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GONCEPT OF CONJUCALITY IN THE MAIIAIMARATA 25

chorcs in the field, faCtory and homc. By ihc scvcnlh ccnlury B.C. ihc maritime Irade via lhc Middlc Easl to Southern Europę was resumed. A eentury or two lalcr lhc iron ploughsharc was uscd widcly, lilling bccame easicr and yieldcd morę plentiful harvcsls with much less labour.

Surplus and conscqucntly, privalc property was gcncralcd through agricullurc and craftsmcn ’s labour. A seclion ol* privilcgcd pcople arose. Ali this had an unmistakable impael on woincn. “Woman was delhroncd by the advcnt of privalc property and her lot through lhc ecnlurics has been bound up with private property.’⁰⁴

Man’s, cspecially the prosperous, propertied man’s urge lor an hcir in a son bcgolten indubilably by him led to lhc curtailmcnt of the woman ’s freedom of movcmcnt. She had to submit to her husband in evcrylhing. A valid rcason is givcn why women arc to be honoured, if and when they arc honoured: “ Man allains ctcrnal hcavcn through sons and grandsons, this is the rcason why wives should be scrvcd, fed and prolccled. ”³⁵ Thus her ferlility assured the continuity of the linę, hcncc she was ‘honoured’. A ncw term of slandcr appeared ‘punarbhu \ ‘ she who forsakes her own husband in youlh and, aflcr living with others, rclurns to her husband is a ⁴punarbhu ', so also she is who forsakes a dead, impotent, fallcn or insanc husband and takes anolher’.³⁶ Sueh a woman is also ealled \rsalT, ‘she who forsakes her own buli (i.c., husband) and ycarns for anolher, she vcrily is a vrsalT, not the ⁴ sudra woman \³⁷ Allhough the Atri Saiiihita says magnanimously that a woman is not pollulcd by an illicit lovcr,³⁸ yet most others hołd different vicws: ‘the adullcrous wifc is callcd mahisf (shc-buffalo) and hc who condoncs this ollcncc is callcd mShisika. *^3Q Manu rounds this atlitude olT quitc neatly when hc says : ‘Through adultcry the wifc carns calumny, bccomes a vixcn in the ncxl lifc and suffers from foul discascs. ’⁴⁰

Rcgarding lhc husband’s dulics lowards his wifc we have somc lexts: ‘If a husband kills an innoccnl wifc, hc should perform the penance stipulatcd for killing a sudra.’⁴¹ This is one of many, many inslanccs whcrc the woman is cqualcd with the sudra. One tcxt directs the husband to be loyal to his own wite and shun others' wivcs.⁴² ‘Nolhing clse shortens a man’s lile as an allachmcnt for anolher’s wifc*.⁴³ Hcncc conjugal loyalty is givcn an ulterior motivc, sclf-intcrest. A list of sins ineludes forsaking one’s wifc.⁴⁴ ‘The adullcrous wifc should be confincd but fed. ’⁴⁵

Anolher lcxt says, ‘ the adullcrous wifc bccomes purified aflcr thrcc days.⁹⁴⁶ ‘The wifc is not separated from the husband through bcing ransomed or abandoned.'⁴⁷ ‘Parcnts, wifc and son may not be forsaken, the king should punish such an offender by fining him six hundred coins.’⁴⁸ “The husband should wait a ycar for a wifc who hales him, aflcr a ycar howevcr hc should end lhc relationship and should not livc with her.*⁴⁹ ‘A wife married with