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12.2.4.1 negotiation of meaning is to be understood as communicating ideas clearly, the way participants of conversation signal understanding, negotiation of meaning involves the following concepts:

a)    level of explicitness - the choice of expressions in the light of what our interlocutor knows, how much shared context there is, in conversation deciding who/what you are talking about;

b)    procedures of negotiation ■*- procedures which speakers 1'ollow to ensure understanding for example explaining meanings, asking for clarification, rephrasing, reformulating;

12.2.4.2 management of interaction — sińce people play roles in conversations and are not victimised by them, they have to fol Iow certain rules, management of interaction is the business of agreeing who is going to speak next and what about, the process involves:

a)    agenda management represents the right to choose the topie and the way it will be developed as well as how long the conversation should continue or who decides what you are talking about,

b)    turn-taking - decision when and how to say something during a conversation, who speaks and for how long, speakers indicate when they have finished speaking (based on Gough, Ch.: Teaching Speaking Skills, 11.12.1993; Johnson, K. and Johnson, H. eds., 1998).

Although routines vary in predictability, they are to some extent predictable. To give an example - phoning for train information or buying a newspaper, etc., are very predictable, whereas ‘catching up’ on news with friends, casual conversation with a stranger, etc. are largely unpredictable.

Negotiation of meaning takes place to reduce uncertainty, it is therefore morę likely to be needed during less predictable routines. The table below is aimed at showing not only activity types but also which of them involve the use of negotiation skills.

ACTWITY	AIM	FOCUS
Listen and repeat Drills(controłled to less controlled) Tre-communicatWe’ activities	Practice of language items	Accuracy Bottom-up
Communicative activities	Fluency practice	Fluency Top-down Negotiated - leamers must reach agreement Production and reception
Open discussion	Fluency practice	Fluency Negotiation not necessary -production and reception
Communicative skills activities	Communication skills practice	Focused on accurate and appropriate use of communication skills e.g. asking for clarification, closing a conversation

Negotiation of meaning takes place much morę often when learners have to reach consensus.

72.2.5. Communication strategies

While producing an utterance one might run into problems. Something, therefore, needs to be done to make up for the problem or clarify what was meant. There are certain possibilities of what language leamers can do to solve communication problems. To “bridge the gap between communicative needs and limited communicative resources, leamers may make use of communication strategies”. What this notion is understood to mean is “problem solving devices that leamers resort to in order to solve what they experience as problems in speech production and reception” (Fasrch, et. al, 1984:154). Those communication strategies used by the leamers to manage interaction can be divided into: achievement strategies and reduction strategies (based on Fasrch, et. al, 1984).

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