were first developed in the early 18th century in Cologne, Germany, hence the name. This type of "classical cologne" describes unisex compositions "which are basically citrus blends and do not have a perfume parent."[14] Examples include Mäurer & Wirtz's 4711 (created in 1799), and Guerlain's Eau de Cologne Impériale (1853).

In the 20th century, the term took on a second meaning. Fragrance companies began to offer lighter, less concentrated interpretations of their existing perfumes, making their products available to a wider range of customers. Guerlain, for example, offered an Eau de Cologne version of its flagship perfume Shalimar. In contrast to classical colognes, this type of modern cologne is a lighter, diluted, less concentrated interpretation of a more concentrated product, typically a pure parfum. The cologne version is often the lightest concentration from a line of fragrance products.[14]

Finally, the term "cologne" has entered the English language as a generic, overarching term to denote a fragrance worn by a man, regardless of its concentration. The actual product worn by a man may technically be an eau de toilette, but he may still say that he "wears cologne." A similar problem surrounds the term "perfume," which can be used a generic sense to refer to fragrances marketed to women, whether or not the fragrance is actually an extrait.

Classical colognes first appeared in Europe in the 17th century. The first fragrance labeled a "parfum" extract with a high concentration of aromatic compounds was Guerlain's Jicky in 1889. Eau de Toilette appeared alongside parfum around the turn of the century. The EdP concentration and terminology is the most recent. Parfum de toilette and EdP began to appear in the 1970s and gained popularity in the 1980s.

Imprecise terminology

J.B. Filz in Vienna. Perfumeries with long traditions, such as J.B. Filz, created their own scents.[15]

The wide range in the percentages of aromatic compounds that may be present in each concentration means that the terminology of extrait, EdP, EdT, and EdC is quite imprecise. Although an EdP will often be more concentrated than an EdT and in turn an EdC, this is not always the case. Different perfumeries or perfume houses assign different amounts of oils to each of their perfumes. Therefore, although the oil concentration of a perfume in EdP dilution will necessarily be higher than the same perfume in EdT from within a company's same range, the actual amounts vary among perfume houses. An EdT from one house may have a higher concentration of aromatic compounds than an EdP from another.

Furthermore, some fragrances with the same product name but having a different concentration may not only differ in their dilutions, but actually use different perfume oil mixtures altogether. For instance, in order to make the EdT version of a fragrance brighter and fresher than its EdP, the EdT oil may be "tweaked" to contain slightly more top notes or fewer base notes. Chanel No. 5 is a good example: its parfum, EdP, EdT, and now-discontinued EdC concentrations are in fact different compositions (the parfum dates to 1921, whereas the EdP was not developed until the 1980s). In some cases, words such as extrême, intense, or concentrée that might indicate a higher aromatic concentration are actually completely different fragrances, related only because of a similar perfume accord. An example of this is Chanel's Pour Monsieur and Pour Monsieur Concentrée.

As a general rule of thumb, women's fragrances tend to have higher levels of aromatic compounds than men's fragrances. Fragrances marketed to men are typically sold as EdT or EdC, rarely as EdP or perfume extracts. Women's fragrances used to be common in all levels of concentration, but today are mainly seen in parfum, EdP and EdT concentrations.

Flower from Kenzo

Coco Mademoiselle from Chanel

Tresor from Lancome

Poison from Dior

Solvent types

Perfume oils are often diluted with a solvent, though this is not always the case, and its necessity is disputed. By far the most common solvent for perfume oil dilution is ethanol like brandy, cognac, pisco, rakia and rectified strips or a mixture of ethanol and water. Perfume oil can also be diluted by means of neutral-smelling oils such as fractionated coconut oil, or liquid waxes such as jojoba oil.

Applying fragrances

The conventional application of pure perfume (parfum extrait) in Western cultures is at pulse points, such as behind the ears, the nape of the neck, and the insides of wrists, elbows and knees, so that the pulse point will warm the perfume and release fragrance continuously. According to perfumer Sophia Grojsman behind the knees is the ideal point to apply perfume in order that the scent may rise.[16] The modern perfume industry encourages the practice of layering fragrance so that it is released in different intensities depending upon the time of the day. Lightly scented products such as bath oil, shower gel, and body lotion are recommended for the morning; eau de toilette is suggested for the afternoon; and perfume applied to the pulse points for evening.[17] Cologne fragrance is released rapidly, lasting around 2 hours. Eau de toilette lasts from 2 to 4 hours, while perfume may last up to six hours.[18]

A variety of factors can influence how fragrance interacts with the wearer's own physiology and affect the perception of the fragrance. Diet is one factor, as eating spicy and fatty foods can increase the intensity of a fragrance.[19] The use of medications can also impact the character of a fragrance.[19] The relative dryness of the wearer's skin is important, since dry skin will not hold fragrance as long as skin with more oil.[18]

Describing a perfume

An original bottle of Fougère Royale by Houbigant. Created by Paul Parquet in 1884, it is one of the most important modern perfumes and inspired the eponymous Fougère class of fragrances.

Fragrance pyramid

The precise formulae of commercial perfumes are kept secret. Even if they were widely published, they would be dominated by such complex ingredients and odorants that they would be of little use in providing a guide to the general consumer in description of the experience of a scent. Nonetheless, connoisseurs of perfume can become extremely skillful at identifying components and origins of scents in the same manner as wine experts.[20]

The most practical way to start describing a perfume is according to the elements of the fragrance notes of the scent or the "family" it belongs to, all of which affect the overall impression of a perfume from first application to the last lingering hint of scent.[21][22]

Fragrance notes

Main article: Note (perfumery)

Perfume is described in a musical metaphor as having three sets of notes, making the harmonious scent accord. The notes unfold over time, with the immediate impression of the top note leading to the deeper middle notes, and the base notes gradually appearing as the final stage. These notes are created carefully with knowledge of the evaporation process of the perfume.

The scents in the top and middle notes are influenced by the base notes, as well the scents of the base notes will be altered by the type of fragrance materials used as middle notes. Manufacturers of perfumes usually publish perfume notes and typically they present it as fragrance pyramid, with the components listed in imaginative and abstract terms.

Olfactive families

Grouping perfumes, like any taxonomy, can never be a completely objective or final process. Many fragrances contain aspects of different families. Even a perfume designated as "single flower", however subtle, will have undertones of other aromatics. "True" unitary scents can rarely be found in perfumes as it requires the perfume to exist only as a singular aromatic material.

Classification by olfactive family is a starting point for a description of a perfume, but it cannot by itself denote the specific characteristic of that perfume.

Traditional

Opium by YSL, of amber or oriental fragrance class

A floral bouquet, Joy from Jean Patou

The traditional classification which emerged around 1900 comprised the following categories:

Modern

Since 1945, due to great advances in the technology of perfume creation (i.e., compound design and synthesis) as well as the natural development of styles and tastes, new categories have emerged to describe modern scents:

Fragrance wheel

Main article: Fragrance wheel

Fragrance Wheel perfume classification chart, ver. 1983

The Fragrance wheel is a relatively new classification method that is widely used in retail and in the fragrance industry. The method was created in 1983 by Michael Edwards, a consultant in the perfume industry, who designed his own scheme of fragrance classification. The new scheme was created in order to simplify fragrance classification and naming scheme, as well as to show the relationships between each of the individual classes.[24]

The five standard families consist of Floral, Oriental, Woody, Aromatic Fougère, and Fresh, with the first four families borrowing from the classic terminology and the last consisting of newer bright and clean smelling citrus and oceanic fragrances that have arrived in the past generation due to improvements in fragrance technology. Each of the families are in turn divided into subgroups and arranged around a wheel. In this classification scheme, Chanel No.5, which is traditionally classified as an aldehydic floral, would be located under the Soft Floral sub-group, and amber scents would be placed within the Oriental group. As a class, chypre perfumes are more difficult to place since they would be located under parts of the Oriental and Woody families. For instance, Guerlain's Mitsouko is placed under Mossy Woods, but Hermès Rouge, a chypre with more floral character, would be placed under Floral Oriental.

Aromatics sources

Plant sources

Citrus tree blossom

Resins in perfumery include myrrh. Myrrh from Oman.

Frankincense

Plants have long been used in perfumery as a source of essential oils and aroma compounds. These aromatics are usually secondary metabolites produced by plants as protection against herbivores, infections, as well as to attract pollinators. Plants are by far the largest source of fragrant compounds used in perfumery. The sources of these compounds may be derived from various parts of a plant. A plant can offer more than one source of aromatics, for instance the aerial portions and seeds of coriander have remarkably different odors from each other. Orange leaves, blossoms, and fruit zest are the respective sources of petitgrain, neroli, and orange oils.

Animal sources

A musk pod. Extensive hunting of male musk deer for their pods in recent history has resulted in the detriment of the species.

Ambergris

Other natural sources

Synthetic sources

Main article: Aroma compound

Many modern perfumes contain synthesized odorants. Synthetics can provide fragrances which are not found in nature. For instance, Calone, a compound of synthetic origin, imparts a fresh ozonous metallic marine scent that is widely used in contemporary perfumes. Synthetic aromatics are often used as an alternate source of compounds that are not easily obtained from natural sources. For example, linalool and coumarin are both naturally occurring compounds that can be inexpensively synthesized from terpenes. Orchid scents (typically salicylates) are usually not obtained directly from the plant itself but are instead synthetically created to match the fragrant compounds found in various orchids.

One of the most commonly used classes of synthetic aromatics by far are the white musks. These materials are found in all forms of commercial perfumes as a neutral background to the middle notes. These musks are added in large quantities to laundry detergents in order to give washed clothes a lasting "clean" scent.

The majority of the world's synthetic aromatics are created by relatively few companies. They include:

Each of these companies patents several processes for the production of aromatic synthetics annually.

Characteristics

Natural and synthetics are used for their different odor characteristics in perfumery

Naturals Synthetics
Variance Natural scents will vary from each supplier based on when and where they are harvested, how they are processed, and the extraction method itself. This means that a certain flower grown in Morocco and in France will smell different, even if the same method is used to grow, harvest, and extract the scent. As such, each perfumer will prefer flowers grown in one country over another, or one extraction method to the next. However, due to a natural scent's mixed composition, it is easy for unscrupulous suppliers to adulterate the actual raw materials by changing its source (adding Indian Jasmine into Grasse Jasmine) or the contents (adding linalool to Rosewood) to increase their profit margin. Much more consistent than natural aromatics. However, differences in organic synthesis may result in minute differences in concentration of impurities. If these impurities have low smell (detection) thresholds, the differences in the scent of the synthetic aromatic will be significant.
Components Contains many different organic compounds, each adding a different note to the overall scent. These naturally derived substances have a history of use, therefore it is easy to determine whether they are safe or not. Possible allergenic compounds. Depending on purity, consists primarily of one chemical compound. Sometimes chiral mixtures of isomers, such as in the case of Iso E Super.[27] Due to the almost pure composition of one chemical compound, the same molecules found diluted in nature will have a different scent and effect on the body, if used undiluted.
Scent Uniqueness Reminiscent of its originating material, although extraction may capture a different "layer" of the scent, depending on the how the extraction method denatures the odoriferous compounds. Similar to natural scents yet different at the same time. Some synthetics attempt to mimic natural notes, while others explore the entire spectrum of scent. Novel scent compounds not found in nature will often be unique in their scent.
Scent Complexity Deep and complex fragrance notes. Soft, with subtle scent nuances. Highly valued for ideal composition. Pure and pronounced fragrance notes. Often monotonous in nature, yet reminiscent of other natural scents.
Price

Dependent on extraction method. More expensive, but not always, as prices are determined by the labor and difficulty of properly extracting each unit of the natural materials, as well as its quality. Typically the relationship between, longevity of a perfume, cost and the concentration of essential oils follows the graph below:

This chart shows the typical relationship between price of perfume, its longevity and the concentration of essential oils.

[28]

 Dependent on synthesis method. Generally cheaper, but not necessarily. Synthetic aromatics are not necessarily cheaper than naturals, with some synthetics being more costly than most natural ingredients due to various factors such as the long synthesis routes, low availability of precursor chemicals, and low overall yield. However, due to their low odor threshold, they should be diluted when making a perfume.

Obtaining natural odorants

Main article: Fragrance extraction

Itar (herbal perfume) vendor on the street of Hyderabad, India. The perfumers due to their fine sense of smell and skill in smell composition can compose an original perfume for the customer if asked.

Before perfumes can be composed, the odorants used in various perfume compositions must first be obtained. Synthetic odorants are produced through organic synthesis and purified. Odorants from natural sources require the use of various methods to extract the aromatics from the raw materials. The results of the extraction are either essential oils, absolutes, concretes, or butters, depending on the amount of waxes in the extracted product.[29]

All these techniques will, to a certain extent, distort the odor of the aromatic compounds obtained from the raw materials. This is due to the use of heat, harsh solvents, or through exposure to oxygen in the extraction process which will denature the aromatic compounds, which either change their odor character or renders them odorless.

are re-collected through condensation of the distilled vapor.

Fragrant extracts

Essential oil

Although fragrant extracts are known to the general public as the generic term "essential oils", a more specific language is used in the fragrance industry to describe the source, purity, and technique used to obtain a particular fragrant extract. Of these extracts, only absolutes, essential oils, and tinctures are directly used to formulate perfumes.

Products from different extraction methods are known under different names even though their starting materials are the same. For instance, orange blossoms from Citrus aurantium that have undergone solvent extraction produces "orange blossom absolute" but that which have been steam distilled is known as "neroli oil".

Composing perfumes

Counterfeit perfumes

Perfume compositions are an important part of many industries ranging from the luxury goods sectors, food services industries, to manufacturers of various household chemicals. The purpose of using perfume or fragrance compositions in these industries is to affect customers through their sense of smell and entice them into purchasing the perfume or perfumed product. As such there is significant interest in producing a perfume formulation that people will find aesthetically pleasing.

The perfumer

Main article: Perfumer

The Perfume Maker, by Rodolphe Ernst

The job of composing perfumes that will be sold is left up to an expert on perfume composition or known in the fragrance industry as the perfumer. They are also sometimes referred to affectionately as a "Nez" (French for nose) due to their fine sense of smell and skill in smell composition.

The composition of a perfume typically begins with a brief by the perfumer's employer or an outside customer. The customers to the perfumer or their employers, are typically fashion houses or large corporations of various industries. The perfumer will then go through the process of blending multiple perfume mixtures and sell the formulation to the customer, often with modifications of the composition of the perfume.

The perfume composition will then be either used to enhance another product as a functional fragrance (shampoos, make-up, detergents, car interiors, etc.), or marketed and sold directly to the public as a fine fragrance.[20]

Technique

Paper blotters (fr:mouillettes) are commonly used by perfumers to sample and smell perfumes and odorants.

Although there is no single "correct" technique for the formulation of a perfume, there are general guidelines as to how a perfume can be constructed from a concept. Although many ingredients do not contribute to the smell of a perfume, many perfumes include colorants and anti-oxidants to improve the marketability and shelf life of the perfume, respectively.

Basic framework

Perfume oils usually contain tens to hundreds of ingredients and these are typically organized in a perfume for the specific role they will play. These ingredients can be roughly grouped into four groups:

The top, middle, and base notes of a fragrance may have separate primary scents and supporting ingredients. The perfume's fragrance oils are then blended with ethyl alcohol and water, aged in tanks for several weeks and filtered through processing equipment to, respectively, allow the perfume ingredients in the mixture to stabilize and to remove any sediment and particles before the solution can be filled into the perfume bottles.[30]

Fragrance bases

A "perfume organ", where perfumers play around with hundreds of essences, in Grasse

Instead of building a perfume from "ground up", many modern perfumes and colognes are made using fragrance bases or simply bases. Each base is essentially modular perfume that is blended from essential oils and aromatic chemicals, and formulated with a simple concept such as "fresh cut grass" or "juicy sour apple". Many of Guerlain's Aqua Allegoria line, with their simple fragrance concepts, are good examples of what perfume fragrance bases are like.

The effort used in developing bases by fragrance companies or individual perfumers may equal that of a marketed perfume, since they are useful in that they are reusable. On top of its reusability, the benefit in using bases for construction are quite numerous:

  1. Ingredients with "difficult" or "overpowering" scents that are tailored into a blended base may be more easily incorporated into a work of perfume

  2. A base may be better scent approximations of a certain thing than the extract of the thing itself. For example, a base made to embody the scent for "fresh dewy rose" might be a better approximation for the scent concept of a rose after rain than plain rose oil. Flowers whose scents cannot be extracted, such as gardenia or hyacinth, are composed as bases from data derived from headspace technology.

  3. A perfumer can quickly rough out a concept from a brief by combining multiple bases, then present it feedback. Smoothing out the "edges" of the perfume can be done after a positive response.

Reverse engineering

Creating perfumes through reverse engineering with analytical techniques such as Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC/MS) can reveal the "general" formula for any particular perfume. The difficulty of GC/MS analysis arises due to the complexity of a perfume's ingredients. This is particularly due to the presence of natural essential oils and other ingredients consisting of complex chemical mixtures. However, "anyone armed with good GC/MS equipment and experienced in using this equipment can today, within days, find out a great deal about the formulation of any perfume... customers and competitors can analyze most perfumes more or less precisely."[31]

Antique or badly preserved perfumes undergoing this analysis can also be difficult due to the numerous degradation by-products and impurities that may have resulted from breakdown of the odorous compounds. Ingredients and compounds can usually be ruled out or identified using gas chromatograph (GC) smellers, which allow individual chemical components to be identified both through their physical properties and their scent. Reverse engineering of best-selling perfumes in the market is a very common practice in the fragrance industry due to the relative simplicity of operating GC equipment, the pressure to produce marketable fragrances, and the highly lucrative nature of the perfume market.[30]

Copyright

Angel for men (A*Men) by Thierry Mugler

It is doubtful whether perfumes qualify as appropriate copyright subject matter under the US Copyright Act. The issue has not yet been addressed by any US court. A perfume's scent is not eligible for trademark protection because the scent serves as the functional purpose of the product.[32]

In 2006 the Dutch Supreme Court granted copyright protection to Lancome's perfume Tresor (Lancome v. Kecofa). The French Supreme Court has twice taken the position that perfumes lack the creativity to constitute copyrightable expressions (Bsiri-Barbir v. Haarman & Reimer, 2006; Beaute Prestige International v. Senteur Mazal, 2008).[32]

Health and environmental issues

Perfume ingredients, regardless of natural or synthetic origins, may all cause health or environmental problems when used or abused in substantial quantities. Although the areas are under active research, much remains to be learned about the effects of fragrance on human health and the environment.

Health

Immunological; asthma and allergy

Evidence in peer-reviewed journals shows that some fragrances can cause asthmatic reactions in some individuals, especially those with severe or atopic asthma.[33] Many fragrance ingredients can also cause headaches, allergic skin reactions[34] or nausea.[35][36][37]

In some cases, an excessive use of perfumes may cause allergic reactions of the skin. For instance, acetophenone, ethyl acetate[citation needed] and acetone[30] while present in many perfumes, are also known or potential respiratory allergens. Nevertheless this may be misleading, since the harm presented by many of these chemicals (either natural or synthetic) is dependent on environmental conditions and their concentrations in a perfume. For instance, linalool, which is listed as an irritant, causes skin irritation when it degrades to peroxides, however the use of antioxidants in perfumes or reduction in concentrations can prevent this. As well, the furanocoumarin present in natural extracts of grapefruit or celery can cause severe allergic reactions and increase sensitivity to ultraviolet radiation.[38]

Some research on natural aromatics have shown that many contain compounds that cause skin irritation.[39] However some studies, such as IFRA's research claim that opoponax is too dangerous to be used in perfumery, still lack scientific consensus.[40] It is also true that sometimes inhalation alone can cause skin irritation.

Patch test

A number of national and international surveys have identified Balsam of Peru, often used in perfumes, as being in the "top five" allergens most commonly causing patch test reactions in people referred to dermatology clinics.[41][42][43] A study in 2001 found that 3.8% of the general population patch tested was allergic to it.[44] Many perfumes contain components identical to Balsam of Peru.[45]

Before 1977, the main recommended marker for perfume allergy was Balsam of Peru, which is still advised. The presence of Balsam of Peru in a cosmetic will be denoted by the INCI term Myroxylon pereirae.[46] Because of allergic reactions, since 1982 crude Balsam of Peru has been banned by the International Fragrance Association from use as a fragrance compound, but extracts and distillates are used up to a maximum level of 0.4% in products, and are not covered by mandatory labelling.[45]

Carcinogenicity

There is scientific evidence that nitro-musks such as musk xylene could cause cancer in some specific animal tests. These reports were evaluated by the EU Scientific Committee for Consumer Safety (SCCS, formerly the SCCNFP [47]) and Musk Xylene was found to be safe for continued use in cosmetic products.[48] It is in fact part of the procedures of the Cosmetic Regulation in Europe that materials classified as carcinogens require such a safety evaluation by the authorities to be allowed in cosmetic consumer products.

Although other ingredients such as polycyclic synthetic musks, have been reported to be positive in some in-vitro hormone assays.,[49][50] these reports have been reviewed by various authorities. For example for one of the main polycyclic musks Galaxolide (HHCB) these reviews includes those of the EU Scientific Committee on Consumer Safety,[51] the EU's Priority Substances Review,[52] the EU Scientific Committee on Health and Environmental Risk [53] and more recently also the US EPA.[54] The outcome of all of these reviews over the past decade or so is that there is no safety concerns for human health. Reviews with similar positive outcome exists for another main polycyclic musk (AHTN) as well for instance on its safe us in cosmetics by the EU.[55]

Many natural aromatics, such as oakmoss absolutes,[39][56] basil oil, Rose oil and many others contain allergens or carcinogenic compounds, the safety of which is either gouverned by regulations (e.g. allowed methyl eugenol levels in the EU Cosmetics Regulation (Entry 102, Annex III of the EU Cosmetics Regulation.[57]) or through various limitations set by the International Fragrance Association.[58]

Toxicity

Certain chemicals found in perfume are often toxic, at least for small insects if not for humans. For example the compound Tricyclodecenyl allyl ether is often found in synthetic perfumes[59][60] and has insect repellent property.

Environmental

Perfume stall in Cairo

Pollution

Synthetic musks are pleasant in smell and relatively inexpensive, as such they are often employed in large quantities to cover the unpleasant scent of laundry detergents and many personal cleaning products. Due to their large-scale use, several types of synthetic musks have been found in human fat and milk,[61] as well as in the sediments and waters of the Great Lakes.[62]

These pollutants may pose additional health and environmental problems when they enter human and animal diets.

Species endangerment

The demands for aromatic materials such as sandalwood, agarwood, and musk has led to the endangerment of these species, as well as illegal trafficking and harvesting.

Safety regulation

The perfume industry in the US is not directly regulated by the FDA, instead the FDA controls the safety of perfumes through their ingredients and requires that they be tested to the extent that they are Generally recognized as safe (GRAS). Due to the need for protection of trade secrets, companies rarely give the full listing of ingredients regardless of their effects on health. In Europe, as from 11 March 2005, the mandatory listing of a set of 26 recognized fragrance allergens was enforced.[63] The requirement to list these materials is dependent on the intended use of the final product. The limits above which the allegens are required to be declared are 0.001% for products intended to remain on the skin, and 0.01% for those intended to be rinsed off. This has resulted in many old perfumes like chypres and fougère classes, which require the use of oakmoss extract, being reformulated.

Preserving perfume

Perfumes in museum

Fragrance compounds in perfumes will degrade or break down if improperly stored in the presence of:

Proper preservation of perfumes involves keeping them away from sources of heat and storing them where they will not be exposed to light. An opened bottle will keep its aroma intact for several years, as long as it is well stored.[20] However the presence of oxygen in the head space of the bottle and environmental factors will in the long run alter the smell of the fragrance.

Perfumes are best preserved when kept in light-tight aluminium bottles or in their original packaging when not in use, and refrigerated to relatively low temperatures: between 3–7 °C (37–45 °F). Although it is difficult to completely remove oxygen from the headspace of a stored flask of fragrance, opting for spray dispensers instead of rollers and "open" bottles will minimize oxygen exposure. Sprays also have the advantage of isolating fragrance inside a bottle and preventing it from mixing with dust, skin, and detritus, which would degrade and alter the quality of a perfume.

There exist several archives and museums devoted to the preservation of historical perfumes, namely the Osmothèque, which stocks over 3,000 perfumes from the past two millennia in their original formulations. All scents in their collection are preserved in non-actinic glass flasks flushed with argon gas, stored in thermally insulated compartments maintained at 12 °C (53.6 °F) in a large vault.[64]

Lists of perfumes

Further information: List of perfumes and List of celebrity branded fragrances

See also

Potpourri, by Edwin Austin Abbey, 1899

References

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. merriam-webster.com.

  Strathern, Paul (2000). Mendeleyev's Dream – The Quest For the Elements. New York: Berkley Books. ISBN 0-425-18467-6.

  Levey, Martin (1973). Early Arabic Pharmacology: An Introduction Based on Ancient and Medieval Sources. Brill Archive. p. 9. ISBN 90-04-03796-9.

  A.K. Sharma; Seema Wahad; Raśmī Śrīvāstava (2010). Agriculture Diversification: Problems and Perspectives. I. K. International Pvt Ltd. p. 140.

  Roach, John (29 March 2007). "Oldest Perfumes Found on "Aphrodite's Island""

 

. Archived from the original

 

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  "Ancient Perfumes Recreated, Put on Display in Rome"

 

. Fox News.

  al-Hassani, Woodcok and Saoud (2006) 1001 Inventions; Muslim Heritage in Our World, FSTC, p.22.

  M. Ullmann (1986), "AL-KĪMIYĀ", The Encyclopaedia of Islam 5 (2nd ed.), Brill, p. 111b

  E. Wiedemann; M. Plessner (1986), "AL-ANBĪḲ", The Encyclopaedia of Islam 1 (2nd ed.), Brill, p. 486a

  Henry George Liddell; Robert Scott, eds. (1897), "ἄμβιξ"

 

, Greek-English Lexicon (8th ed.), Harper & Brothers, p. 73

  Marcellin Berthelot (1889), Introduction à l'étude de la chimie des anciens et du moyen âge

 

, Steinheil, p. 164

  Compare: Pepe, Tracy (2000). So, What's All the Sniff About?: An In-Depth Plea for Sanity and Equal Rights for Your Sense of Smell, Our Most Neglected and Endangered Sense

 

. So Whats all the Sniff about. p. 46. ISBN 9780968707609. Retrieved 2015-07-11. In 1693 an Italian, Giovanni Paolo de Feminis created a fragrance called "Aqua Mirabilis". This fragrance was said to have therapeutic properties to aid with headaches and heart palpitations. It was designed as a non-gender aroma that would enhance one's mood.

  "A Brief History of Men's Cologne – Discover the History of Men’s Fragrances-COLOGNE BLOG"

 

. COLOGNE BLOG. Archived from the original

 

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  "Glossary (C)"

 

. The Fragrance Foundation. Archived from the original

 

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  "Scents from Vienna"

 

. wien.info.

  Berger, Paul. "Perfume 'Nose' Conjures Up Perfect Scents"

 

. forward.com. Retrieved 8 August 2015.

  Agata A. Listowska, MA and Mark A. Nicholson, ASO (2011). Complementary Medicine, Beauty and Modelling. Xlibris Corporation. pp. 153–4. ISBN 9781456888954.

  Turkington, Carol and Jeffrey S. Dover (2009). The Encyclopedia of Skin and Skin Disorders. Infobase Publishing. p. 148. ISBN 9780816075096.

  "Fragrance Info / FAQs"

 

. The Fragrance Foundation. Retrieved 7 November 2012.[dead link]

  Burr, Chandler (2003). The Emperor of Scent: A Story of Perfume, Obsession, and the Last Mystery of the Senses. New York: Random House. ISBN 0-375-50797-3.

  Perfume connoisseurs speak of a fragrance's "sillage", or the discernible trail it leaves in the air when applied. Fortineau, Anne-Dominique (2004). "Chemistry Perfumes Your Daily Life". Journal of Chemical Education.81(1)

  Edwards, Michael (2006). "Fragrances of the World 2006". Crescent House Publishing. ISBN 0-9756097-1-8

  "Coco Mademoiselle from Chanel"

 

. www.chanel.com. Retrieved July 2014.

  Osborne, Grant (1 May 2001). "Interview with Michael Edwards"

 

. Basenotes. Retrieved 17 December 2006.

  Zibetto, civet, civette, profumi animali, aromaterapia, feromoni, pheromons, animal, scents, perfumes, parfums animaux

 

  Aftelier.com

 

Archived

 

1 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine

  "Iso E Super®"

 

. International Flavors & Fragrances. 2007. Archived from the original

 

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  "Cost Curve"

 

.

  Camps, Arcadi Boix (2000). "Perfumery Techniques in Evolution". Allured Pub Corp. ISBN 0-931710-72-3

  Burr, Chandler (2008). The Perfect Scent: A Year Inside the Perfume Industry in Paris & New York. Henry Holt and Co. ISBN 978-0-8050-8037-7.

  Calkin, Robert R. & Jellinek, J. Stephen (1994). "Perfumery: practice and principles". John Wiley & Sons, Inc.. ISBN 0-471-58934-9

  David A. Einhorn; Lesley Portnoy (April 2010), "The Copyrightability of Perfumes: I Smell a Symphony"

 

, Intellectual Property Today

  Kumar P, Caradonna-Graham VM, Gupta S, Cai X, Rao PN, Thompson J (November 1995). "Inhalation challenge effects of perfume scent strips in patients with asthma". Ann. Allergy Asthma Immunol. 75 (5): 429–33. PMID 7583865

 

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  Frosch PJ, Rastogi SC, Pirker C, et al. (April 2005). "Patch testing with a new fragrance mix – reactivity to the individual constituents and chemical detection in relevant cosmetic products". Contact Derm. 52 (4): 216–25. doi:10.1111/j.0105-1873.2005.00563.x

 

. PMID 15859994

 

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  Deborah Gushman. "The Nose Knows"

 

. http://www.hanahou.com/

 

. Retrieved 7 May 2008.

  Apostolidis S, Chandra T, Demirhan I, Cinatl J, Doerr HW, Chandra A (2002). "Evaluation of carcinogenic potential of two nitro-musk derivatives, musk xylene and musk tibetene in a host-mediated in vivo/in vitro assay system". Anticancer Res. 22 (5): 2657–62. PMID 12529978

 

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  Schmeiser HH, Gminski R, Mersch-Sundermann V (May 2001). "Evaluation of health risks caused by musk ketone". Int J Hyg Environ Health 203 (4): 293–9. doi:10.1078/1438-4639-00047

 

. PMID 11434209

 

.

  Berenbaum, May (August 2011). "Furanocoumarins as potent chemical defenses"

 

Check date values in: |year= / |date= mismatch (help)

  Environmental and Health Assessment of Substances in Household Detergents and Cosmetic Detergent Products [1]

 

  EC.europa.eu

 

  Gottfried Schmalz, Dorthe Arenholt Bindslev (2008). Biocompatibility of Dental Materials

 

. Springer. Retrieved 5 March 2014.

  Thomas P. Habif (2009). Clinical Dermatology

 

. Elsevier Health Sciences. Retrieved 6 March 2014.

  Edward T. Bope, Rick D. Kellerman (2013). Conn's Current Therapy 2014: Expert Consult

 

. Elsevier Health Sciences. Retrieved 6 March 2014.

  T. Platts-Mills, Johannes Ring (2006). Allergy in Practice

 

. Springer. Retrieved 6 March 2014.

  Jeanne Duus Johansen, Peter J. Frosch, Jean-Pierre Lepoittevin (2010). Contact Dermatitis

 

. Springer. Retrieved 5 March 2014.

  M. H. Beck; S. M. Wilkinson (2010), "Contact Dermatitis: Allergic", Rook's Textbook of Dermatology 2 (8th ed.), Wiley, p. 26.40

  Scientific Committee on Consumer Safety (SCCS) | Scientific Committees

 

  http://ec.europa.eu/health/ph_risk/committees/sccp/documents/out280_en.pdf

 

  Schreurs RH, Legler J, Artola-Garicano E, et al. (February 2004). "In vitro and in vivo antiestrogenic effects of polycyclic musks in zebrafish". Environ. Sci. Technol. 38 (4): 997–1002. doi:10.1021/es034648y

 

. PMID 14998010

 

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  Schreurs RH, Sonneveld E, Jansen JH, Seinen W, van der Burg B (February 2005). "Interaction of polycyclic musks and UV filters with the estrogen receptor (ER), androgen receptor (AR), and progesterone receptor (PR) in reporter gene bioassays". Toxicol. Sci. 83 (2): 264–72. doi:10.1093/toxsci/kfi035

 

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  http://ec.europa.eu/health/ph_risk/committees/sccp/documents/out179_en.pdf

 

  http://echa.europa.eu/documents/10162/947def3b-bbbf-473b-bc19-3bda7a8da910

 

  http://ec.europa.eu/health/ph_risk/committees/04_scher/docs/scher_o_086.pdf

 

  TSCA Work Plan Chemicals | Existing Chemicals | OPPT | US EPA

 

  http://ec.europa.eu/health/ph_risk/committees/sccp/documents/out176_en.pdf

 

  Rastogi SC, Bossi R, Johansen JD, et al. (June 2004). "Content of oak moss allergens atranol and chloroatranol in perfumes and similar products". Contact Derm. 50 (6): 367–70. doi:10.1111/j.0105-1873.2004.00379.x

 

. PMID 15274728

 

.

  http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CONSLEG:2009R1223:20130711:en:PDF

 

  standards – IFRA International Fragrance Association – in every sense

 

  "Insect Repellents – PDF"

 

. Docstoc.com.

  "INSECT REPELLENTS – QUEST INTERNATIONAL B.V."

 

. freepatentsonline.com.

  Duedahl-Olesen L, Cederberg T, Pedersen KH, Højgård A (October 2005). "Synthetic musk fragrances in trout from Danish fish farms and human milk". Chemosphere 61 (3): 422–31. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2005.02.004

 

. PMID 16182860

 

.

  Peck AM, Linebaugh EK, Hornbuckle KC (September 2006). "Synthetic Musk Fragrances in Lake Erie and Lake Ontario Sediment Cores"

 

. Environ. Sci. Technol. 40 (18): 5629–35. doi:10.1021/es060134y

 

. PMC 2757450

 

. PMID 17007119

 

.

  "DIRECTIVE 2003/15/EC"

 

  1. Colton, Sarah, "L’Osmothèque—Preserving The Past To Ensure The Future", Beauty Fashion

 

Archived

 

2 April 2015 at the Wayback Machine

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