Designing
Effective Instruction
n The Planning Process
n Choosing Learning Objectives
1. Describe the sequential process of planning for classroom instruction and provide examples of the decisions made during lesson planning.
2.
Define
learning objective and explain why it is important for a lesson to
have clear learning objectives.
Choosing Teaching Methods
n Teaching Methods Based on Behaviorism
n Teaching Methods Based on Cognitive
Learning Theory
n Teaching Methods Based on Constructivism
3.
Describe
the goals of mastery learning and direct instruction, and discuss the
advantages and disadvantages of each approach.
4.
Explain
how discovery learning and expository teaching foster meaningful
learning.
5. Describe the techniques based on cognitive apprenticeships that are used in constructivist teaching.
Summary Key Concepts Case Studies: Reflect and Evaluate
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Academic Learning
Time. How much time do students actually spend learning?
An
effective teacher understands that academic
learning time—the
time students spend engaged in meaningful, appropriate tasks—is
a predictor of academic achievement (Berliner, 1988; Evans,
Evans, Gable, & Schmid, 1991). Even though most states mandate
over 1,000 hours per year of instruction, the actual time spent in
academic learning drops to an average of only 333 hours when we
consider absences, recess, lunch, time spent in lulls and
transitions, and time spent off-task (Weinstein & Mignano, 2003).
Lack of planning or poor time management often leads to time-wasting
practices such as (Karweit, 1989; Thompson, 2002):
n using the first few minutes or last few minutes of class ineffectively,
n failing to establish efficient daily routines and procedures,
n using poor transitions between activities, and
n
mistaking
straying off topic with “teachable moments.”
Effective
teachers use even small blocks of time wisely to maximize academic
learning time. They approach teaching in a proactive, purposeful way
by developing clear learning objectives, choosing among a variety of
effective instructional methods, and using assessments to determine
whether learning goals have been met. This module explores how
purposeful lesson planning and carefully selected teaching methods
impact what
and how
students
learn in the classroom.
The Planning Process
In a series of studies on the characteristics of effective teachers, Carolyn Evertson and Edmund Emmer (1981, 1982, 1989) found that effective teachers have materials ready in advance, select materials that are directly useful in instruction, and use consistent routines for delivering information about assignments (e.g., having students copy assignments from the board into an assignment notebook). They also communicate the expectation that class time is for work-relevant activities, that they are aware of what students are doing, and that students will be held accountable for their work.
Effective
teachers make classroom management and academic instruction look
relatively effortless. Yet in truth, a well-organized, productive
learning environment is the result of intentional decisions and
choices. The majority of the decision making is pre-instructional
(Borko & Shavelson, 1990; Clark & Yinger, 1979). Consider
these decisions that teachers make prior to teaching a lesson
(Evertson & Emmer, 1982; Thompson, 2002):
n aligning curriculum with state standards,
n stating learning objectives and how students will demonstrate knowledge or skills,
n
selecting
assessment techniques to indicate whether objectives have been met
(which happens in advance, rather than as an afterthought),
n
identifying
necessary prior knowledge and determining whether a review of certain
knowledge is needed,
n developing clear instructions (written and/or verbal),
n dividing complex tasks into step-by-step procedures,
n selecting relevant instructional materials and resources,
n differentiating instruction to meet the needs of students at varying ability levels, and
n
accommodating
students with special needs.
Comprehensive instructional planning unfolds in three stages (Schell & Burden, 1992):
1.
Long-range
plans
determine how much time is to be spent on each unit of the curriculum
and what state standards will be met by the end of the school year.
2.
Teachers construct unit
plans
to decide how much to accomplish in a given time period (usually two
to four weeks). Because unit plans often involve a particular theme
or set of concepts to be learned, they are more specific than
long-range plans.
>><<
Productive
learning environments: See page 324.
Time
management: See page 332.
>><<
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module twenty planning for instruction 359
TA B L E 2 0 .1 Basic Components of a Lesson Plan Component Criterion for evaluation
Planning
for Instruction
Module 20 :
Statement of topic Lesson/topic is tied to state standards.
Objectives Objectives are clearly stated in behavioral terms.
Materials needed Learning materials are appropriate for students’ age, interests, developmental level.
Prerequisites/prior knowledge needed
Students have mastered the necessary prerequisites for this lesson.
Attention getter Lesson includes an appropriate opening that engages students’ attention.
Teacher input (e.g., explanation or demonstration)
Lesson is presented in a logical sequence and designed in a way that helps students master the material.
Opportunities for student engagement/active learning
Lesson includes a variety of activities or presentation formats that will appeal to different students.
Practice (guided and/or independent)
Students are given sufficient opportunity to practice new skills.
In-class assessments (formal or informal)
Assessments fairly and accurately evaluate students’ learning.
Potential accommodations (remediation, enrichment, or adjustments)
Lesson
includes activities for enrichment and remediation that can be used
to meet individual needs.
Closure
Lesson includes appropriate closing.
Adapted from Thompson, 2002.
3. Daily lesson plans are completed last. While the lesson plan format may vary depending on grade level and subject area, typical lesson plans include many of the components listed in Table 20.1.
As effective teachers plan their daily lessons, they pay attention to how those lessons fit within the broader instructional framework. Novice teachers commonly make the mistake of focusing on the teaching of content too much more than on student learning, leading them to create plans that rush through coverage of a large amount of material (Thompson, 2002). This content-driven approach often focuses too much on what the teacher will do and say and too little on what students need to do to master the material.
At any grade level, teachers should allow students sufficient time to process new information and ample opportunities to apply what they have learned (Jensen, 2000). An effective lesson includes focused attention as well as movement or hands-on activities. For example, breaking up a high school chemistry lecture with a demonstration and an opportunity for hands-on experimentation facilitates learning. Allowing time for recess and other unstructured activities gives elementary school students a mental break from focused academic work, reduces demands on their attention and memory, and leads to more efficient processing of information during learning tasks (Bjorklund & Harnishfeger, 1987; Toppino, Kasserman, & Mracek, 1991).
Because students in every classroom have varying abilities, teachers need to carefully target an appropriate difficulty level for instruction and differentiate instruction when necessary in a way that considers individual differences among students. They must consider how to accommodate students who finish a task earlier than expected as well as students who require extra time to complete a task (Richards, 2006). Teachers may need to create different lessons, activities, or assignments or use a different teaching method for students with disabilities and students who are gifted.
Proactive
teachers anticipate potential challenges that could arise at any
point in the lesson and are prepared to address them, making
on-the-spot adjustments as needed to ensure maximum success. They
also reflect on what works and what doesn’t so that they can
improve their instruction the next time.
>><<
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Teaching gifted students: See page 415.
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Have you ever been in a class where a teacher rushed through content or did not adjust instruction to the needs of different students? How did this influence your level of learning and engagement?
TA
B L E 2 0 . 2
Learning Objectives and Their Defining Features Performance Conditions Criteria
An objective tells what the learner is expected to do.
An objective describes the conditions under which the performance is to occur.
When
possible, an objective describes what constitutes acceptable
performance.
Definition
The student will correctly label all seven continents and all five oceans.
The student will identify 90% of the grammar, spelling, and punctuation errors in the sentences and make the appropriate corrections.
Correctly
identify continents and oceans.
English example Correctly use grammar, spelling, and punctuation rules.
Geography
example
When
given an unlabeled map of the world, . . . .
When
given five sentences to correct, . . . .
Choosing Learning Objectives
In contrast to experienced teachers, novice teachers often plan lessons that lack clear learning objectives—specific descriptions of what students will know or be able to do after they have completed the lesson (Mager, 1975; Thompson, 2002). Learning objectives serve as the foundation for a good lesson and are the standard by which teachers evaluate student learning. Common to all learning objectives are three features, shown in Table 20.2: performance, conditions, and criteria (Mager, 1975).
When constructing objectives, you might begin by asking yourself what types of knowledge students are required to show. Will students be required to learn factual knowledge, specific pieces of information that can be communicated verbally, as when they memorize the capitals of all 50 states? Will students acquire procedural knowledge—how to perform a task or skill—as when they learn to operate a microscope? Will they learn conceptual knowledge, reflecting an understanding of the relationship or connections between ideas, as when they explain the events leading up to World War I?
The next step in planning learning objectives is to ask yourself what students should be able to do with their knowledge. Fifty years ago, educational psychologist Benjamin Bloom proposed a way to classify learning objectives. Bloom’s taxonomy for cognitive tasks, revised and updated in 2001, specifies six ways students can demonstrate their knowledge (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001; Bloom, Englehart, Frost, Hill, & Krathwohl, 1956):
1.
Remember:
Students recall or recognize information, ideas, or principles in the
approximate form in which they learned them without necessarily
understanding or using the information. Instructional activities:
list, label, name, state, or define things.
2.
Understand:
Students make sense of information based on prior learning but may
not make new connections. Instructional activities: explain,
summarize, paraphrase, or describe the information learned.
3. Apply: Students select, transfer, and use data and principles to solve a problem or complete a task with a minimum of direction. Instructional activities: use, compute, solve, demonstrate, or apply knowledge.
4.
Analyze:
This type of thinking often involves breaking something down into its
parts. Students distinguish, classify, and relate the assumptions,
hypotheses, evidence, or structure of a statement or question.
Instructional activities: analyze, categorize, compare, or contrast
information.
>><<
Types
of knowledge: See page 193.
>><<
Bloom’s
levels of cognitive skills: See page 502.
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5. Evaluate: Students judge the value of materials, methods, or ideas in a particular situation. Instructional activities: critique information, make judgments or recommendations, provide justifications.
6. Create: Students combine ideas into an original product, plan, or proposal. The key emphasis at this level is on creating something new, not simply repeating information or using someone else’s ideas. Instructional activities: create, design, invent, develop, hypothesize.
As
they plan instruction, teachers can develop learning goals using
these six levels as objectives. Educators often view these objectives
as a hierarchy, with each skill building on those that precede it.
When deciding on learning goals, ask yourself whether the content to
be learned involves lower-level objectives (remember, understand,
apply) or higher-level objectives (analyze, evaluate, create).
Mastering the multiplication of fractions is a lower-level objective,
while comparing and contrasting two literary pieces is a higher-level
one. After you have clarified what
students
need to learn, you need to select the most appropriate methods to
help students reach their learning goals.
Teachers
have available a variety of instructional methods with distinct
theoretical roots in behavioral learning theory, cognitive learning
theory, or constructivism. Behavioral learning theory, or more
specifically operant
conditioning,
proposes that learning leads to a change in an individual’s
behavior. This perspective has led to teacher-centered
approaches
in which teachers serve as dispensers of information and structure
the learning environment to help students progress from simple to
more complex skills. In contrast, cognitive learning theory and
constructivism both propose that learning involves actively
constructing knowledge. Cognitive learning theory focuses on the
mental processes involved in knowledge construction, while
constructivism emphasizes the role of active exploration and social
interactions within an individual’s environment. Teaching methods
based on cognitive learning theory and constructivism are
student-centered
approaches
because teachers structure the environment to optimize students’
construction of meaning from their interactions with content material
and peers. Teachers often are mediators or facilitators of student
learning rather than repositories of knowledge.
Teaching Methods Based on Behaviorism
Mastery
learning and direct instruction are two teaching methods based on
operant conditioning, which proposes that an individual’s behavior
is the result of two environmental stimuli: antecedents and
consequences. Antecedents are stimuli or situations that signal that
a behavior is expected, while consequences are stimuli that either
strengthen the likelihood that the behavior will occur again or
reduce the future occurrence of the behavior. In mastery learning and
direct instruction, teachers create an antecedent for learning by
establishing learning objectives; breaking the objectives down into
small, manageable learning tasks; and presenting content to be
learned. Students’ behaviors include answering questions,
practicing new knowledge and skills, and demonstrating learning
through homework, assignments, and tests. To create consequences that
strengthen students’ knowledge and skills, teachers closely monitor
students’ progress toward the learning objectives and provide
feedback.
MASTERY LEARNING
Mastery
learning
is based on the idea that all
students can learn curricular material if given sufficient time
(Carroll, 1971). The approach consists of (Bloom, 1971):
n the development of major learning objectives representing a course or unit;
n
dividing
major learning objectives into smaller units from simple to complex,
with each unit having its own learning objectives;
n
conducting
a formative assessment—a brief diagnostic test to assess students’
current level of performance before instruction and to determine
areas needing improvement;
n presenting material to students, who typically work individually and independently;
n providing students with feedback about their progress (reinforcement of learning); and
n conducting a summative assessment—a test to determine what the student has learned.
Planning
for Instruction
Module 20 :
>><<
Information
processing: See page 186.
Operant
conditioning: See page 163.
>><<
Constructivism:
See page 119.
>><<
Formative
and summative assessment: See page 469.
>><<
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Students who do not master a certain unit are allowed to repeat it or an equivalent version and to take another unit test until they have mastered the material (Joyce, Weil, & Calhoun, 2004).
The sequence of instruction described has been used with students at all grade levels and for curricula ranging from basic skills to complex material (Joyce et al., 2004). Mastery learning also can benefit students of varying achievement and ability levels. By adjusting the amount of time and the amount of feedback given to students with different needs, mastery learning increases the likelihood that most students will achieve a prespecified mastery level set by the teacher.
Teachers
also should be aware of potential disadvantages of mastery learning.
In research comparing students taught with mastery learning and those
taught the same material using a different method, mastery-learning
students have shown modest learning gains on teacher-made tests but
no gains when standardized tests are used to measure achievement
(Kulik, Kulik, & Bangert-Drowns, 1990; Slavin, 1990). Also, this
method may widen the achievement gap between students rather than
narrowing it. While lower-achieving students are given extra time to
repeat content in order to achieve mastery, we must assume that
higher-achieving students are progressing to more advanced units.
DIRECT INSTRUCTION
The
goal of
direct instruction
is to maximize academic learning time by (Joyce et al., 2004;
Rosen-shine, 1979):
n using a high degree of teacher control,
n emphasizing completion of learning tasks,
n conveying high expectations for student progress, and
n minimizing off-task behavior such as puzzles, games, and teacher-student interactions not directly related to an academic task.
The
components of direct instruction provide a structured environment for
learning new material and many opportunities for practice and teacher
feedback (Rosenshine, 1983, 1985). The following are typical
components:
n
Teachers
review and check the previous day’s work and re-teach concepts or
skills in areas where students committed errors. In contrast to
mastery learning, where reteaching to mastery is done on an
individual basis, reviewing and reteaching in direct instruction are
done with the entire class. All students move at the same pace
through content.
n
Teachers
introduce new content by activating prior knowledge through
discussion of the learning objective of the lesson or an overview of
the lesson (Joyce et al., 2004; Rosenshine, 1985). Clarifying the
purpose, procedure, and content of the lesson in these ways improves
student achievement (Fisher et al., 1980; Medley, Soar, & Coker,
1984). Teachers are encouraged to present material in small steps to
be mastered one step at a time, provide varied examples, use
modeling, and reex-plain difficult points (Rosenshine, 1985). During
instruction, teachers check for understanding by asking convergent
questions that call for a right answer or questions that require
students to explain their answers (Rosenshine, 1985).
n They engage the students in controlled practice by leading them through examples. Teachers need to carefully monitor this stage of practice and provide immediate corrective feedback to prevent students from learning incorrect procedures or concepts. Rather than simply giving the right answers, effective teachers provide feedback that tells students what they have done correctly, prompt students for clarification or improved answers, and reteach when necessary (Fisher et al., 1980; Rosenshine, 1971).
Mastery Learning.
In mastery learning, shown here, students work independently at their own pace.
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Homework. Homework gives students the opportunity for independent practice, a critical component of direct instruction.
Planning
for Instruction
Module 20 :
n
Students
continue with guided
practice—
practicing on their own while the teacher provides
reinforcement and corrective feedback (e.g., seat work and
worksheets).
n
Students
progress to independent
practice
when they are able to practice knowledge or skills with about
85% to 90% accuracy.
Homework
is an example of independent practice.
n Teachers provide weekly and monthly reviews and reteach ing as necessary in order for long-term learning to occur. Students also need to engage in distributed practice once they have achieved mastery at independent practice. These short and frequent practice periods are more effective than fewer but longer practice opportunities, especially for children in early elementary grades.
Direct
instruction is a popular method in the early elementary grades
(grades 1–3), where much of instruction is focused on basic skills
such as reading, mathematics, spelling, handwriting, and early
science and social studies knowledge. Direct instruction is
effective:
n
for
lower-level objectives in Bloom’s taxonomy and for improving
students’ basic skills in reading and mathematics (Brophy &
Evertson, 1976; Denham & Lieberman, 1980; Joyce et al., 2004);
n
as
an initial instructional strategy for lower-achieving students (Good,
Biddle, & Brophy, 1975); and
n for teaching basic skills to students with disabilities (Reddy, Ramar, & Kusama, 2000; Turnbull,
Turnbull, Shank, Smith, & Leal, 2002).
Direct
instruction is not effective for all students and all situations
(Joyce et al., 2004). For example, this method may not benefit
high-achieving students or task-oriented students (intrinsically
driven to perform and succeed on tasks) (Ebmeier & Good, 1979;
Solomon & Kendall, 1976). Also, direct instruction should not
become the sole instructional method for lower-achieving students.
Rather, teachers should transition to less structured learning
experiences and emphasize more complex knowledge and skills as these
students achieve more success (McFaul, 1983; Means & Knapp,
1991). For a more balanced emphasis on basic and complex learning
skills, direct instruction can be used together with more
student-centered approaches (Kierstad, 1985).
Think
about the grade level you intend to teach. Would you consider using
mastery learning or direct instruction? Why or why not?
Teaching Methods Based on Cognitive Learning Theory
An
important concept in cognitive learning theory is meaningful
learning—actively
forming new knowledge structures by (Mayer, 2003):
n selecting relevant information,
n organizing the information into a coherent structure, and
n
integrating
the information with relevant prior knowledge.
Jerome
Bruner’s (1961) discovery learning and David Ausubel’s (1963,
2000) expository teaching are two distinct teaching methods for
achieving meaningful learning. Elementary through secondary school
teachers in today’s classrooms consider these methods to be
complementary. Teachers can use both approaches, and each has
features that encourage meaningful learning when used appropriately.
Homework:
Do multiplication problems 1–12 Study spelling words Read story and
answer questions
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DISCOVERY LEARNING AND GUIDED DISCOVERY
Discovery
learning
encourages students to actively discover and internalize a concept,
rule, or principle through unstructured exploration of to-be-learned
information (Bruner, 1961). For example, high school students might
be given various inclines and objects and be expected to experiment
with the materials—without explicit guidance from the teacher—to
“discover” certain physics principles. The lack of instructional
guidance may be problematic for students who:
n have no prior knowledge for integrating the to-be-learned principle,
n fail to stumble across the principle at all because of too much freedom in the discovery process
(Mayer,
2004), or
n
activate
inappropriate knowledge, leading to negative or zero transfer.
A
form of discovery learning called guided
discovery
is more effective than pure discovery in facilitating the learning
and transfer of knowledge (Mayer, 2004; Mayer & Wittrock, 1996).
In this approach, the teacher provides enough guidance to ensure that
students discover the rule or principle to be learned. For the high
school students seeking to discover physics principles, the teacher
would provide general guidelines for experimentation, guide their
experimentation, and monitor their progress. Guided discovery
promotes active learning by enabling students to acquire and
integrate appropriate
knowledge. For this to occur, teachers must consider the individual
abilities and needs of students in determining how much and what type
of guidance to provide (Mayer, 2004).
EXPOSITORY TEACHING
In
expository
teaching (also
called meaningful verbal learning), the goal is not to have students
independently discover to-be-learned content but to ensure that new
information will be integrated into the learner’s memory in a
meaningful way. Teachers promote meaningful learning in several ways:
n
They
introduce new content by emphasizing its relevance to what students
already know and to real-life examples and situations.
n
They
activate students’ prior knowledge using advance
organizers,
or general information presented before instruction to provide the
learner with prior knowledge and a structure within which to
integrate new information. For example, the outline and corresponding
learning goals at the beginning of this module (see page 361)
provided general information about what you would learn and gave a
structure to the material (the hierarchical outline). Advance
organizers that consist of concrete models or analogies presented
either verbally or graphically, rather than abstract examples or
principles, are most effective (Mayer, 1992; Robinson, 1988).
n
After
activating students’ relevant knowledge, teachers present topics in
a highly organized format from general, or prerequisite, knowledge to
more specific topics that are a part of the general topic. This
provides a relevant foundation and structure on which students can
build by integrating their new knowledge.
n Students practice their knowledge in many different contexts to achieve a thorough understanding of the new content.
Implemented in this way, expository teaching is an efficient method for teaching subject-matter content, especially with students from the upper elementary grades through high school (Ausubel, 2000; Luiten, Ames, & Ackerson, 1980). Advance organizers also enhance learning and promote transfer, especially when new material is unfamiliar or difficult (Corkill, 1992; Luiten et al., 1980; Morin & Miller, 1998).
Have you ever experienced discovery learning, guided discovery, or expository teaching? Reflect on how effective these methods were for your learning.
Teaching Methods Based on Constructivism
Many constructivist teaching methods are based on situated cognition, a conceptual framework with roots in the writings of Russian educational psychologist Lev Semenovich Vygotsky, Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget, and philosopher/educator John Dewey (Cobb & Bowers, 1999; Rogoff, 1990). Situated cognition explains learning in authentic contexts, such as apprenticeships, in which individuals work alongside experts and acquire necessary skills for solving problems and completing tasks that are important in the real world (Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989; Collins, Hawkins, & Carver, 1991).
Transfer:
See
page 229.
>><<
>><<
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Piaget’s and
Vygotsky’s theories: See page 119 and page 124.
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Educators
can bring situated cognition to schools by creating cognitive
apprenticeships,
in which students develop cognitive skills through guided
participation in authentic activities, which are important in
themselves (Brown et al., 1989; Collins, Brown, & Newman, 1989;
Lave & Wenger, 1991). Students participate in activities at a
level commensurate with their ability and move gradually toward full
participation. Cognitive apprenticeships involve many techniques
(Dennen, 2004; Enkenberg, 2001):
n modeling by the adult or the more experienced individual,
n explaining (explaining one’s reasoning or the need for certain strategies),
n coaching (monitoring students’ activities and assisting and supporting them when necessary),
n practicing,
n scaffolding (providing support to students so they can accomplish a task),
n fading (gradually withdrawing scaffolding),
n exploration (forming and testing hypotheses; finding new ideas and viewpoints),
n reflection (students’ assessment and analysis of their performance), and
n articulation (verbally expressing the results of one’s reflection).
These
techniques are found in many of the constructivist teaching methods
described next. As you read, try to identify the techniques in each
teaching method.
INQUIRY LEARNING
Inquiry
learning
is a form of situated learning in which students construct knowledge
and develop problem-solving skills in the context of an inquiry
activity (Lave & Wenger, 1991). Inquiry typically involves
several phases:
n formulating appropriate research questions,
n collecting and organizing data,
n analyzing and evaluating data, and
n
communicating
the research results in a presentation.
More than a finite list of steps, however, the process of inquiry usually is practiced as a continuous cycle (Bruner, 1965), as Figure 20.1 illustrates. While this approach appears similar to the scientific method, inquiry learning assignments can be designed for any discipline and any developmental level.
Teachers
serve as facilitators, using their expertise to guide the inquiry
lesson and to evaluate students’ progress and the direction of the
inquiry process. When forming and monitoring inquiry groups, teachers
need to ensure that students are working collaboratively. If some
students are allowed to take over the inquiry process of the group,
the opportunity for all students to “construct” knowledge for
themselves may be reduced. Students with intellectual disabilities,
who typi cally show a weakness in independent insight and inductive
thinking relative to normally achieving students, may require
additional coaching and scaffolding in order to benefit from the
inquiry process (Mastropieri et al., 1996; Mastropieri, Scruggs, &
Butcher, 1997).
COOPERATIVE
LEARNING
Cooperative
learning
involves students working
Scaffolding:
See
page 125.
Intellectual disabilities: See page 427.
Planning
for Instruction
Module 20 :
>><<
>><<
Cognitive Apprenticeships. Cognitive apprenticeships, like actual apprenticeships (shown here) involve guided participation in authentic activities.
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together to achieve a shared goal. A cooperative group activity must contain these five elements (Johnson & Johnson, 1990, 1999):
1.
Positive
interdependence:
Members of the group work together and depend on one another so that
all group members succeed.
2.
Individual
and group accountability:
Each member must contribute to the group in order for the group to
succeed and be rewarded.
3.
Interpersonal
skills:
Trust, communication, decision making, leadership, and conflict
resolution are all important to the success of cooperative learning.
4. Face-to-face interaction: Offering effective help and feedback, exchanging resources effectively, challenging one another’s reasoning, and motivating one another to achieve goals are all necessary for effective learning.
5. Group processing: Reflecting on how well the group is functioning and how to improve is important for successful cooperative learning.
Teachers can use the tips in Table 20.3 to create activities that incorporate these five essential elements.
Cooperative
learning can be used for any subject and has several beneficial
academic and social outcomes for elementary through high school
students (Johnson & Johnson, 1999; Lotan & Whitcomb, 1998;
Stevens & Slavin, 1995):
n
higher-level
reasoning, creative thinking, and long-term retention and
transfer of learned information;
n higher achievement in reading and mathematics;
n increased self-esteem, especially in students with disabilities;
n greater intrinsic motivation for learning; and
n
improved
peer relationships in general, among students with disabilities and
nondisabled students, and between students of different ethnicities.
METHODS OF FOSTERING COMPREHENSION
Teachers can use several methods to promote students’ comprehension, all of which foster the construction of knowledge through social interactions and embody several characteristics of cognitive apprenticeships.
Reciprocal teaching. Reciprocal teaching is a method of teaching metacognitive strategies necessary for skilled reading comprehension based on Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development. A group of students is jointly responsible for understanding and evaluating the text. The teacher first models the four comprehension strategies (questioning about the main idea, clarifying, summarizing, and predicting) and then provides scaffolding to students, who take turns leading discussions (Brown & Palincsar, 1987; Palincsar, 2003). Scaffolding by the discussion leader may involve asking questions and rephrasing or elaborating on statements (Brown & Palincsar, 1989; Rosenshine & Meister, 1994). Students are given as much support as they need to complete the activity (Collins et al., 1989). Students with lower reading ability can participate and contribute to the level of their ability, while learning from those with more ability or experience (Brown & Palincsar, 1989). As
Ask
Reflect
Investigate
Discuss
Create
Figure 20.1: The Cycle of Inquiry Learning. Students begin by asking research questions and end by reflecting on the research process and its outcomes.
>><<
Cooperative
learning: See page 373.
Intrinsic
motivation: See page 267 and page 279.
>><<
Reciprocal
teaching: See page 219.
>><<
Vygotsky’s
theory: See page 124.
>><<
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module twenty planning for instruction 367
TA B L E 2 0 . 3 Tips for Effective Cooperative Learning Characteristic Teaching tips
Individual and group accountability
Planning
for Instruction
Module 20 :
Positive
interdependence
n Test all group members and average the scores.
Interpersonal skills n Teach communication skills, especially in the elementary grades.
n Include interpersonal objectives for a cooperative lesson.
n Inform students of the collaborative skills needed to work successfully in their groups.
Face-to-face interaction n Monitor group members’ use of resources and level of challenge and feedback.
n Monitor and scaffold interactions and collaboration, especially for students in elementary grades.
Group processing n Allow time for groups to reflect on their functioning so students do not assume that speed and finishing early are more important than meaningful learning.
n Have students identify what was helpful and unhelpful in their interactions.
n
Use
information about group processing to make decisions about what to
change for the next task or what changes to make in group
placements.
Sources: Johnson & Johnson, 1986, 1990; McCaslin & Good, 1996.
n Establish a group goal stating that all group members must reach their learning goals.
n
Provide
rewards based on the success of the group (e.g., a group grade, bonus
points, or tangible rewards).
n Assign each member a specific role.
n Divide the work so that one member’s assignment is necessary for the next member to complete his or her assignment.
n
Randomly
select one student’s product to represent the group.
n Distribute limited resources.
students acquire skill, they take greater responsibility over the reciprocal teaching process, and scaffolding gradually fades.
Reciprocal teaching is most appropriate at the elementary school level, when instruction in reading focuses on the acquisition of comprehension skill. The method results in substantially improved reading comprehension in students of all ages (Brown & Palincsar, 1989; Rosenshine & Meister, 1994). It also improves the comprehension skills of elementary and middle school students with learning disabilities (Gajria, Jitendra, Sood, & Sacks, 2007; Lederer, 2000). Because students are required to articulate what makes a good question, prediction, and summary, their strategies become decontextualized, able to be used in many domains (Collins et al., 1989).
Instructional conversations. In many elementary school classrooms, students’ verbal contributions are limited to known answers (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 1992). In contrast, the instructional conversations (IC) method assumes that teaching involves conversing—that students have something important to say and their input is valued. Teachers use the IC method to promote elementary school students’ interaction with and comprehension of stories during reading lessons (Gallimore & Golden-berg, 1992; Saunders & Goldenberg, 1999).
The
IC method consists of ten elements (see Table 20.4) that reflect
Vygotsky’s notion of assisted learning in the Zone of Proximal
Development. Teachers and students engage in a joint conversation
about a text that looks like a spontaneous discussion but instead is
a planned interaction with two purposes (Gallimore & Goldenberg,
1992; Gallimore & Tharp, 1990):
>><<
The
Zone of Proximal Development: See page 124.
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368 cluster six classroom management and instruction
Components of Instructional Conversations Instructional elements How to implement
TA B L E 2 0 . 4
1. Thematic focus
n Select a theme or an idea as a starting point for focusing the discussion.
5.
Promotion of bases for statements or positions
4. Promotion of more complex language and expression
n Make a general plan for how the theme will unfold.
2.
Activation and use of background knowledge
n Provide students with necessary background knowledge for understanding the text by weaving the knowledge into the discussions.
3.
Direct teaching
n When necessary, teach a skill or concept directly.
>><<
Language
development techniques: See page 127.
n Elicit more complex language by asking students to expand on their thoughts, questioning them, and restating their contributions using more complex grammar and vocabulary.
n
Encourage
students to use text, pictures, and reasoning to support an argument
or a position.
n Probe for the bases of students’ statements (e.g., ask “How do you know?”).
Conversational elements How to implement
6.
Fewer “known-answer” questions
n Focus on questions for which there might be more than one correct answer.
7.
Responsiveness to student contributions
9. A challenging but nonthreatening atmosphere
n Be responsive to students’ statements and the opportunities they provide for further discussion, while maintaining the focus and coherence of the discussion and the initial plan for the discussion.
8.
Connected discourse
n Be sure the discussion involves interaction and turn-taking so that succeeding contributions build on and extend previous ones.
n Create an open, supportive environment that challenges students to negotiate and construct the meaning of the text.
10. General participation
n
Encourage
students to volunteer to speak or to influence the selection of
speaking turns rather than directly determining who speaks.
Adapted
from Goldenberg, 1992/1993.
1.
Instructional
(learning
objectives for the conversation; e.g., vocabulary, comprehension,
themes).
2.
Conversational
(a joint communicative purpose for discussing the text rather than a
question-response format).
For this method to be effective, teachers need to shift away from the traditional role of evaluating students’ interpretations to assisting students in interpreting texts (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 1992).
The IC approach was initially developed and used with native Hawaiian children in grades K–3 in urban Honolulu and was adapted for use with Latino students in Los Angeles, California (Au, 1979; Goldenberg, 1987). Students participating in IC have achieved grade-level or higher reading skills and mastery of more complex, differentiated concepts than children receiving traditional reading comprehension instruction (Saunders & Goldenberg, 1992; Tharp & Gallimore, 1988).
Reciprocal
questioning.
Reciprocal
questioning,
a method of reinforcing new concepts, information, or procedures that
students have learned in class, encourages structured conversations
among students. Because every student’s understanding of new
material may differ, the social negotiation of conflicting
perspectives can lead to a restructuring of knowledge (Bearison,
1982; Glachan & Light, 1982). For example, after high school
students participate in a history lesson on the consequences of
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module twenty planning for instruction 369
TA B L E 2 0 .5 Question Stems for Reciprocal Questioning Type of prompt Purpose Examples
n Describe in your own words . . . .
n
making
evaluative, comparative, or evidential connections within the
material
To construct new knowledge and integrate it with prior knowledge by:
n explaining
n
Do
you agree or disagree with this statement? Why or why not?
n How does . . . tie in with what we learned before?
Planning
for Instruction
Module 20 :
Comprehension-checking
Self-testing
n
What
does . . . mean?
n What is a new example of . . . ?
Knowledge-constructing
n Explain why . . . .
n Explain how . . . .
n
How
do you account for . . . ?
n What conclusions can you draw about . . . ?
n What would happen if . . . ?
n How would . . . affect . . . ?
n What do you think causes . . . ?
n What are the strengths and weaknesses of . . . ?
Metacognitive
To monitor thinking and learning
Thought-provoking To create cognitive conflict through expression of different points of view
n
What
do you think would happen if . . . ?
n What is the best . . . and why?
n
What
is your reasoning?
n What made you think of that?
Adapted
from King, 2002.
the
Missouri Compromise of 1820, they would independently generate two or
three questions using question stems, shown in Table 20.5, and then
take turns in cooperative groups asking and answering each other’s
questions. Students who give explanations of lesson content in peer
groups improve their own comprehension of the material (Dansereau,
1988; Webb, 1989). The question stems are the most important aspect
of this approach, because they guide discussions by encouraging
students to (King, 1990, 2002):
n provide explanations to others,
n think about the material in new ways by confronting different perspectives, and
n
monitor
their thinking through metacognitive questions.
More
instruction on how to generate the questions is better than less
instruction. In research by King (1990, 2002), students trained in
the use of “why” and “how” questions asked more critical
thinking questions and gave and received more elaborated explanations
than untrained students (King, 1990, 2002). With students in
elementary school through college, research also shows that
reciprocal questioning improves comprehension more effectively than
group discussion, unguided peer questioning (i.e., no question stems
provided), and a general review of material (Fantuzzo, Riggio,
Connelly, & Dimeff, 1989; King, 1991). Reciprocal questioning
generates more high-level (critical thinking) questions than does
group discussion (King, 1990, 2002).
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370 key concepts
Key Concepts
academic
learning time advance organizers
Bloom’s
taxonomy cognitive apprenticeships cooperative learning daily lesson
plans direct instruction
Describe the sequential process of planning for classroom instruction and provide examples of the decisions made during lesson planning. Comprehensive instructional planning unfolds in several stages, moving from general to specific, from long-range plans to unit plans to very detailed daily lesson plans. When planning lessons, teachers must make decisions about fulfillment of state standards, identification of learning objectives, selection of effective instructional methods, and development and use of assessments to determine whether learning goals have been met. The process is dynamic, in that teachers make on-the-spot adjustments as needed to ensure the success of a lesson plan. The process is cyclical, in that teachers reflect on what works and what doesn’t so that they can improve their instruction for next time.
Define learning objective and explain why it is important for a lesson to have clear objectives. A learning objective is a description of what students will know or be able to do after they have completed the lesson. Objectives form the foundation for a good lesson and are the standard by which student learning is evaluated. Bloom’s taxonomy of cognitive objectives is a useful tool for planning learning goals at six different levels of thinking: remember, understand, apply, analyze, evaluate, and create.
Describe the goals of mastery learning and direct instruction, and discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each approach. Mastery learning encourages all students to achieve mastery of course content by adjusting the amount of time and feedback students need to progress through individual curricular units. Mastery approaches are applicable to all grade levels and to material of varying complexity, but they may widen the achievement gap between lower- and
higher-achieving students. Direct instruction maximizes academic learning time through use of teacher control, structured lessons, practice, and feedback. The approach is effective for teaching basic skills, especially with lower-achieving students and students with disabilities, but it may not be beneficial when used with high-achieving or task-oriented students or as a teacher’s only instructional method.
Explain how discovery learning and expository teaching foster meaningful learning. Meaningful learning is a process of forming new knowledge by selecting and organizing information and relating it to prior knowledge. In discovery learning, students actively discover and internalize a concept, rule, or principle through unstructured exploration of lesson content. Expository teaching promotes meaningful learning in several ways: (1) by activating students’ prior knowledge through advance organizers, (2) by emphasizing how new material relates to what students already know and to real-life examples and situations, and (3) by providing opportunities for students to practice their knowledge in many different contexts.
Describe
the techniques based on cognitive apprenticeships that are used
in constructivist teaching. Inquiry
learning, cooperative learning, instructional conversations,
reciprocal teaching, and reciprocal questioning are all
constructivist teaching methods that use a variety of techniques
based on cognitive apprenticeships. Students engage in exploration,
practice of skills, explanations of their reasoning, reflection, and
articulation. Teachers use explanation whenever necessary, as well as
modeling, coaching, scaffolding, and fading. More experienced
students also use scaffolding and fading of cognitive strategies to
assist their less experienced peers.
long-range plans mastery learning meaningful learning reciprocal questioning reciprocal teaching unit plans
discovery learning expository teaching guided discovery inquiry learning instructional conversations learning objectives
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cases studies: reflect and evaluate 371
Early Childhood: “Caterpillar Circle”
These questions refer to the case study on page 316.
1. What elements of Sarah’s reading activity seem well planned for the developmental level of her students?
2. How might you describe the behavioral objectives of Sarah’s reading circle? State possible objectives in terms of performance, conditions, and criteria.
3. What steps taken by Sarah and her assistant, Steve, are likely to increase academic learning time?
4. Explain how Sarah can use guided discovery with her preschool class. Choose a specific topic or lesson and describe how she would need to structure the lesson for optimal learning.
5.
Explain how Sarah can use inquiry learning and cooperative learning
with her preschoolers. Describe any benefits and caveats for using
these instructional methods with students with disabilities.
Elementary School: “Ecosystems”
These questions refer to the case study on page 318.
1. What evidence of careful teacher planning do you see in this case?
2. Does Leilani tell students the purpose of the activity? Does she identify behavioral learning objectives? How does a statement of behavioral objectives relate to assessment?
3. Explain how Leilani could use inquiry learning for the ecosystem project. With such a diverse class of students, what potential problems must Leilani anticipate when forming inquiry groups?
4. If you were the teacher, would you approach a lesson on ecosystems using an expository teaching method or a guided discovery method? Why? What aspects of the approach you’ve chosen fit with your philosophy of teaching?
5. Imagine that Leilani does a follow-up activity in which she has students in each group engage in reciprocal questioning about ecosystems. Explain the benefits of this method and why it is more effective than having students summarize what they have learned.
6.
Assume that Leilani uses direct instruction to teach reading. What
factors does she need to consider to meet the needs of diverse
learners such as Missy, Tamika, Steven, Jackson, Alissa, and Jorge?
What other specific teaching methods discussed in the module could
she use to complement direct instruction?
Middle School: “Classroom Safety”
These questions refer to the case study on page 320.
1. What do you think the objectives were for Saul’s group project? How could these have been communicated to his students in terms of performance, conditions, and criteria?
2. Which aspects of Saul’s instruction seemed to be well planned? Which aspects needed more thought?
3. How might Saul’s assignment of students to project groups impact academic learning time?
4. Identify techniques used in cognitive apprenticeships, and describe how Saul could use these in his industrial technology class.
5.
You are a colleague of Saul. Explain to him how he could use
cooperative learning to improve the effectiveness of the assigned
project.
High School: “Refusal to Dress”
These questions refer to the case study on page 322.
1. Identify two learning objectives that would be appropriate for Maria’s first-period class.
2. Maria teaches health and PE. How do you think lesson planning for a PE class might differ from the planning for a traditional academic subject such as algebra or physics?
3. Which instructional methods discussed in the module seem most applicable to Maria’s class? Explain.
4. Assume from the details in the case that David uses direct instruction in his second-period English composition class.
Pretend that you’re his colleague, and explain to David the disadvantages of this method.
5. If you were teaching second-period English composition, describe the teaching method(s) you would use with the students in the case. Provide a rationale for your choice of teaching method(s).
6.
Imagine that Brianna was walking into an AP English class during
second period. Describe the teaching method you might expect to see.
Does your answer differ from the answer you gave for question 5? Why
or why not?
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