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The Chateau de Couches, a smali French castle typical of the later years of the Hundred Years War. It has 13th century walls to which a tali 15th century keep and chapel have been added. (Author’s photograph)

1406 when the French attacked Calais with 3,400 men-at-arms, 710 carpenters for the siege engines, 1,860 pioneers to dig trenches or mines, 322 waggoneers and 49 gunners. The latter served 16 cannon from Bourges, three from Utrechi and others from Holland, Limburg, Brussels and Louvain, requiring 2,750 stone cannonballs and no less than 20,000 pounds of gunpowder.

Despite the steady increase and improvernent in gunpowder artillery traditional missile-throwing machines continued to be used throughout the 14th century; a large trebuchet was transported all the way from La Reole to attack English-held Bergerac in 1377. Powerful frame-mounted siege crossbows were probably mounted on top of towers, rather than inside them, as was specified in at least one ordnance signed by the senior French siege engineer Huges de Cardaillac.

Slei11 at arms

It had never been true that medieval fighting men relied solely on brute force and ferocity. Skill with weapons remained essential for a 14th-15th century man-at-arms (though wrestling sometimes seems to have been beneath his dignity). Indeed the knightly hero of Antoine de la Sale’s Le Petit fehan de Saintre was described as of slight build, lithe and light, athletic, strong and agile even in fuli armour, with rapid reactions. He used weapons with great dexterity and his riding skills enabled him to dodge and parry. Other sources indicate that the best sword-strokes were cut and reverse, though a knight should also be skilled at a downwards blow and thrust. On horseback the main target was an opponenf s head, and control of a horse during the confusion of a melee was essential, so as not to tire the animal and so as to get into a good attacking position.

The skills required of soldiers during the last phase of the Hundred Years War remained much the same. Jean de Bueil did, however, now write that when fighting of foot it was best to use the lighest armour consistent with adequate protection. He advised his reader to pace himself, maintain his composure and gain a psychological advantage by demonstrating confidence; but De Bueil also warned that it was easy to get out of breath if one’s visor was closed.

Less is known of the training and skills of common infantry, though in 1394 a law was passed in France banning all sports other than practice with longbows and crossbows. There seem to be no references to shooting competions with handguns in 15th century France, the earliest known competitions being in Germany, Switzerland and Italy.