Andrzej Diniejko

INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF LITERATURE IN

ENGLISH

What is literature?

Old book bindings at the Merton

College library

Books

•

”Books are the carriers of
civilization. Without
books, history is silent,
literature dumb, science
crippled, thought and
speculation at a
standstill.”

Books

•

A room without books is
like a body without a
soul.

Marcus Tulius Cicero (106-43 BC)

Writer, politician and great roman
orator.

Woman holding a book (or wax tablets).

Wall painting from Pompeii, before 79 AD.

Burgundian scribe (15th century). The depiction
shows the room's furnishings, the writer's materials,

equipment, and activity

In this woodblock from 1568, the printer at left is

removing a page from the press while the one at right

inks the text-blocks

Desktop publishing

Books on library shelves with bookends, and call numbers

visible on the spines

A user viewing an electronic page on an eBook

reading device

Read a book

What is literature?

Literature

•

Literature is imaginative
or creative writing.

Another definition of

literature

•

Literature is the creative
expression of individual
experiences preserved in
texts that have universal
appeal.

•

Why should we read
literature?

Why do we read literature?

•

Literature offers a
special kind of both
aesthetic and
intellectual experience.

Why do we read literature?

•

Through literature we are

relseased from the bonds of

everyday routine, and we

can make an imaginary

journey in time to different

more or less remote places,

or we can explore the

unknown aspects of life.

Why do we read literature?

•

Literature offers insight
into things we are hardly
aware of – and at the
same time – it provides
enlightenment and
enjoyment.

Why do we read literature?

•

Literature represents a
language or a people:
culture and tradition.

Why and how do people

study literature?

•

Is there a distinction between
literature that's worth studying
and literature that isn't? If
there is, how do we draw that
distinction?

Humanistic/liberal education

•

The study of literature or
literary study is an
essential component of
humanistic or liberal
education.

What is literature?

•

Since the word literature
comes from a Latin word
meaning ‘writing’, the
simplest answer would be
that literature is everything
that is written or printed.

•

The term ”literature” is used

to describe both written and

spoken material.

•

Broadly speaking, "literature"

is anything from creative

writing to more technical or

scientific works.

Definition

•

The term ”literature” is most

commonly used to refer to

works of the creative

imagination, including works

of poetry, drama, fiction, and

nonfiction.

Definition

•

Literature can be defined as
verbal art.

•

It's verbal, and it is art.

The implications of that

definition:

•

we acknowledge that we're
dealing with an art, which
implies that an artist (writer)
has constructed this end
product, which is now available
to its audience, and is meant
to strike that audience as
profoundly beautiful, or
meaningful, or (ideally) both.

The impact of literature

•

That impact is not just
intellectual; you don't just
think something is
profound; you feel it, too.

•

It moves you.

Discourse

Literature is a form of

discourse which is
constituted by such
features which differentiate
it from other discourses,
e.g. everyday speech or
scientific discourse.

•

Literature is a form of
discourse with intrinsic
elements:

•

style,

•

structure,

•

imagery,

•

tone,

•

genre.

‘Literature’ as imaginative

writing, which uses a
specific language distinctly
different from that of non-
literature

(e.g. scientific, business,

or documentary writing).

Connotation

•

A characteristic feature
of literature is the
widespread use of
connotations.

Connotation

•

Connotation is an implied
meaning of a word. Opposite of
denotation.

•

Example:
Good night, sweet prince, and
flights of angels sing thee to thy
rest (burial)

Horatio in Hamlet (V.ii.370-371)

Denotation

•

Denotation is the literal meaning
of a word, the dictionary meaning.
Opposite of connotation.

•

Example:
Good night, sweet prince, and
flights of angels sing thee to thy
rest (sleep).

Ambiguity

•

A word, phrase,
sentence, or other
communication is called
“ambiguous” if it can be
interpreted in more than
one way.

Ambiguity

•

Consider: ”Flying planes
can be dangerous.”

•

Ambiguous words: bank,
pupil, table, etc.

•

Syntactic ambiguity: ice
cream – I scream.

Literary/nonliterary

•

Can we distinguish between

a literary and non-literary

text?

•

These characteristic features

which distinguish literary

texts from non-literary ones

are generally referred to as

literariness.

Literariness

•

Literariness is the sum of

special linguistic and

formal properties that

distinguish literary texts

from non‐literary texts,

according to the theories of

Russian Formalism (Roman

Jakobson).

•

Literature makes a
peculiar use of
language. It transforms
and intensifies ordinary
language.

Literariness

•

The literariness of the
language of literature is
characterised by the
specific content and
form of the words used.

The functions of literature

•

an entertaining function,

•

an informative function,

•

an aesthetic function,

•

an intellectual function.

Reading

–

Reading as an active process

of the mind to get message

or information from text.

It involves:

•

a) understanding

(comprehension),

•

b) interpretation and

•

c) feeling

Appreciation of literature

•

The appreciation of
literature as an art
requires close reading -
a careful, step-by-step
analysis and explication of
the text (the language of
the work).

Analysis

•

An analysis may follow
from questions like, how
do various elements
work together to shape
the effect on the reader?

William Carlos Williams (1883 -

1963)

”This Is Just To Say”

I have eaten
the plums
that were in the icebox
and which
you were probably
saving
for breakfast
Forgive me
they were delicious
so sweet and so cold

What is literary analysis?

•

An analysis of a literary work may
discuss:

–

how the various components of an
individual work relate to each other;

–

how two separate literary works deal
with similar concepts or forms;

–

how concepts and forms in literary
works; relate to larger aesthetic,
political, social, economic, or
religious contexts.

What is literary analysis?

•

It’s literary

•

It’s an analysis

•

It’s--

•

An argument!

•

It may also involve research
on and analysis of secondary
sources.

How is a literary analysis an
argument?

•

When writing a literary analysis, you
will focus on specific attribute(s) of
the text(s).

•

When discussing these attributes,
you will want to make sure that you
are making a specific, arguable point
(thesis) about these attributes.

•

You will defend this point with
reasons and evidence drawn from
the text.

How is it “literary”?

•

Usually, a literary analysis
will involve a discussion of
a text as writing, thus the
term literary, which means
“having to do with letters”.

Concepts

•

This will involve the use of
certain concepts that are
very specifically associated
with literature.

Interpretation

•

Meaning created by the
author is processed by a
reader in the act of
reading.

•

This process is called
interpretation.

Important literary concepts

•

The Basics

–

Plot

–

Setting

–

Narration/point

of view

–

Characterization

–

Symbol

–

Metaphor

–

Genre

–

Irony/ambiguity

•

Other key

concepts

–

Literary theory

–

Literary

criticism

Literary criticism

•

The purpose of literary criticism
is to help the reader:

•

better understand a literary work
and its various implications,

•

better interpret literature,

•

appreciate and evaluate
literature.

How Can We Learn More?

•

There are various
handbooks of literary terms
available in most libraries.

•

There are numerous
introductions to literary
criticism and theory that
are widely available.

More basic concepts of literary

analysis and interpretation

•

Content and form * Tone

•

Theme * Atmosphere

•

Motif

•

Subject matter

•

Style

•

Setting

•

Plot

•

Characters

Setting

•

Setting: where (or when)
a story takes place. Often
the setting will be used to
create a mood (as in the
foggy London of Charles
Dickens’ Bleak House.

Plot

•

the arranging of the events in a
story.

•

A story can be told, for example,
in chronological order (from
beginning to end), or can start
with some significant event and
jump from event to event in any
order the tension and release.

Point of view

•

Point of view: who tells a

story and how it is told.

Point of view

A story can be told by a

narrator who is the main

character in the story (usually

an "I", or first person narrator),

it can be told by a secondary

character, or it can be told by

an omniscient narrator who is

not a character in the story

(often called third-person

narrator, or objective narrator).

Point of view

In some more modern

works, the narrator can
be a character who
doesn't have a clue as to
what's actually
happening.

An overview of stylistic

devices

•

Symbol (symbolism)

•

Metaphor

•

Epithet

•

Alliteration

•

Onomatopoeia

•

Oxymoron

•

Personification

Symbol

•

A symbol is a drawing,

shape, or object that

represents an idea, object,

or amount of something.

Symbol

•

The most common symbols are
letters, which are symbols of
words and sounds.

•

A symbol can be an actual
object, such as the crucifix (a
symbol of Christianity).

•

Symbols are used often in poetry
and other types of literature.

Symbolism

•

Symbolism is the applied
use of symbols: iconic
representations that
carry particular
conventional meanings.

Metaphor

Life’s but a walking shadow, a poor

player

That struts and frets his hour upon the

stage,

And then is heard no more: it is a tale
Told by an idiot, full of sound and fury,
Signifying nothing.

(William Shakespeare, Macbeth,

V. v. 5, 24-28)

Metaphor

–

All the world's a stage,

–

And all the men and
women merely players;

–

They have their exits and
their entrances;

William Shakespeare, As You Like It,

2/7

Examples of metaphors in

everyday speech

Children have an enormous appetite
for learning.

This information is difficult to
swallow.

A search engine is fueled by data.

Love is a flower.

The Internet is the information
superhighway.

Metonymy

•

Metonymy: the association
of one object with another,
e.g. “crown” may mean
kingdom; bottle means
wine; “I’ve drunk a cup”
(i.e. a cup of tea).

Metonymy

•

A metonymy is a figure of
speech where one
substitutes one word with
another directly related
word (from the same family.

Examples of metonymy

•

all hands on deck;

•

The White House supports
the bill

•

Lend me your ear.

Examples of metonymy

•

They gradually ascended for

half-a-mile, and then found

themselves at the top of a

considerable eminence, where

the wood ceased, and the eye

was instantly caught by

Pemberley House, situated on

the opposite side of a valley,

into which the road with some

abruptness wound.

Examples of metonymy

•

It was a large, handsome stone
building, standing well on
rising ground, and backed by a
ridge of high woody hills; and
in front, a stream of some
natural importance was swelled
into greater, but without any
artificial appearance.

Examples of metonymy

•

Its banks were neither formal

nor falsely adorned. Elizabeth

was delighted. She had never

seen a place for which nature

had done more, or where

natural beauty had been so

little counteracted by an

awkward taste.

Jane Austen, Pride and Prejudice, Chapter 43

•

Elizabeth's admiration for
the estate at length may be
interpreted as an indirect
way of describing her
positive feelings for Mr.
Darcy himself.

Oxymoron

•

Oxymoron: a combination
of two words whose
meanings are opposite,
e.g. awfully nice, sweet
sorrows, darkness visible,
little big man.

Examples of oxymoron

•

A Fine Mess

•

A New Classic

•

Accurate Horoscope

•

Adult Children

•

Adult Male

•

Advanced Beginner

•

Agree To Disagree

•

Airline Food

•

All Alone

•

All Natural Artificial Flavor

•

Alone In A Crowd

•

Almost Candid

•

Almost Done

•

Almost Exactly

Examples of oxymoron

•

Awfully good

•

Awfully nice

•

Awfully pretty

Examples of oxymoron

•

Adult children

•

Black snow

•

A Little Big Man

Synecdoche

•

Synecdoche is a trope
similar to metonymy in
which part is used to signify
the whole, e.g. a farm hand
means a farm labourer; sail
means ship.

Examples of synecdoche

•

Could you pass me a
Kleenex?

•

Poland won the football
match.

•

Periphrasis

•

Periphrasis: a stylistic
device which both names
and describes. For
example, instead of saying:
“women”, a poet may say
“the fair sex”; “the better
half” means wife.

Some other stylistic devices

•

Antithesis: „To err is human; to forgive,

divine.”

•

Epithet: an attributive characterisation

of a person, thing or phenomenon, e.g.

blue skies, morning dew, sweet smile.

•

Litotes: She's not a bad cook." ==>

She's quite a good cook.

•

Zeugma: when one word applies to two

different concepts, e.g. „She opened

the door and her heart to this boy.”

Cliché

•

Cliché (or dead metaphor);
an expression which lost its
originality by long overuse,
e.g. ”You mean everything
to me.”

Allegory

•

Allegory is a kind of

extended metaphor in

which an entire book,

poem, or story can

signify something other

than the actual story

that is being told.

Allegory

•

Many works of literature have
several levels of meaning. George
Orwells' Animal Farm, for
example, can easily be read as the
problems of a group of farm
animals, but it is also an allegory
of the political and social
changes that occurred in the
Soviet Union.

•

Many allegories are not so
obvious.

Anaphore

•

We shall not flag or fail. We shall go on to

the end. We shall fight in France, we shall

fight on the seas and oceans, we shall

fight with growing confidence and growing

strength in the air, we shall defend our

island, whatever the cost may be, we shall

fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the

landing grounds, we shall fight in the

fields and in the street, we shall fight in

the hills. We shall never surrender.

Winston Churchill

Irony

•

verbal irony,

•

irony of situation,

•

cosmic irony or irony of fate,

•

dramatic irony,

•

Socratic irony.

Verbal irony

•

In verbal irony we have a
discrepancy between the
meaning of what the speaker
says and what the situation
indicates the speaker means by
it.

•

It rains cats and dogs] ”Oh,
what a lovely day for a stroll."

Dramatic irony

•

In dramatic irony we have a
discrepancy between a
speaker's understanding of
the full situation and the
situation as some audience
understands it.

Situational irony

•

In Noel Coward's movie
Cavalcade, extremely happy
honeymooners wonder how
long their joy will last. The
camera pulls back to reveal
a life preserver stenciled
“RMS Titanic.”

Socratic irony

•

Socratic irony takes place
when someone (classically a
teacher) pretends to be foolish
or ignorant, to expose the
ignorance of another (and the
teaching-audience, but not the
student-victim, realizes the
teacher's plot).

Satire

•

Satire (from Latin satura -

a medley) - a form of

writing whose main aim is

to expose human follies

and vices, ridicule and

scorn people, institutions

or events and customs.

Satire

•

Satire may be an independent
literary form or it may appear
in other forms of literature,
both in verse and prose. Direct
satire openly ridicules its object
whereas indirect satire, often
found in poetry and prose, has
to be deduced by the reader.

Genres

•

Genre denotes a category,
class, type or structural form
of literary works. The classical
literary genres, established by
Aristotle in his Poetics and
reinforced by Horace, included
epic, lyric, comedy, tragedy
and satire.

Genres

•

A precise assessment of the
genre of certain literary
texts may be very difficult
and confusing.

•

In some literary texts,
particularly in prose fiction,
diverse genres may coexist.

•

There are many types, or genres,
of literature. We often think of
poetry, prose, and drama, and
each of these genres, can be
broken down into more specific
forms, such as comedy, tragedy,
epic, science fiction, romance,
mystery and satire.