19

Defining Student Misbehavior

ⁿ Degrees and Types of Misbehavior

ⁿ Common Causes of Misbehavior

M O D U L E

Understanding and Managing Student Behavior

Outline Learning Goals

Summary Key Concepts Case Studies: Reflect and Evaluate

How to Handle Specific Misbehaviors

ⁿ Routine Disruptions

ⁿ Intermediate Concerns

ⁿ Immoral Behaviors

ⁿ Dangerous Behaviors

1. Define misbehavior and identify the various causes of misbehavior.

General Ways to Address Behavior

Management

ⁿ Establish Clear, Positive Expectations for

Behavior

ⁿ Model and Reinforce Desired Behaviors

ⁿ Anticipate and Prevent Potential Behavior

Problems

ⁿ Teach Self-regulation Skills

ⁿ Respond Effectively to Behavior Problems As

They Occur

2. Discuss five proactive ways to address behavior management issues in the classroom.

3. Summarize important considerations in responding to mild, moderate, and severe misbehaviors.

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module nineteen understanding and managing student behavior 341

Numerous studies identify discipline problems as one of the biggest concerns in education. Over the years, this concern has been reflected in polls of public opinion (Rose & Gallup, 1999), as well as in reports from teachers (Curwin, 1992; Greenlee & Ogletree, 1993; Marshall, 2002; Micklo, 1993). Teachers report that misbehavior is their primary source of career-based stress, often leading to symptoms such as lethargy, exhaustion, tension, depression, and high blood pressure (Charles, 1999). Former teachers give student misbehavior as the number one reason they left the field (Luekens, Lyter, & Fox, 2004; Osborn, 2006). Urban, rural, and minority communities are hardest hit by the high rate of teacher attrition (National Commission on Teaching and America’s Future, 2003). Also, experienced teachers often try to transfer away from schools with high levels of misbehavior, leaving those schools in the hands of less experienced teachers who have not yet developed strong discipline skills (Charles, 1999).

DEFINING STUDENT MISBEHAVIOR

Misbehavior can be any student behavior that disrupts the learning environment in the classroom, including behavior that (Levin & Nolan, 2000):

n interferes with teaching,

n interferes with the rights of others to learn,

n is psychologically or physically unsafe, or

n destroys property.

Degrees and Types of Misbehavior

A teacher notices that one of her students is staring off into space during individual seat work. Is this misbehavior? While it is not disrupting the work of others or harming other students, it may indicate that the student is off-task. This student could be daydreaming or simply pausing to think about how to answer the next question on the assignment. Even if the student clearly is off-task, the teacher probably will address this behavior differently than an incident in which a student is distracting others or engaging in violent behavior. Teachers must be able to distinguish the type and severity of different behaviors in order to know whether, and how, to intervene. Behaviors that may seem quite similar will elicit different reactions from teachers depending on the particular student involved, the time, or the context in which the behavior occurs (Burden, 2003; Doyle, 1986). Teachers’ expectations for student behavior may vary depending on the time and setting (Carter, 1985). For example, talking with peers may be unacceptable when students are taking an exam, but it may be perfectly acceptable when they are working in cooperative learning groups.

Misbehavior can range from mildly to severely disruptive (Burden, 2003). Teachers frequently classify misbehaviors into three main categories:

1. Mild misbehaviors generally are related to a student’s being too noisy and/or off-task.
2. Moderate misbehaviors, such as arguing or clowning around, are slightly more serious and are likely to disrupt the learning of others.

3. Intolerable behaviors involve dangerous or immoral actions that absolutely will not be tolerated under any circumstance.

Examples of student misbehavior in each of these three categories can be found in Table 19.1.

While teachers may express their greatest anxiety about having to deal with more serious mis-behaviors such as aggression, immorality, or defiance, the less serious misbehaviors occur more frequently and waste valuable instruction time.
Some isolated off-task behaviors may seem harmless but, if left unchecked, can lead to a chaotic and unproductive classroom environment that interferes with learning (Canter & Canter, 1992;
Canter & Canter, 1998).

Module 19 :

Understanding

and

Managing Student Behavior

,

Mild, Moderate, or Intolerable? Student misbehavior disrupts the learning environment.

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342 cluster six classroom management and instruction

TA B L E 1 9 .1 Various Degrees of Misbehavior in the Classroom Mild misbehaviors Serious misbehaviors Intolerable misbehaviors

ⁿ Getting out of seat without permission

n Not doing assigned tasks

n Dawdling

n Daydreaming

n Sleeping in class

n Occasional tardiness

n Immoral behaviors: cheating, lying, stealing, vandalism

n Aggressive or violent behaviors (verbal or physical attacks)

n Bullying

n Substance abuse

n Harassment of teacher or students

n Openly defiant behaviors

n Challenging the teacher’s authority

n Leaving school grounds without permission

n Failing to do what the teacher asks

n Talking loudly

n Calling out

n Walking around the room

n Tossing objects

n Clowning around

n Making rude sounds

n Arguing

n Not listening

n Teasing

Common Causes of Misbehavior

Students may misbehave at school for hundreds of potential reasons, including (Curwin & Mendler, 1999):

n boredom,

n feelings of powerlessness,

n unclear limits,

n a lack of appropriate outlets for their feelings, and

n attacks on their sense of dignity.

Behavior is not caused entirely by internal or external factors; rather, it results from the interaction between the person and the environment (Burden, 2003), including developmental, physical, psychosocial, and other environmental factors.

Developmental factors: One source of potential behavior problems at school involves developmental factors. At the early childhood level, young children are just learning about appropriate classroom behavior and expectations. They may show higher anxiety levels about being in school, especially if being away from home for several hours a day is a new experience for them. Teachers can respond to these developmental characteristics by explicitly teaching students what behaviors are acceptable and unacceptable and by providing a nurturing environment that eases the transition from home to school and builds connections with peers.

Students in elementary school still have a high desire for teacher approval, but the attention and approval of their peers become important too. At the upper elementary level, students who consistently have experienced academic and/or social failure may become increasingly disengaged. Teachers can help reduce anxiety during this period by communicating regularly with students about both social and academic issues and by helping students gain the skills necessary to form and sustain close, supportive relationships.

As students transition to middle school, they are entering an unfamiliar school structure and might again feel anxious. Heightened concerns about “fitting in” and social demands may take precedence over academics (Murdock, 1999). Not surprisingly, bullying behaviors reach their highest levels during the middle school years (Pellegrini, 2002). Teachers can support students during this period by reaching out to students who seem socially unconnected and making it clear that bullying will not be tolerated.

>><<

Emotional understanding and dimensions of emotional intelligence: See page 64.

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module nineteen understanding and managing student behavior 343

Developmental, Physical, Psychosocial, or Environmental? Recognizing and meeting students’ needs is an important part of classroom management.

CALVIN AND HOBBES © 1995 Watterson Dist. by Universal Press Syndicate. Reprinted with permission. All rights reserved.

Module 19 :

Understanding

and Managing Student Behavior

At the high school level, teachers see a higher incidence of cheating and a disdain for classmates who work too hard to get teacher approval (Cizek, 2003). Violence and substance abuse issues also become more common among adolescents (Fingerhut & Christoffel, 2002).

At every grade level, teachers are more likely to be successful in creating optimal learning environments when they take developmental needs and challenges into consideration.

Physical factors: General physical health can influence student misbehavior. Lack of sleep, poor nutrition, inadequate exercise, allergy, or illnesses can make it difficult for a student to pay attention, focus, and think clearly. Conditions with a neurological component, such as attention-deficit hyper-activity disorder (ADHD) or fetal alcohol syndrome, can, among other things, lead to impulsive or hyperactive behavior. Physical factors also may include serious impairments such as vision or hearing loss, paralysis, or a severe physiological disorder. Students with such impairments may become frustrated or overwhelmed if they are unable to complete classroom tasks successfully.

Psychosocial factors: Psychosocial factors include any of the social networks in which the student is embedded. In Urie Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model of human development (Bronfenbrenner, 2005), children affect and are affected by multiple social systems—family, peers, schools, media— that are interconnected and changing over time. For example, students, particularly those who feel unsuccessful or unsupported in other ways, may find a niche in peer groups whose members devalue school achievement and prosocial behavior (Wentzel, 2003). Delinquent acts among middle school and high school students usually are done in groups, in which these delinquent behaviors are fueled by antisocial peer norms (Perkins & Borden, 2003).

Environmental factors: Another broad source of influence on student behavior includes numerous environmental factors. Aspects of the classroom’s physical environment can be both direct and indirect influences, including:

n seating arrangement,

n traffic flow,

n overcrowding,

n scarcity of resources,

n quality of lighting, and

n room temperature (Proshansky & Wolfe, 1974).

Consider the direct and indirect influences of seating arrangement. If students are seated in straight rows, they may be less likely to carry on discussions among themselves because they cannot hear each other as well (direct impact). Also, face-forward seating can send the message that the teacher expects attention to be focused on the front of the classroom and not on other students (indirect impact).

Sometimes it is not the physical environment itself but the teacher’s actions within that environment that cause behavior problems. When teachers fail to maintain a high level of self-awareness, they may engage in counterproductive actions that actually increase the likelihood of students’ misbehaving (Kellough, 2005; Thompson, 2002). For example, harsh reprimands, threats, and physical punishment consistently produce more disadvantages than advantages (Weber & Roff, 1983).

>><<

ADHD and conduct disorder: See page 447.

>><<

Fetal alcohol syndrome: See page 110.

,

>><<

Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model: See page 31.

>><<

Seating arrangements: See page 325.

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344 cluster six classroom management and instruction

In some cases, the reasons for misbehavior may be complex and unpredictable; in others, misbehavior may arise from common, predictable causes that can be anticipated and prevented. As effective classroom managers, teachers must be very aware of their own behavior. When students misbehave, novice teachers often focus on what the students are doing wrong. Experienced teachers are more likely to consider what they themselves can do differently to better understand and meet the students’ needs (Emmer & Stough, 2001). Many classroom management/discipline programs are based on the belief that when students’ basic needs are met, misbehavior can be avoided (Albert, 1996; Dreikurs, 1968; Fay & Funk, 1995;
Glasser, 1998; Nelsen, Lott, & Glenn, 1997).

How prepared do you feel to deal with behavior problems of various types? Which types of misbehavior concern you most? Which causes of misbehavior do you as a teacher have the power to change?

More Disadvantages than Advantages. Harsh reprimands and threats are often counterproductive.

GENERAL WAYS TO ADDRESS BEHAVIOR MANAGEMENT

Ultimately, each teacher develops a personal discipline model or approach, whether explicit or implicit, that guides classroom management decisions. A discipline model is a set of cohesive practices for establishing, maintaining, and restoring order in the classroom (Burden, 2003). Table 19.2 gives the main features of several well-known models of classroom management and discipline. Each model emphasizes different aspects of classroom management, and no single model has been shown to be the most successful. Together these models present a wide range of perspectives to consider when developing your own behavior management philosophy. Each teacher must incorporate a management style that fits his or her belief system but should make sure to stay within research-based guidelines (Cotton, 1990; Little & Akin-Little, 2008).

TA B L E 1 9 . 2

Establish control through understanding group dynamics.

Models of Classroom Management and Discipline Proponents Main focus Practical suggestions

(continued)

Haim Ginott communication skills

Jacon Kounin effective lesson management and supervision

Fritz Redl and William Wattenberg

group dynamics

n

Use diagnostic thinking to assess causes of misbehavior and apply appropriate consequences.

n

n

Use peer influence to curb misbehavior.

Control misbehavior by keeping students actively engaged in classroom activities.

n

n

Rely on good teaching techniques to keep students on track.

Use withitness, personal accountability, challenge, enthusiasm, and variety to prevent student boredom and restlessness.

n

Speak to a misbehaving student as you would like to be spoken to yourself in the same situation.

n

Invite student cooperation by focusing on what needs to be done rather than on what was done wrong.

n

n

Show self-discipline and model desirable behaviors.

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module nineteen understanding and managing student behavior 345

ⁿ Give every student a sense of belonging.

Models of Classroom Management and Discipline (continued)

Proponents Main focus Practical suggestions

TA B L E 1 9 . 2

collaborative decision making and sense of belonging

teacher assertiveness/ clear rules and consequences

B. F. Skinner behavior modification through reinforcement

Module 19 :

Understanding

and Managing Student Behavior

Rudolf Dreikurs

ⁿ When misbehavior occurs, identify what is driving the behavior.

ⁿ Help students redirect their behavior in positive ways.

ⁿ Strengthen desired behavior by providing reinforcement immediately when it is noted.

ⁿ Extinguish undesired behaviors by providing no reinforcement.

ⁿ Shape complex behaviors gradually through successive approximations.

Lee and Marlene Canter

ⁿ Students have a right to learn in a safe, calm, productive environment. Establish a climate of mutual trust and respect.

ⁿ Remain in charge in the classroom, but not in a hostile or authoritarian manner.

ⁿ Identify students’ personal needs and provide support.

ⁿ Teach each student how to behave responsibly.

ⁿ Develop clear rules and consequences.

Thomas Gordon

discipline as self-control

ⁿ Involve the students in problem solving and decision making about class rules and procedures.

ⁿ Identify problem ownership—who is bothered by the problem situation?

William Glasser

ⁿ Help meet students’ needs for belonging, freedom, power, and fun.

Richard Curwin and Allen Mendler

Adapted from Charles, 1999, pp. 8–9.

student satisfaction with school

ⁿ Assign work that is meaningful and relevant to students, and expect students to do their very best.

ⁿ Hold classroom meetings to discuss curriculum, procedures, behavior, and other educational topics.

discipline with dignity

ⁿ Always interact with students in a way that preserves their dignity.

ⁿ Provide interesting activities, opportunities for academic success, and encouraging feedback to students who are behaviorally at-risk (those who have a chronic history of misbehavior).

Barbara Coloroso

developing inner discipline

ⁿ Help students develop inner discipline by giving them opportunities to solve their own problems.

ⁿ Give students the power and responsibility to make decisions and accept the consequences.

ⁿ Use natural and logical consequences instead of bribes, rewards, or threats.

We’ve all heard the adage, “An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure,” and research underscores its relevance to teaching. Academic climate and effective teaching practices promote high task engagement and positive attitudes that prevent misbehavior (Winzer and Grigg, 1992). Effective teachers understand that discipline problems disrupt learning, and they take a proactive approach to classroom management (Kame’enui and Darch, 1995; Kerr and Nelson, 1998). Proactive classroom management has three distinctive characteristics (Gettinger, 1988):

1. It is preventive, rather than reactive, in nature.

2. It integrates behavioral management methods with effective instruction to facilitate achievement.

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346 cluster six classroom management and instruction

3. It focuses on the group dimensions of classroom management rather than the behavior of individual students.

Let’s consider some successful elements commonly found in proactively managed classrooms.

Establish Clear, Positive Expectations for Behavior

It is crucial that the teacher, rather than the students, have ultimate control over the classroom. If this sense of control is not established early, then a constant struggle for power will disrupt the learning environment for the entire school year. Educators Ann Harrison and Frances Spuler (1983) make these suggestions:

n Set limits at the very beginning of the school year and be prepared to enforce them all year, because students will test them from time to time.

n Only introduce rules that you can enforce consistently.

If the list of rules is too cumbersome, the teacher will become exhausted trying to enforce each one and will begin to ease up or ignore the misbehavior when students break one of the rules. This results in the teacher losing credibility with the class. Students are more likely to work harder and to be more persistent when they perceived that their teachers provide clear, consistent expectations (Skinner & Belmont, 1993). Also, students with special needs adapt to a general education setting more easily when the procedures for performing certain tasks are outlined clearly, expectations for student behavior are clear, and misbehaviors are treated consistently (Pfiffner & Barkley, 1998; Scruggs & Mastropieri, 1994).

Model and Reinforce Desired Behaviors

Interpreting the teacher’s own words, thoughts, and actions, students create a set of expectations for what is appropriate and valued within the classroom. Observational learning, watching and imitating the behavior of a model, is an efficient and effective way to develop skills and behaviors (Bandura, 1986; Schunk, 2000). In order to build and maintain credibility with students, a teacher should model the behaviors expected of the students (Kellough, 2005). Research indicates that the degree of respect teachers show students significantly predicts students’ behavior toward one another (Matsumura, Slater, & Crosson, 2008).

When students do perform desired behaviors, many different methods can be used to reinforce those behaviors. The use of praise and positive attention can be one of the most powerful tools for motivation and classroom management (Alber & Heward, 2000). Effective praise should be contingent on the behavior being reinforced, clearly state the behavior that is valued, and be genuine (Lan-drum & Kaufman, 2006). While praise is a good starting point for reinforcing desired behaviors, in some cases teachers may need to use other reinforcers, such as awarding special privileges or tangible rewards, to maintain or increase a desired behavior (Schloss & Smith, 1994). The key for teachers is to find a reinforcer that is personally meaningful or valuable to the student, understanding that perceptions of what is a valuable reinforcer will vary from one student to the next. Some teachers use interest surveys to get to know students better and to identify activities or rewards that appeal to individual students. Also, teachers may ask students to brainstorm ideas together and vote on a group reward.

To chart group progress toward a desired goal, teachers can choose among many tangible reward systems. In elementary school classrooms, this approach may include:

n filling a marble jar (the class earns one or two marbles each time a desirable behavior is displayed by all),

n earning letters to spell out PIZZA PARTY, and

n filling in sticker charts.

At the secondary level, genuine praise and positive attention continue to be effective reinforcers.
Other options teachers can use include awards or

,

>><<

Reinforcement:

See page 164.

Observational learning: See page 176.

>><<

Praise as motivation: See page 271.

>><<

Reinforcing Behaviors. The use of praise and positive attention can be a powerful motivational tool.

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module nineteen understanding and managing student behavior 347

Module 19 :

Understanding

and

Managing Student Behavior

Earning a Pizza Party. Behavioral incentives can be individual or group-oriented.

PIZZ_

certificates of recognition, free time, access to special equipment or resources, food, and passes or tickets to special events.

Anticipate and Prevent Potential Behavior Problems

An effective classroom manager must cultivate supervision skills. Jacob Kounin (1970), in his classic study of classroom management, compared the behaviors of effective teachers whose classes were relatively orderly and productive with those of ineffective teachers whose classrooms were centers of chaos and confusion. What he discovered was that effective and ineffective teachers responded in similar ways when misbehavior occurred. The main difference between them lay in the fact that effective teachers were much better at taking steps to anticipate and prevent misbehavior from occurring in the first place. Kounin identified four main areas in which effective classroom managers were highly skilled: withitness, overlapping, group focus, and movement management.

1. Withitness refers to the ability to remain aware of and responsive to students’ behaviors at all times. Teachers who possess this skill scan the classroom frequently, read students’ facial expressions and body language, and interpret the mood of the class as a whole. In particular, teachers notice when students are getting restless and losing interest and react by making adjustments to the lesson to raise the level of student engagement (Carter, Cushing, Sabers, Stein, & Berliner, 1988).
2. Overlapping refers to the ability to deal with misbehaviors without interrupting the flow of an ongoing lesson or activity. For example, while explaining an assignment, the teacher might walk over to a student who is passing notes, quietly collect the notes, and redirect the student’s attention by pointing to the assignment being discussed. The ability to keep the main activity going in the classroom while simultaneously dealing with problem behaviors contributes to better classroom order (Copeland, 1983).

3. Group focus refers to the ability to keep as many students as possible actively engaged in appropriate activities. A teacher who excels at this skill will not spend too much time focusing on one particular student at the risk of diminishing the level of attention and on-task behavior of the group as a whole.

4. Movement management refers to the ability to keep a lesson moving at an appropriate pace, to maintain smoothness (logical organization and sequencing) of instruction, and to successfully manage transitions from one activity to the next.

Teach Self-regulation Skills

At times, even the most effective teacher has difficulty monitoring the behavior of all students. Teaching students to use self-regulation, or to monitor and manage their own behavior, gives them a greater sense of autonomy and helps them develop personal responsibility. Researchers have observed behavioral improvements in settings in which students are taught to attribute their success or failure to their

>><<

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Self-regulation:

See page 181.

348 cluster six classroom management and instruction

personal effort and in which they (1) learn to check their own behavior and judge its appropriateness;
(2) talk themselves through a task using detailed, step-by-step instructions; and (3) learn problem-solving steps to take when they confront classroom issues (Anderson & Prawat, 1983; Cotton, 1990).

In studying the classroom management approaches of elementary and secondary teachers, researchers found that effective teachers at both levels had well-planned systems for encouraging students to manage their own behavior (Emmer, Evertson, & Worsham, 2006; Evertson, Emmer, & Wor-sham, 2006). Teachers have implemented self-monitoring techniques to increase desired behaviors, such as improved academic skills and on-task behaviors, and to decrease inappropriate behaviors (Rhode, Jensen, & Reavis, 1992). Toward this end, students should be encouraged to take responsibility for their belongings, for completing assignments, and for managing their time well. The ultimate goal of an effective classroom manager is to help students develop responsibility and self-control. If the teacher is absent or is called away from the room for a moment, the class should be able to function smoothly in the teacher’s absence.

Respond Effectively to Behavior Problems As They Occur

The principle of least intervention states that a teacher should react in the least intrusive way possible when dealing with misbehavior in the classroom to minimize disruption to the instructional process. If the least intrusive strategy does not work, the teacher then moves up a level to a more intrusive approach until an effective strategy is found. Box 19.1 summarizes intervention options that move gradually from low to high levels of intrusiveness (Harrison & Spuler, 1983). This approach is designed to guide students toward the goal of self-control and to minimize disruption of the flow of classroom instruction.

If the behavior in question is mildly annoying to the teacher but does not disrupt other students or interfere with the learning of the student in question, it may be best for the teacher to simply ignore it. This may be an appropriate strategy for student behaviors such as momentary daydreaming, getting off to a slow start with seat work, tapping a pencil, or squirming. A teacher also might decide that it is appropriate to be more lenient when temporary, contextual factors cause a rise in off-task behaviors. For example, students may be more easily distracted if it is unusually warm in the classroom or if they are excited about an upcoming holiday or special event.

Sometimes the best response is not to completely ignore a misbehavior but to delay taking action in order to avoid further disruption. For example, if a student is using a pencil during a timed quiz when the correct procedure is to use a pen, it might be best to wait until the quiz is over and then remind the student of the correct procedure for future reference. Correcting the student during the quiz and asking him to track down a pen might break his concentration and/or distract other students. When the teacher chooses to respond to misbehavior, logical consequences specific to the misbehavior should be implemented (Curwin & Mendler, 1999; Dreikurs, Grunwald, & Pepper, 1982; Elias & Schwab, 2006). For example, a student who is talkative and disruptive when she is seated next to a close friend should be assigned a different seat where she will be less tempted to get off-task.

Teachers learn to apply the principle of least intervention over time, as they become informed by both past classroom experience and knowledge of current individual students. This system works best with mild to moderately serious misbehaviors. Severe student misbehavior may require the teacher to skip several of the less intrusive steps and move immediately to a more direct response.

What might be some advantages and disadvantages of the principle of least Intervention?

>><<

Attribution theory: See page 281.

Trick or Treat. Students may be easily distracted at school when they are anticipating a special holiday or event.

>><<

Logical consequences: See page 331.

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module nineteen understanding and managing student behavior 349

BOX 19.1

STEP 1: Move closer to the student.

STEP 2: Make eye contact.

Principle of Least Intervention

Module 19 :

Understanding

and Managing Student Behavior

STEP 3: Gesture. Walk over to the troublesome student while you are teaching and use a gesture like shaking your head or putting a finger to your lips to let it be known that the behavior is inappropriate.

STEP 4: Use a one-liner, stated with authority, that requires no answer. “Cool it!” or “Knock it off!” usually works well.

You usually can catch three other students you didn’t yet know were misbehaving.

STEP 5: State the problem behavior (“Your talking is distracting the class”) and redirect the student.

STEP 6: Time-out. Move the student quietly and quickly to a predesignated spot.

STEP 7: Talk with the student privately. Speak to the student outside the classroom. You might ask the student to wait for you outside the classroom, but because you are legally responsible for the student, you should join the student outside as soon as possible. Use your best judgment in each situation to decide how long a student can safely wait for you. When you speak to the student, try not to become angry. You want the student to stop the inappropriate behavior. Documenting begins here. Write on an index card “Pat distracting class with talking; spoken to outside of class, March 24, 2006, 10:45 A.M.”

STEP 8: Contact parents. Write a brief note to the student’s parent(s) describing the child’s misbehavior and the methods you have taken to try to eliminate it. Include the effects the behavior is having on the student. Document the fact that you sent the note, or keep a copy of it. If you know the parent is easier to contact via e-mail, the note could be sent electronically. Alternatively, you might want to call the parent directly so you can gain the parent’s cooperation in eliminating the unacceptable behavior that the child is exhibiting. Realize that while the parent probably is angry at the child, the parent may displace that anger toward you. Listen quietly and then ask the parent to work with you to help the child. The message you want to convey is that you care about the student. Document this contact with the parent. Ask for suggestions to eliminate the problem behavior, and arrange to get together again to discuss improvements. Keep in mind that no matter what the reason for the behavior, you want it stopped. For instance, sad as it may be that the child’s home life is unhappy, the student’s incessant talking in class is distracting you and other students. Your goal is to help children handle crises, not to allow them to make excuses for unacceptable behavior. Document the conference.

STEP 9: Send the student to the principal’s office. Inform the principal of the unacceptable behavior, share the intervention steps you have taken up to this point, and ask for suggestions.

STEP 10: Get outside help for the student. Some persistent behavioral problems may require additional interventions by other professionals. The school counselor, school psychologist, child’s physician, etc. may be able to offer helpful suggestions or services to address the problem.

HOW TO HANDLE SPECIFIC MISBEHAVIORS

In addition to using research to inform their practice, teachers can benefit from the advice and experience of other teachers in the field. Suggestions for how to handle various behavior problems that reflect strategies frequently used by K–12 teachers follows.

Routine Disruptions

Passing notes: While still continuing to deliver instruction, the teacher can walk toward students who have just passed a note, extend a hand for the students to hand it over, pocket it, and continue with instruction. The teacher should not interrupt valuable instruction time to read a passed note out loud to the whole class or make comments that embarrass the students involved.

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Excessive talking: A teacher must communicate the importance of being a courteous, active listener and model that behavior by listening attentively to students at the appropriate times. When the teacher is giving instructions, students should stop what they are doing and give the teacher their full attention. The teacher can elicit students’ attention through the use of a prearranged signal such as a responsive hand clap, raising one hand in the air, or ringing chimes. If the teacher has taken these preventive measures and certain students still are talking excessively, the teacher can follow the steps of the principle of least intervention to bring the students’ behavior back into line.

Complaining or malingering: Often, at the heart of student complaints or malingering is an unmet need. Students need attention and need to feel successful. By allowing opportunities for both of these needs to be met on a daily basis, teachers can prevent cases of chronic complaining. Student complaints do need to be taken seriously. The teacher should listen to what the student has to say and, if the complaint is legitimate, show appreciation for the fact that the student has brought the problem to attention. If the complaint is not legitimate, the teacher can briefly explain why and then refocus the student’s attention on the task at hand.

Intermediate Concerns

Teasing: Teasing can leave lasting emotional scars, so it’s important for teachers to educate students about being sensitive to the feelings of others. It may be helpful to discuss the following guidelines with respect to teasing (Weinstein, 2003):

n know the difference between friendly joking around and hurtful ridicule;

n pay attention to others’ body language and facial expressions to read whether their feelings are hurt—even if they don’t tell you;

n never tease about sensitive issues such as someone’s body, family, or personal weaknesses;

n accept teasing from others if you tease, and avoid being overly sensitive about teasing that is meant in a friendly way; and

n speak up if being teased about a certain topic bothers you.

Talking back: It is natural for a teacher to feel a sudden rush of anger when a student talks back in a belligerent or hostile way. However, it is very important that the teacher remain calm and not react defensively. Teachers should make it clear that they are willing to listen to what students have to say, but only if students are willing to speak respectfully and show the same courtesy. Issues like talking back are likely to be minimal if the teacher models respect for students, establishes clear expectations for acceptable behavior, and provides students with the tools to resolve their conflicts peacefully. This is also true of related behaviors such as the use of profanity and arguing among students.

Failure to do homework: Homework should be meaningful (have a clear purpose), reasonable in length and difficulty level, and clearly explained. Given many students’ busy schedules and responsibilities outside school, the teacher should provide in-class opportunities to complete assignments when possible. Students can be given some autonomy in the homework process by having the option of skipping an assignment if they have passed a pretest or otherwise demonstrated mastery over the material. If, despite a teacher’s best efforts, a student still will not turn in homework, the teacher can respond by meeting with the student individually to discuss the problem and to generate solutions together with the student. Some possible solutions include:

n creating a contingency contract, or an agreement, preferably written, between the teacher and student that provides the following information: (a) specification of appropriate student behavior,
(b) specification of inappropriate student behaviors, (c) description of consequences for both appropriate and inappropriate behaviors (Henson & Eller, 1999), in this case behaviors specific to completing homework;

n encouraging a student to use a homework hotline or study buddy to get support when needed; and

n getting the student’s parents involved in setting up a homework schedule and/or designating a space in the home that is conducive to doing homework (quiet, relatively free of distractions, with good lighting).

Chronic tardiness: The teacher can model promptness by being prepared for class and starting class on time. Students might not recognize tardiness as a real problem. Through class discussion early in

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module nineteen understanding and managing student behavior 351

1.
2.
3.

Name: Date: These are my goals:

Module 19 :

Understanding

and Managing Student Behavior

My Contract:

Sample Contingency Contract. Note how this contract ties appropriate and inappropriate student behavior to specific goals.

Bobby Klosterman

10/1/08

Write all homework assignments down in my notebook.

Complete all work and check it off as I get it finished. Put completed homework in the “In” box as soon as I get to class.

These are my consequences if I don’t meet my goals:

My contract will be reviewed on

I will stay inside during recess to get my work finished.

I will lose 10% of the points possible on late assignments. Three Strikes rule: After 3 late assignments, I will get an automatic zero on any late work.

These are my rewards/reinforcers if I meet my goals:

1 I will get a sticker on my homework chart each day that my work is completed and turned in on time.

2 For 5 stickers in a row, I’ll earn a prize from the class Treasure Chest.

10/14/08

Signatures:

Bobby Klosterman

Mrs. Newton (Teacher)

Marie Klosterman − Mom

the school year or one-on-one discussion with tardy students, the teacher can raise students’ awareness of how tardiness disrupts the learning environment. Let students know that arriving late can:

n distract the teacher and the student’s classmates,

n send the message that the student doesn’t care about the class, and

n leave the student unprepared due to missing valuable instruction or discussion.

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352 cluster six classroom management and instruction

If a student has a legitimate reason for consistently getting to class late, consider seating that student close to the door in order to minimize disruption for the rest of the class.

Immoral Behaviors

Cheating: Some behaviors clearly are considered cheating: copying someone else’s homework, looking at someone else’s answer sheet on an exam, plagiarizing someone else’s work for a report. Other behaviors, such as working with a classmate to complete an assignment, can be ambiguous. An effective teacher will make it clear when students are allowed to work together or exchange ideas and when they are expected to complete their work independently. Some effective strategies for reducing the incidence of cheating include:

n discussing cheating policies openly with the class,

n emphasizing mastery over performance goals,

n communicating the value of understanding the material well,

n varying projects and assignments from year to year,

n separating desks so students cannot easily see one another’s papers,

n using multiple forms of a test,

n asking students to put all materials in or under their desks before a test begins,

n reminding students not to talk to one another during a test session, and

n circulating around the room to monitor students’ behavior.

If, despite taking preventive measures, cheating does occur, the teacher should talk privately with the student involved and present logical consequences (e.g., the student will receive no points and has to redo the assignment or retake the test).

Stealing: Most stealing incidents occur in the early grades, when students have less control over their impulses (Weinstein & Mignano, 2003). As with cheating, one of the best approaches is to reduce the opportunity to steal things in the first place. The teacher can make sure all students have the supplies they need by:

n sending home a school supply list before the school year begins and

n setting up a system in which students can borrow supplies from the teacher on the rare occasion that they forget or misplace their own.

The teacher can prevent theft of other personal property by never leaving a purse, field trip money, or other valuables unattended and by discouraging students from bringing valuables to school. If a theft does occur and the teacher knows who is responsible, the teacher can talk privately with the student in a nonconfrontational way. Sometimes a low-key statement is best: “I noticed you put Kevin’s book in your bag as you left yesterday. Please make sure it is returned to him. I wouldn’t want anyone to think you stole it.” If the teacher does not know who took the stolen item, accusing particular students is inappropriate. The teacher can make an appeal to the entire class, letting students know that the item has been “misplaced” and encouraging anyone who knows where it might be to return it as soon as possible. If a particular student persists in stealing things even after a private talk with the teacher, the student’s parents and the principal should be contacted.

Vandalism: As with many other types of misbehavior, prevention is the key to discouraging vandalism. Students are less likely to be destructive if they have been taught the importance of respecting other people and their belongings and if they feel a sense of ownership in the classroom. If vandalism does occur, it is best handled through the use of logical consequences. For example, if a student scribbles all over a desk, the student should be asked to stay after school to clean the desk.

Dangerous Behaviors

Bullying: Approximately 160,000 children avoid going to school every day and thousands more drop out of school completely

Logical Consequences.

The punishment can be tailored to fit the specific behavior.

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module nineteen understanding and managing student behavior 353

Module 19 :

Understanding

and

Managing Student Behavior

because they feel victimized or afraid at school (Garbarino & deLara, 2002). Bullying is one of the most inadequately addressed problems in schools. A study by Frank Barone (1997) reported that when eighth graders were surveyed, 60% reported having been bothered by a bully in middle school; however, school personnel thought that only 16% of the students had ever been bullied. The problem is compounded because peer harassment and teasing are seen as somewhat acceptable (Hoover & Oliver, 1996).

A report by the Pew Internet and American Life Project (2007) concluded that about 32% of teens have been the target of cyberbullying, and the percentage is even higher (41%) among high school girls. Cyberbullying can take a number of forms, including misrepresenting one’s identity online in order to trick someone, spreading lies or rumors, and posting embarrassing pictures. Early intervention is one of the best approaches to preventing problems with bullying and aggression later in life (Aber, Brown, & Jones, 2003). Teachers can decrease the amount of verbal bullying by:

n encouraging students to be respectful of one another both in person and online,

n teaching students to show empathy for one another and to try to see things from someone else’s perspective, and

n making it clear that threats and intimidation are totally unacceptable and that any students engaging in these behaviors will face serious consequences.

Fighting or other forms of violence: Violence in the classroom is every teacher’s worst nightmare. Fortunately, it is relatively infrequent and has decreased in the past decade (Lynch, 2002). A study conducted by researchers at the Centers for Disease Control found that from 1993 to 1997 the percentage of students who said they had carried a weapon “such as a gun, knife or club” to school decreased from 11.8% to 8.5%. The percentage of students engaging in a physical fight on school property dropped from 16.2% to 14.8% (Brener, Simon, Krug, & Lowry, 1999). The most common types of school-based conflicts are verbal harassment, verbal arguments, and physical fights that involve hitting, kicking, scratching, and/or pushing. Fortunately, most of these fights do not involve serious injury or violations of the law (DeVoe et al., 2003).

Teachers can use a wide array of preventive methods to minimize the likelihood of violence in the classroom. Here are a few suggestions:

n Model respectful, courteous, caring behaviors at every opportunity.

n Allow opportunities for students to work together and to get to know one another better, but be sure to structure the interactions to ensure a positive outcome.

n Set up activities and experiences that help students practice patience, generosity, honesty, and thoughtful speech (no lying, gossiping, insulting, teasing).

n Help students understand cause and effect so they can better understand how their words and deeds impact others.

n Teach students to own their reactions. They do not get to choose how someone treats them, but they do get to choose how they react (or choose not to react) to what others say or do.

n Vigilantly monitor what is going on at all times in the classroom (withitness).

n Teach step-down skills that can help students deescalate a potentially violent situation (e.g., breathe, count to 10, go to a separate space to cool off).

n Make it clear that there are serious penalties for fighting.

n Praise and encourage students who attempt to resolve conflicts peacefully.

n Know the warning signs of impending violence.

n If you hear a rumor that a student has brought a weapon to school, report it to the principal at once.

In 1998, the U.S. Department of Justice and the U.S. Department of Education published a guide to assist schools with violence prevention (Dwyer, Osher, & Warger, 1998). As shown in Box 19.2, the guide includes a list of early warning signs that indicate a potential for violence. Students typically exhibit multiple warning signs, so a teacher should be careful not to overreact to single words, signs, or actions. If a physical fight does break out, follow the guidelines in Box 19.3. Some actions, like assault and battery or possession of a weapon on school property, are crimes and must also be reported to the police. Follow your school’s policy with regard to the consequences of fighting.

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354 cluster six classroom management and instruction

BOX 19.2

n Social withdrawal

Early Warning Signs of Potential Violence

n Excessive feelings of isolation and being alone

n Excessive feelings of rejection

n Being a victim of violence

n Feelings of being picked on and persecuted

n Low school interest and poor academic performance

n Expression of violence in writings or drawings

n Uncontrolled anger

n Patterns of impulsive and chronic hitting, intimidating, and bullying behaviors

n History of discipline problems

n History of aggressive or violent behavior

n Intolerance of differences; prejudice

n Drug and alcohol use

n Affiliation with gangs

n Inappropriate access to, possession of, or use of firearms

n Serious threats of violence

Source: Dwyer, Osher, & Warger, 1998.

Guidelines for Managing Physical Fights

BOX 19.3

1. Do not leave the area.

2. Immediately send a student to get help from other adults in the building.

3. Issue a short, firm command telling students to stop.

4. Do not try to restrain or physically intercede between fighting students without another adult present.

5. Make sure the rest of the class is a safe distance from the students who are fighting, and ask the class to sit quietly.

6. Do not, under any circumstances, permit other students to incite further violence by cheering for either participant in the fight or chanting “Fight, fight!”

7. If a student is injured in the fight, get help from the school nurse or call EMTs if necessary to get additional, skilled help in treating the injuries.

8. Document all the details of the fight as soon afterward as possible and provide a copy of the documentation to the parents of the students involved and to the principal. Be sure to specify when and where the fight happened, who was involved, and what action was taken.

Think about the types of misbehavior you are likely to see at the grade level you plan to teach. How might a proactive approach, as shown in many of the examples in this module, help to minimize incidents of misbehavior?

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key concepts 355

Summary

Define misbehavior and identify the various causes of misbehavior. Misbehavior can be any student behavior that disrupts the learning environment in the classroom. It includes behavior that interferes with teaching or with the rights of others to learn, is psychologically or physically unsafe, or destroys property. Students may misbehave at school for hundreds of potential reasons. The common causes of misbehavior vary according to the age and developmental level of the student. Physical, psychosocial, and environmental factors all contribute to student behavior patterns in the classroom.

Discuss five proactive ways to address behavior management issues in the classroom. Proactive behavior management involves planning ahead in order to prevent or minimize behavior problems rather than simply reacting to misbehavior after it occurs. First, effective teachers provide expectations of behavior early in the school year and are consistent in enforcing consequences for breaking the rules. Second, effective teachers model appropriate behaviors, such as behaving respectfully toward others, and follow up by rewarding students who behave in desired ways. Third, effective teachers anticipate and prevent problems from occurring by using skills such as withitness, overlapping, group focus, and movement management. Fourth, effective teachers have systems in place for encouraging students to manage their own behavior—self-regulation. Finally, when addressing mis-behavior in the classroom, effective teachers use the principle of least intervention to minimize disruption to the instructional process.

Summarize important considerations in responding to mild, moderate, and severe misbehaviors. Mild mis-behavior may include disruptive actions such as note passing, excessive talking, or complaining. The teacher should follow the principle of least intervention by responding to these behaviors in a way that is least disruptive to the instructional environment (e.g., gesturing to students to remind them to get back on track, redirecting students to the task at hand). Moderate misbehaviors include slightly more serious actions such as teasing, talking back, failure to do homework, or chronic tardiness. When these behaviors occur, the teacher must help the student better understand the negative impact the behaviors have on their own learning and on the learning of others. The most serious misbehaviors include actions such as cheating, vandalism, bullying, and violence. It is critical that the teacher be aware of conditions that may precipitate such behaviors and of signs that these behaviors are occurring or are imminent. Responses to serious misbehavior vary depending on the situation. In general, teacher responses should be consistent with school-wide policies, should involve communication with a broader network (parents, administrator, school counselor, etc.), and should prioritize student safety and well-being.

Key Concepts

contingency contract cyberbullying group focus misbehavior

movement management observational learning overlapping

principle of least intervention proactive classroom management withitness

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356 case studies: reflect and evaluate

,

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Case Studies: Refl ect and Evaluate

Early Childhood: “Caterpillar Circle”

These questions refer to the case study on page 316.

1. What steps did Sarah Brennan and her assistant, Steve Shoemaker, take to anticipate and prevent misbehavior?

2. What types of misbehavior did you observe in Sarah’s classroom?

3. Identify the causes of misbehavior in question 2. How did the cause of misbehavior shape the way the teachers reacted to problems that arose?

4. How might the age of the children have influenced the teachers’ expectations for classroom behavior?
5. Identify specific examples of withitness, overlapping, group focus, and movement management exhibited by Sarah and Steve.

Elementary School: “Ecosystems”

These questions refer to the case study on page 318.

1. How did Leilani anticipate and prevent potential problems related to the ecosystem activity? 2. In what ways does Leilani communicate her expectations to her students?

3. How does Leilani deal with disruptions that occur during the activity?

4. How does Leilani use logical consequences in this case?

5. Describe Leilani’s use of withitness, overlapping, group focus, and movement management.
6. Leilani describes her approach to classroom management as proactive. What does she mean by this? Give specific examples of how she implements this style.

Middle School: “Classroom Safety”

These questions refer to the case study on page 320.

1. What examples of misbehavior did you observe in this case? How would you classify each example in terms of severity?

2. How would you rate Saul’s classroom management in terms of withitness, overlapping, group focus, and movement management?

3. How did Saul promote self-regulation among his students? Do you think he gave the students too much responsibility over their own behavior? Why or why not?

4. What steps did Saul take to respond to the problem that occurred between Kevin and Nick? Is there anything else he should have done?

5. How does Saul’s style compare to the approach you plan to use in your own classroom?

6. How might the teacher’s approach to this situation have been different if the teacher was a woman?

If the two students fighting were girls?

High School: “Refusal to Dress”

These questions refer to the case study on page 322.

1. Define what misbehavior is. Should the actions committed by Brianna during first period be classified as misbehaviors? Why or why not?

2. Should Brianna’s first-period actions have been ignored? Justify your answer by discussing advantages and disadvantages.

3. Would your answer to question 2 be different if the student were male? Why or why not?

4. Do you think it would have been more effective to approach Brianna for a private conversation while the other students were doing an activity? If so, how might this have been helpful? If not, what would be a more useful approach to take, and how would it help Brianna?

5. During Brianna’s outburst, how was teacher Maria Salazar’s classroom management potentially compromised?

6. Maria was unsuccessful in getting Brianna to talk about what was causing her change in behavior.

How might knowing the cause of the misbehavior have influenced how Maria chose to proceed?