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victory over French knighthood at Courtrai was not their only success in open battle. Flemish militias won two of the four main clashes (Courtrai, 1302, and Arąues, 1303) while losing the others (Mons-en-Pevele, 1304, and Cassel, 1328).

The eąuipment available to militiamen varied according to the wealth of the commune, city or region. Generally speaking urban militias were better off than rural ones. Body armour was very rare in the i2th century, though wealthy citizens might serve as armoured cavalry. Mail hauberks became morę com-mon in the i3th century, but the majority still fought in ąuilted ‘old and blackened’ gambesons. Smali round buckler shields appear in late 13th and early I4th century sources, but some experts suggest that sword-and-buckler fighting was morę of a sport than a war skill. Surviving documents from French-speaking Liege, beyond the French frontier, specify the arms possessed by certain citizens. For example, in 1281 Simon Stourmis owned a fuli mail hauberk; while in 1311 a clerk named Jean Fabri had a smaller mail haubergeon, a perhaps metal-plated leather cuirie and a bascinet helmet with mail aventail. Many if not most of the guild-based militias of French Flanders are also known to have worn some kind of uniform in the i3th and i4th centuries, probably simple surcoats of a specified colour.

Engineers and commissariat

Although some cities were famous for the siege skills of their miners and sappers, professional engineers could also be counted among the ranks of mercen-aries, coming to particular prominence under King Philip II Augustus. Those operating Simon de Montfort’s massive stone-throwing trebuchets a few years later earned 21 livres per day—a huge sum even if it was divided among several men. Under Philip Augustus minarii who used picks to undermine enemy walls got 18 deniers per day, and pioneers, masons and labourers 15 deniers.

Such auxiliary services were generally regarded as part of an army’s commissariat which, by the late

Efhgy ofRaoul II de Beaumont, c.1220. This is one of the earliest mili tary efhgies in Europę and it portrays the Vicomte fully mailed but without a surcoat. His helmet is of the tali domed type with a rim band and a substantial nasal. (Musee ArcheoIogique, Le Mans, Cliche Musees du Mans)

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