boh7850x_CL3Mod10.p175-185.indd

Social Cognitive Theory

Describe the basic assumptions of social cognitive theory.

Summary Key Concepts Case Studies: Re

ﬂect and Evaluate

Assumptions of Social Cognitive Theory

Observational Learning

Model Characteristics

Imitator Characteristics

Environmental Characteristics

Outline Learning Goals

Describe those characteristics of models, imitators, and the environment needed for observational learning.

Personal Factors in Learning

Self-ef

ﬁcacy

Self-regulation

Applications: Improving Students

’ Self-efﬁcacy and Self-regulation

Explain how self-ef

ﬁcacy and self-regulation are related to positive outcomes for students.

Explain how teachers can promote self-ef

ﬁcacy and self-regulation among their students.

boh7850x_CL3Mod10.p175-185.indd 175

10/9/08 8:43:34 AM

176

cluster three

learning theories

ASSUMPTIONS OF SOCIAL COGNITIVE
THEORY

Have you ever heard a young child say a swear word and thought to
yourself, Well, she heard that somewhere? Would you ever consider
teaching children how to shoot a basketball or write their name
without showing them how? Many times children imitate our
behaviors when we don’t necessarily want them to, such as when they
repeat swear words, but often we want them to imitate our behaviors
as a way for them to learn. In the 1960s, Albert Bandura began to
study how individuals could learn by observing others’ experiences in
the environment. His ideas about observational learning were ﬁrst
termed social learning theory. As the theory evolved and included
more personal characteristics such as cognition, the theory was
relabeled social cognitive theory. Let’s examine several assumptions
of Bandura’s (1986) social cognitive theory before we address the
speciﬁcs of the theory:

Learning can occur by observing others. An individual does not

need to directly experience environmental stimuli, such as through
reinforcement and punishment of behavior. Instead, an individual
can observe others’ environmental experiences in order to learn new
behaviors or to learn which behaviors will receive rewards or
punishments. Learning by observing others’ behaviors is called
vicarious learning, or observational learning.

Learning may or may not include a behavior change. Learning can

include observing others’ behaviors and gaining knowledge but not
performing those behaviors. For example, an individual may learn
how to put a pencil in the sharpener and sharpen it through
observation but might not sharpen the pencil if it is already sharp.

Personal characteristics are important in learning. Behavior is not

simply a direct effect of the environment but also includes personal
characteristics, such as beliefs in one’s ability. For example, a
student who believes she can succeed on a history test is more likely
to learn the material. Personal characteristics can be enhanced by the
environment to promote learning, as when the student’s high score
on the history test further solidiﬁes her belief in her success.

The best-known example of observational learning is the classic

experimental study examining aggressive behaviors (Bandura, Ross,
& Ross, 1961). Preschool-age children in the experimental group
were taken individually to a toy room and exposed to an adult model
exhibiting aggression toward a Bobo doll. Preschool-age children in
the control group were taken individually to the same toy room and
exposed to an adult model playing quietly and ignoring the Bobo doll.

Then the adult model exited the room, and the children’s behavior in
the toy room was observed for aggression. As expected, the children
exposed to the aggressive model exhibited more aggressive
behaviors—both physical and verbal—aggression than did children in
the control group.

Think of some instances when you have learned through
observation. Did your learning include a change in behavior?
What factors were important in your observational learning?

OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING

Stimuli: See page 161.

Learning: See page 160.

Classic Bobo Doll Study.
This study showed that children can learn aggressive behaviors through
observational learning.

Observational learning includes several components that inﬂuence
what information will be learned. Both speciﬁc characteristics of the
model performing the behavior and speciﬁc characteristics of the
imitator inﬂuence whether learning will occur. Even with the most
effective models and imitators, environmental conditions also have
an effect on whether behaviors will be performed.

Model Characteristics

For observational learning to occur, someone must perform a
behavior while being observed by another individual. The model,
the individual whose behavior is being observed, performs (or
models) a behavior that can be imitated by others. Models can be
either live or symbolic (Bandura, 1986, 2002). Live models,
individuals who are observed directly, can be the observer’s friends,
parents, siblings, fellow students, or teachers. Symbolic models,
individuals who do not live within the same environment as the
observer, can be observed through various media such as movies,
books, and television

boh7850x_CL3Mod10.p175-185.indd 176

10/9/08 8:43:41 AM

module ten

social cognitive theory

177

Symbolic Models. Models can be found in the media, such as Hannah Montana, Spiderman, Superman, and Jordin Sparks.

Social Cognitive Theory

Module 10 :

programs. Both live and symbolic models provide individuals with many opportunities to observe the behaviors of
others.

Certain characteristics of models, whether live or symbolic, increase the likelihood that their behaviors will

be observed:

1. Relevance: The behavior of models must be relevant for the individual observing the behavior— the individual

must be interested in the behavior being performed, and the model must be similar to the individual (Schunk &
Hanson, 1989). For example, some children may not be interested in chess and will not pay attention to the
behavior of the stellar chess player in school. Also, individuals are more likely to imitate the behaviors of models
who appear similar to them based on age, gender, race, socioeconomic status, and so on. Students who observe a
peer of the same age will increase their level of mathematical performance more than students who observe a
teacher (Schunk & Hanson, 1989).
2. Competence: The model must be viewed as competent in the behavior being observed. Students learning math
will pay more attention to the behavior of other students who have strong academic performance in math than to
that of students who are failing or struggling in math.

3. High status: The model is more likely to be imitated if he or she is someone with high status. High status can

include power:

boh7850x_CL3Mod10.p175-185.indd 177

10/9/08 8:43:42 AM

178

cluster three

learning theories

within the family (parents and older siblings),

within the peer group (the popular students at school),

of authority (teachers and principals),

within the popular media (celebrities), or

within a particular culture (political or religious ﬁgures).

  4. Gender-appropriateness: An effective model is more likely to be
someone of the same sex who is performing    gender-appropriate
behaviors.    Gender-appropriate    behaviors    are    those    viewed
by mainstream society as speciﬁc to either males or females (Bussey
& Bandura, 1999). In the classic Bobo doll study described earlier,
boys and girls were more likely to imitate a male model being
aggressive than they were a female model. The strongest relationship
was between a male model and male child, most likely because
physical aggression is deemed more appropriate for males than for
females by society (Bandura et al., 1961).

Teachers provide an excellent example of models in the classroom.

Teachers may not have all the characteristics described, such as being
of the same gender or race, but they can facilitate observational
learning by making the subject interesting or relevant to students,
making sure they are competent in the subject matter, and
maintaining their high status as authority ﬁgures. Teachers must be
careful not to model inappropriate behaviors, which also can be
imitated by students.

Imitator Characteristics

Many times, teachers with several of the characteristics described
model academic skills or appropriate social behaviors, yet those
behaviors are not imitated by students. In addition to requiring certain
characteristics of models, observational learning requires the imitator
to meet several conditions (Bandura, 1986; Schunk, 2004):

  1. Attention: The imitator must be paying attention to the model.
Teachers can perform behaviors that are intended to be imitated by
students, such as completing mathematical equations on the white
board, but students must pay attention to the behavior in order to
perform the behavior themselves later.
2. Retention: Students not only must pay attention to the teacher who
is completing the mathematical equation on the white board, but also
must be able to remember the behavior later that evening while they
are completing the homework assignment.
  3. Production: The imitator must be able to produce the behavior.
For example, many individuals paid attention to Michael Jordan’s
legendary basketball skills in the 1990s, and even memorized his
physical    moves;    however,    few    people could produce those
same behaviors.
4.    Motivation: An imitator who pays attention,    retains    the
information,    and    can produce the behavior also must have the
motivation to perform that behavior in the future. A math student
may have attended to and retained the model’s behavior and may be
able to produce the behavior    but    may    not    be    motivated    to
complete the math homework.

Students may be more or less likely to meet these conditions.

For example, young children    do    not    have    the    same    attention
span or memory strategies as older individuals. As cognitive
development becomes more advanced,    individuals    are    able    to
imitate more complex behaviors. Similarly, physical strength and
ability grow throughout childhood    and    adolescence,    allowing
some    behaviors to be more easily produced at a later

Attention: See page 188.

Motivation: See page 256.

Gender: See page 56.

Live Models. Teachers can model learning tasks and behaviors for students,
such as completing mathematical equations on a white board, but students
must be paying attention in order to perform the behavior themselves later.

boh7850x_CL3Mod10.p175-185.indd 178

10/9/08 8:43:51 AM

module ten

social cognitive theory

179

Social Cognitive Theory

Module 10 :

time. In addition, some cultures, such as the country of Samoa, use
observational learning as a primary mode of teaching social behavior,
a strategy that may give students practice in using the skills needed to
learn by observation (Odden & Rochat, 2004).

Environmental Characteristics

Assume that we have a model who has all the necessary
characteristics to be effective and an imitator who also has all the
necessary characteristics to be effective. Will all the modeled
behaviors be imitated? No. Environmental conditions increase or
decrease the likelihood that a modeled behavior actually will be
imitated by an individual (Bandura, 1986; Schunk, 2004). Let’s look
at some of these environmental conditions:

Response facilitation effect: A behavior is imitated more

frequently if a model has been reinforced for that behavior—called
vicarious reinforcement. An adolescent who views another
student receiving free time to talk with friends because she has
completed her homework during class time is more likely to
complete the homework (increase behavior) to receive that same
reinforcement.

Response inhibition effect: A behavior is imitated less frequently

if a model has been punished for that behavior—called vicarious
punishment. An elementary student is less likely to swear in class

if a classmate has been sent to the principal’s ofﬁce for swearing in
class.

Response disinhibition effect: A behavior is imitated more

frequently if a model’s behavior is not punished when the behavior
typically is punished. For example, cheating on an exam typically
results in punishment. If some students are successful in cheating
on an exam without receiving punishment, other students are more
likely to perform that same cheating behavior.

Studies continue to ﬁnd support for learning by observation. For

example, a recent study of aggression, based on natural observations
of preschoolers in a low-income, urban day care center, found that
aggression occurred more frequently after an aggressive act resulted
in a positive outcome—vicarious reinforcement—than after
aggression followed by a negative outcome—vicarious punishment
(Goldstein, Arnold, Rosenberg, Stowe, & Ortiz, 2001). Support has
also been found for using observational learning in academic
domains, such as preschool-age reading and middle school writing
(Braaksma, Rijlaarsdam, van den Bergh, & van Hout-Wolters, 2004;
Horner, 2004). Teachers should not only model academic skills and
appropriate behaviors themselves, but also reinforce students’
appropriate behaviors, as other students may imitate their peers.

Celebrities and athletes are symbolic models with extremely high
status who may not model appropriate behaviors and may not be
punished for inappropriate behaviors. How can teachers compete
with such models?

PERSONAL FACTORS IN LEARNING

Bandura (1986) has expanded his theory of observational learning to
move beyond the historical link between environment and behavior
and include variables more unique to individuals. The advances in his
theory led to the triadic reciprocal determinism model of causality to
explain the interaction among three aspects (see Figure 10.1):

Punishment: See page 164.

Reinforcement: See page 164.

Personal factors

Environmental factors

Behavioral factors

Figure 10.1: Bandura

’s Triadic Reciprocal Determinism

Model of Causality. In this model, behavioral,
environmental, and personal factors have a bidirectional
in

ﬂuence on one another.

boh7850x_CL3Mod10.p175-185.indd 179

10/9/08 8:43:53 AM

180

cluster three

learning theories

1. Behavioral characteristics, including choices in actions and performance.

2. Environmental characteristics, consisting of the various
environmental contexts (family, school, mass media) and the
socialization factors within those contexts (parents, teachers,
symbolic models).
3. Personal characteristics, including personality, temperament,
emotions, and physical characteristics (gender and race) as well as
internal cognitive processes (goals, beliefs, and attitudes).

Note two features of this model. First, the inﬂuence of these three

aspects on one another is bidirectional, or reciprocal. A teacher’s
instructional style (environmental characteristic) may inﬂuence a
student’s performance (behavior), and the student’s performance may
inﬂuence the teacher’s instruction. Second, personal factors are
important and interact with environmental characteristics to inﬂuence
behavior. A student with high levels of anxiety (personal
characteristic) who is attending a school in a low-socioeconomic
district with few resources (environmental characteristic) may score
lower on a standardized test than a student with high levels of
conﬁdence (personal characteristic) who is attending a school in a
high-socioeconomic district with the best teachers and resources
(environmental characteristic). Although many personal factors
contribute to learning, two characteristics that have received much
attention in the educational ﬁeld are self-efﬁcacy and self-regulation.

Self-ef

ﬁcacy

Self-efﬁcacy, an individual’s belief about his or her capabilities for

success, has been studied extensively (Bandura, 1977, 1997).
Individuals with high self-efﬁcacy believe that they are capable of
success, whereas individuals with low self-efﬁcacy believe that they
are likely to fail or that they are not capable of success. Self-efﬁcacy
develops from four inﬂuences:

  1. Past performance: Individuals who have been successful in a
given domain in the past are likely to have high self-efﬁcacy for it.
For example, a student who has performed well in math is likely to
expect to achieve success in math in the future. In contrast, the
student who has struggled with math or has had many instances of
failure likely expects to fail again in the future.
2.    Modeling: When individuals see others similar to themselves
experience success, they are likely to have high self-efﬁcacy and to
believe that they too can be successful.
3.    Verbal persuasion: Individuals who are told that they can be
successful are more likely to believe in their own success and to
develop high self-efﬁcacy. Students who are told that they are
unlikely to succeed may develop low self-efﬁcacy and a belief that
they will fail.
4.    Physiological states: Physical strength or fatigue can inﬂuence
levels of self-efﬁcacy. A student who is physically weak may have
lower self-efﬁcacy in areas of athletic performance than a student
who is physically strong; or students who are tired may be less likely
to view their capabilities as leading to success.

Self-ef

ﬁcacy: See page 297.

High Self-ef

ﬁcacy. Individuals with high self-efﬁcacy believe that they are very

capable of success and would be more likely to participate in class by raising
their hand.

boh7850x_CL3Mod10.p175-185.indd 180

10/9/08 8:43:53 AM

module ten

social cognitive theory

181

Cultural differences also may inﬂuence the development of

self-efﬁcacy (Bandura, 2002; Sc-hunk & Pajares, 2002). Teachers and
media ﬁgures often are less likely to represent a minority group.
Because students from minority groups may have fewer similar
models available, they may have lower self-efﬁcacy. For example,
one study found that minority students predicted their own
performance on standardized tests—as well as that of others in their
minority group—to be below average. Similarly, women had lower
self-efﬁcacy in comparison to men for performance on a standardized
test (Mayo & Christenfeld, 1999). Historically in American culture,
girls had few female role models in successful careers, and verbal
persuasion toward participation in certain academic areas (e.g., math,
science) was not encouraging but rather discouraging (Bussey &
Bandura, 1999). Recent research suggests that this pattern may be

disappearing in some cultures. A cross-national study found that
middle school-age girls had higher self-efﬁcacy for academic
activities than boys in Eastern and Western European countries
(Pastorelli et al., 2001). Teachers can counter the limited models
available for minority students and girls by using verbal persuasion
and providing examples of successful similar models whenever
possible.

Self-efﬁcacy is considered an important cognitive process in

learning because it inﬂuences choice of behavior, effort and
persistence, and achievement (Bandura, 1982, 1989, 1997). Let's
examine each of these more closely.

Choice of behavior: Individuals will choose more difﬁcult

behaviors for which they have high self-efﬁcacy, whereas
individuals with low self-efﬁcacy will avoid those behaviors. For
example, the student with high self-efﬁcacy for reading will
choose more difﬁcult books to read, while the student with low
self-efﬁcacy for reading will avoid it. Similarly, one study found
that middle school students who had high self-efﬁcacy for math
and science were more likely to continue taking classes in those
areas (Fouad & Smith, 1996).

Effort and persistence: Students with high self-efﬁcacy will

increase their effort and persistence for success even when they are
struggling. For example, students with high self-efﬁcacy for
mathematics who do not perform well on the ﬁrst homework
assignment will put more time and energy into the next
assignment. These students will continue to strive for success
because they believe that they can be successful. In contrast,
students with low self-efﬁcacy for mathematics will view their ﬁrst
failure or struggle in math as veriﬁcation that indeed they cannot
be successful, and they will give up more easily (Bandura, 1982).

Achievement: Individuals with high self-efﬁcacy tend to have

higher levels of academic achievement than individuals with low
self-efﬁcacy (Bandura & Locke, 2003; Valentine, DuBois, &
Cooper, 2004). Speciﬁcally, self-efﬁcacy for learning is related to
mathematical performance, reading, and writing skills (see Schunk,
2003, for a review).

Think about your own self-ef

ﬁcacy. Do you have high

self-ef

ﬁcacy in some academic areas and low self-efﬁcacy in

others? What factors most in

ﬂuenced your self-efﬁcacy in those

areas?

Self-regulation

Another personal characteristic in the triadic reciprocal model that has
received much attention in educational settings is
self-regulation—the ability to control one’s emotions, cognitions,
and behaviors by providing consequences for oneself. Bandura (1989)
proposed that individuals need to learn self-regulation because the
external environment cannot always provide reinforcement and
punishment. Because learning processes can be very different in
different domains and contexts, self-regulation is not a general trait

but rather is highly situational and context-speciﬁc (Schunk, 2001).
For example, a student may have the ability to master his learning
rather than relying on others in the subject of math but not in
American literature.

Self-regulation for learning includes a cyclical process with three

major components, as shown in Figure 10.2 (Bandura, 1986;
Zimmerman, 2001).

  1. Self-observation, or self-monitoring: viewing one’s own
behavior and possibly recording one’s own behavior.
2. Self-judgment: comparing one’s performance to a
predetermined goal or standard.
  3. Self-evaluation: determining the quality of the judgment (good
or bad) and possibly providing self-imposed consequences
(reinforcement or punishment).

Social Cognitive Theory

Module 10 :

Self-regulation: See page 299.

boh7850x_CL3Mod10.p175-185.indd 181

10/9/08 8:43:58 AM

182

cluster three

learning theories

Let's examine these three components using the example of a student
studying for an exam. The student would self-observe her study
strategies, including recording the number of hours spent reading the
text or taking notes. Then, assuming the student set a goal of an 80%
score and achieved a 90% score on the exam, the student would
self-judge that she had met the goal. Finally, she would evaluate her
performance positively and possibly self-impose a reward, such as
going to a movie with a friend. The cyclical process suggests that the
student would use the self-judgment and self-evaluation processes to
conclude that her study strategies are effective and should be used in
the future. When the judgment and evaluation processes are less
favorable, the student may choose to change study strategies and start
the process of self-observation again.

The development of self-regulation begins in social interactions

with parents, teachers, and peers who model learning strategies and

provide verbal persuasion. The learning processes demonstrated in
these social experiences become more self-directed through internal
standards, beliefs, and self-reinforcement. Achieving self-regulation is
more difﬁcult for younger children than for older children, because
younger children:

have a shorter attention span,

possess fewer memory strategies,

tend to overestimate or underestimate their progress

(exhibit poor self-judgment and self-evaluation), and

need more immediate consequences.

Given these limitations, self-regulation does not begin to develop
until the elementary school years (Schunk & Zimmerman, 1997;
Zimmerman & Schunk, 2001). Self-regulation skills continue to grow
throughout development, with high school students having higher
levels of self-regulation than middle school students (Zimmerman &
Martinez-Pons, 1990).

A higher level of self-regulation skills in students is related to a

number of positive outcomes in educational settings, including
(Zimmerman, 1998):

high self-efﬁcacy,

the setting of higher academic goals,

more focus and enjoyment for learning activities, and

the attribution of academic success to one’s own learning strategies.

Applications: Improving Students

’ Self-efﬁcacy and

Self-regulation

Given the link between self-efﬁcacy and academic achievement,
educators need to promote self-efﬁcacy. To do this, teachers can
provide students with accurate, speciﬁc feedback rather than
un-deserved positive feedback (Linnenbrink & Pintrich, 2003).
Self-efﬁcacy that is based on accurate appraisals of an individual’s
capabilities is more beneﬁcial for positive outcomes than are
inaccurate appraisals. This is especially true for younger children,
who are less likely to assess their capabilities accurately due to their
limited cognitive abilities and limited past performances (Schunk &
Pajares,

Self-observation

Self-evaluation

Self-judgment

Figure 10.2: Self-regulation. Cyclical process between
major components of self-regulation.

boh7850x_CL3Mod10.p175-185.indd 182

10/29/08 1:46:23 PM

module ten

social cognitive theory

183

2002). Teachers also can provide verbal persuasion for their students,
particularly young children, in order to enhance accurate appraisals
and increase self-efﬁcacy.

Teachers should also model self-efﬁcacy (Bandura, 1989).

Teacher efﬁcacy is a teacher’s belief in his or her capability to
transmit knowledge as well as manage the classroom well. Teacher
efﬁcacy is important because it inﬂuences student self-efﬁcacy and
can affect student achievement (Woolfolk & Hoy, 1990). Teachers
with high efﬁcacy develop more challenging lessons, spend more
time on academic activities and are more persistent in working with
students who are struggling. Conversely, teachers with low efﬁcacy
tend to have a pessimistic view of student motivation and are more
easily stressed by students’ misbehaviors (Bandura, 1997; Schunk,
2004). Teacher efﬁcacy can be increased by observing other teachers,
practicing performance (e.g., student teaching), and gaining more
knowledge in one’s subject areas.

Student self-efﬁcacy also can be increased through collective

efﬁcacy within school systems. Collective efﬁcacy is the belief in
success with respect to a group or social system, such as beliefs about
teachers and administrators in a school system as a whole (Schunk,
2004). Bandura (1997) suggests a number of characteristics needed
for collective efﬁcacy in a school system:

administrations seek to improve instruction;

administrators and teachers have high expectations and standards;

teachers provide activities that promote self-efﬁcacy in students;

classroom behavior is well managed, resulting in more time

spent on instruction and less on discipline issues; and

the school encourages a collaborative effort with parents, including open communication.

Self-regulation also can be enhanced by modeling learning

strategies and guiding the practice of learning strategies (Schunk &
Zimmerman, 2007). Teachers ﬁrst need to act as models and to
provide feedback. Teachers then can provide students with
opportunities for independent practice that require more
self-evaluation, such as homework. Training in self-regulation
processes (goal setting, self-reﬂection) has been found to lead to
remarkable improvements in learning skills and self-efﬁcacy
(Schunk, 2001), including increases in performance and learning
processes in individuals with learning disabilities (Butler, 1998).

Teacher ef

ﬁcacy: See page 300.

Social Cognitive Theory

Module 10 :

boh7850x_CL3Mod10.p175-185.indd 183

10/9/08 8:43:59 AM

184

case studies: re

ﬂect and evaluate

Summary

Describe    the    basic    assumptions    of    social    cognitive theory. Learning    can    occur    through
observation    as well as through direct experiences with the environment but may not always lead to a
change in behavior. Learning is not simply a product of the environment but includes individual, personal
characteristics such as cognitive beliefs.
Describe    those    characteristics    of    models,    imitators, and the environment needed for
observational learning. Models are more likely to be imitated if they are similar to the imitator, have a
high status, and competently    display    gender-appropriate    behaviors    that are of interest to the
imitator. Observational learning can take place only when the imitator is paying attention, can remember
the behaviors observed, can actually produce the behaviors, and is motivated to imitate the behaviors.
Behaviors are more likely to be imitated if the model was reinforced for the behavior, and less likely to be
imitated if the model was punished for the behavior. When the model is not punished for behaviors that
typically are punished, the behavior is likely to be imitated.
Explain how self-ef

ﬁcacy and self-regulation are related to positive outcomes for students.

Self-ef

ﬁcacy, or beliefs about one’s ability to be successful, are related to choice of behavior, effort and

persistence, and achievement. Self-regulation involves a cyclical process among self-observation,
self-judgment, and self-evaluation that enhances self-ef

ﬁcacy and promotes the setting of higher

goals, the attribution of academic success to the self, and enjoyment of learning activities.
Explain how teachers can promote self-ef

ﬁcacy and self-regulation among their students.

Teachers can provide students with successful models and accurate, positive feedback on their
performance to increase self-ef

ﬁcacy. In addition, teachers who have high self-efﬁcacy for

instruction and are involved in school systems with collective ef

ﬁcacy are more capable of increasing

student self-ef

ﬁcacy. Teachers can increase self-regulation among students by ﬁrst providing a

model and feedback and then giving students opportunities for independent learning.

Key Concepts

collective ef

ﬁcacy live models model observational learning self-efﬁcacy self-evaluation self-judgment

self-observation self-regulation

symbolic models teacher ef

ﬁcacy vicarious reinforcement vicarious punishment

Case Studies:

Refl ect and Evaluate

Early Childhood:

“Pinch”

These questions refer to the case study on page 152.
1. Identify an example of vicarious reinforcement being used in the preschool classroom.
2. Although ignoring misbehaviors can be effective at times, why did that strategy lead to increased pinching by

other students?

  3. Why did Rana and Amber both demonstrate how to use the sponge for painting?
  4. What are some reasons why Emily was unable to use the sponge and paint in the way it was demonstrated by her
teachers?
  5. How did self-ef

ﬁcacy inﬂuence Emily’s art project? How did pairing Emily with Reagan help improve Emily’s

self-ef

ﬁcacy?

What else can Rana and Amber do to increase Emily

’s self-efﬁcacy?

boh7850x_CL3Mod10.p175-185.indd 184

10/9/08 8:43:59 AM

Elementary School:

“Silly Students”

These questions refer to the case study on page 154.

1. What are some examples of how modeling is used within
Aidan

’s classroom? How might these be improved upon?

2. What characteristics of imitators needed to be improved upon
for the students to increase their ability to complete the work?
3. What methods of increasing Sara

’s self-efﬁcacy were

suggested by Anna? What else can Aidan do to increase her
self-ef

ﬁcacy?

4. Aidan asks the other two fourth-grade teachers for help quite

often during their lunchtime. Why is this type of interaction among
teachers important for Aidan and for the school system?

5. In what speci

ﬁc ways did Aidan attempt to increase self-regulation among his students?

6. How might the knowledge that Aidan is African American and
his students are predominantly White change your expectations for
modeling and increasing self-ef

ﬁcacy? Why?

Middle School:

“Study Hall”

These questions refer to the case study on page 156.

  1. What modeling characteristics were important in order for Jamie
to complete his math homework and for Jasamine to complete her
English homework?
  2. Do you think this plan would work as well if Jamie were a girl
and Jasamine were a boy? Do you think this plan would work as
well if Milos were a woman and Gladys were a man? Explain your
answers.
  3. Is Gladys

’s idea of having Jasamine work with another student

a good idea? Why or why not, based on effective modeling?
4. How might Jamie

’s past performance in mathematics inﬂuence

his ability to complete the homework? How might Jasamine

’s past

performance in English in

ﬂuence her ability to complete the

homework? What other factors might in

ﬂuence their performance?

5. How might

“helping” Jamie and Jasamine with their homework increase or decrease self-regulation?

What strategies could be used to increase self-regulation?

High School:

“Bending the Rules”

These questions refer to the case study on page 158.
1. What speci

ﬁc aspects of observational learning does Dan include in his classroom?

2. According to social cognitive theory, what speci

ﬁc

characteristics of imitators make completing the homework
assignments easy for most of the students? What characteristics of
imitators give Jason dif

ﬁculty? How could these characteristics be

changed?
3. How and why might bending the rules in

ﬂuence the other

basketball players

’ future completion of homework?

4. What factors might be in

ﬂuencing Jason’s self-efﬁcacy? How might his self-efﬁcacy be changed?

5. How would you describe the collective self-ef

ﬁcacy within this

school system? How might it be changed?

case studies: re

ﬂect and evaluate

185