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The Basques, the Franco Years and Beyond

Autorzy Robert P. Clark

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brutality is encouraged and even protected. Confessions extracted under torturę are particularly common during States of exception. Persons have been imprisoned and tortured morę or less continuously for weeks on end without any charge being brought against them, without ever having been seen by a judge or having consulted with an attomey.

States of exception also lead to extra-legal violence by right-wing vigilante groups. Freed from government restraint, these groups have assaulted both political activists and ordi-

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ETA and the Challenge of "Direct Action"    171

nary citizens in the Street and in their homes, and have created their own "reign of terror" quite apart from what the police and the Guardia Civil were accomplishing with their offidal

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The Basques, the Franco Years and Beyond

Autorzy Robert P. Clark

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and the Guardia Civil were accomplishing with their offidal state-sanctioned violence. There are a number of these right-wing groups, but the most active in the Basque country has been the organization known as the Guerrilleros de Cristo-Rey (Warriors for Christ the King). Guerrilleros combine Catholi-dsm with a self-appointed mission to carry on the nationalist-Francoist crusade even after Franco himself is gone. They operate typically by attacking persons and other targets that support the political opposition in Spain. They have been espedally virulent in their attacks on separatism, both in the Basque provinces and in Cataluńa. Because these rightist groups have operated with impunity during States of excep-tion, there is no way of knowing how much damage they have done, or how many people have fled into exile to avoid their assaults. One account asserts that right-wing groups operat-ing in the Basque provinces committed 85 "actions" (including two that resulted in deaths of the victims) in the Basque country during the 18-month period following the State of excep-tion declared in the spring of 1975.¹³

It is impossible to calculate the impact of the State of excep-

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