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There are two types of routines:

1. information routines - descriptions of people, places; facts; information content;

|a interaction routines - the relationship between two people; speaking is morę important than the information they are passing; it is less predictable although some formulaic expressions are used.

Nunan (1991:40), goes on to classify the former type as either expository (e.g. narration, description, instruction, comparison) or evaluative (e.g. explanation, justification, prediction, decision), whereas the latter is considered in terms of either service (e.g. a job interview, buying clothes, making a reservation) or social (e.g. a party, cinema ąueue, lesson break) (see the figurę belo w):

Expository: description, instruction, etc.

Information routines

m

Routines

\

Interaction routines

Evaluative: explanation, justification, etc.

Service: job interview Social: a party

It is easier to teach information routines sińce they are morę structured, however, most of our discourse is interactive and thus aims at maintaining relationships with others, e.g. telephone conversations, interviews, conversations at parties, to mention just a few. Ali of them are based on a sequence of types of terms one comes across in typical kinds of interactions.

12.2.3. Genres — discourse types

Genre is a type of discourse, both written and spoken, “recognised by a discourse community” e.g. lectures, conversations, speeches, notiees, advertisements, novels, diaries, shopping lists, each of which has its typical, distinctive features (either linguistic, paralinguistic, contextual or pragmatic) (based on Johnson, K. and Johnson, H., 1998). Genre is similar to routines, certain types óf discourse follow certain pattems, yet it is longer than routines. Conversations or monologues follow patterns and, to see how this happens, one must look at the whole text. This is in opposition to the view that learners move from discrete items (grammar, lexical items) to whole discourses, this belief / idea suggests that we can learn how to ‘do’ conversations. Some of the things we do as learners are:

—    echoing,

—    echoing and adding,

—    using formulae,

^śgr using gesture, intonation to ‘replace’ unknown elements,

—    using ‘partial’ sentences.

Different genres have different vocabulary, certain types óf grammar, so the kind of language used depends on the field it is used in.

By genre linguists also refer to a communicative event which has certain features common for that particular event, has a purpose / some set of communicative purposes and is “socially-constructed” (Nunan, 1991: 44).

The text (i.e. a piece of orał or written communication) produced by learners and its context can be discussed in terms of field, tenor and modę.

a)    field refers to what the text is about,

b)    tenor describes the relationship between text receiver and text producer, who is actually taking part in the exchange,

c)    modę either written or spoken, i.e. “the role assigned to language” (Nunan: 1991: 45).

12.2.4. Negotiation skills

Negotiation skills are utilised by language users to ensure better or proper understanding of their utterances and intended meaning. They consist of two important elements:

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