Index

Note: Page numbers with “f” denote figures; “t” tables.

B
Battery development and technological trends

development of anode materials

history of anode material development, 11,

11f, 12f

recent research on anode materials, 12, 13f

development of cathode materials

history of cathode material development,

7, 7f

recent technological trends of cathode

materials

layered rock salt structure materials

(two dimensional), 8

olivine structure materials

(one dimensional), 8

spinel structure materials

(three dimensional), 8

three morphologies of cathode

materials, 7

development of electrolyte solutions

history of electrolyte solution development,

13–14, 14f

recent research on electrolyte solutions,

14–15, 15f

development of the practical LIB, 3–6, 6f
latest research on cathode materials

layered LCO series (two dimensional), 8–9
layered LiNiO

2

series (two dimensional), 9

layered Mn compound series (two

dimensional), 9–10

olivine structure cathode materials (one

dimensional), 10

spinel structure cathode materials (three

dimensional), 10

separator technology

separator production methods and

characteristics

dry-process one-component system,

15–16

shutdown function, 16–17, 17f
wet-process three-component system, 16
wet-process two-component system, 16

recent separator developments

inorganic coating, 18
laminated separators, 19
new materials, 17
nonwoven separators, 18
separators containing inorganic

material, 18

Battery management

functions

auxiliary functions, 351
communication functions, 352
diagnose functions, 351–352
performance management, 349–350,

350f

protection functions, 351

state of charge controller

combination of current- and voltage-based

methods, 353–356, 355f

current-based SoC estimation (Coulomb

counting), 353, 354f

model-based methods

cell model, 357–358, 357f, 358f, 359f
observer-based soc estimator, 358–359,

359f

SoC estimation from impedance

measurements, 356, 356f

605

Battery management (Continued )

voltage-based SoC estimation, 352–353,

353f

structure and options, 347–349, 348f

Battery packs for EVs

applications of electric vehicle rechargeable

energy storage systems

Chevrolet Volt, 146–147, 146f
Ford Focus BEV, 147–148, 147f
Mitsubishi “I”, 148
Nissan Leaf, 145–146, 146f
Toyota Prius PHEV, 148

lithium-ion battery design considerations,

129–132

rechargeable energy storage systems

battery management system and

electronics

chargers, 140, 140t
high voltage interlock loop, 139
high voltage switches, contactors and

fuses, 139

manual service disconnect, 139–140

lithium-ion battery cells, 132–134, 134f
mechanical structure, 134–136
thermal management system, 140–143,

141f

testing and analysis

analysis tools, 144–145
standardization, 145

E
Electronic options

basic functions, 362–363
calculating, 363f, 367–368, 369f
communicating, 363f, 368–370, 369f
controlling, 363f, 364f, 366f, 369f, 370–371
five to ten series cell devices

power, lawn & garden tools, 377–379, 379f
vehicle starting, lighting & ignition (SLI)

batteries, 379–380

measuring, 363f, 365–367, 366f, 369f
monitoring, 363–365, 363f, 364f, 369f
one series Li-ion cell devices (3.6V nominal)

cell phones, tablets, music players,

headsets, 372, 373f

industrial, medical, & commercial devices,

372–374

ten to twenty series cells

electric bicycles, 380–381, 381f
48V telecom systems & uninterruptible

power supplies, 381–382

three and four series cell devices (10.8 to

14.4V nominal)

industrial, medical & commercial devices,

375–376, 376f

laptop/notebook computers, 375

two series cell devices (7.2V nominal)

mobile radios, industrial, medical, &

commercial devices, 374–375

tablets, net-books, and sub-notebooks, 374

very large array battery systems

automotive: battery electric vehicles,

384

automotive: hybrid electric vehicles & plug-

in HEV, 382–384

grid storage and stabilization systems, 385

Environmental impacts

benefits of lithium-ion battery recycling,

484–485, 485f

environmental impacts of lithium-ion

batteries

battery assembly, 490–493, 492f, 493t
battery composition, 486–487, 487t, 488t
battery materials supply chain, 487–490,

489f, 490f

contribution of battery to electric vehicle

life-cycle environmental impacts, 493f,
493–495, 494f, 494t

factors that affect recycling, 504–506
overview and analysis of lithium-ion battery

recycling technologies, 495f, 495–496

analysis of recycling processes, 500–504,

501t, 502f, 503f

BIT recycling process, 497–498, 498f
direct physical recycling process, 499–500,

500f

606

Index

intermediate physical recycling process,

498–499, 499f

pyrometallurgical recycling process,

496–497, 497f

EVs and HEVs: batteries for future systems

basic performance design of vehicles, 88–89,

88f, 89f

battery pack system establishment, 91–92, 91f
high power performance of lithium-ion

batteries, 92–95, 92f, 93f, 94f

power performance analysis of batteries,

85–87, 86f, 87f

thermal analysis and design, 90, 90f

EVs and HEVs using lithium-ion batteries

BEVs and EREVs

BMW ActiveE (BEV), 225–226, 225f
BMW i3 (EV with EREV possibility), 226,

226f

BYD e6 (BEV), 224, 224f
Chevrolet Spark EV 2014 (BEV), 227, 227f
Chevrolet Volt (EREV), 227–228, 228f
Citroe¨n C-Zero (BEV), 228–229, 229f
Citroe¨n Electric Berlingo (BEV), 230, 230f
Fiat 500e (BEV), 230, 231f
Ford Focus EV (BEV), 230–232, 231f
Honda FIT EV (BEV), 232, 232f
Infiniti LE Concept (BEV), 232–233, 233f
Mini E (BEV), 233–234, 233f
Mitsubishi iMiEV (BEV), 234, 234f
Nissan e-NV200 (BEV), 234–235, 234f
Nissan Leaf (BEV), 235, 236f
Opel Ampera (EREV), 235, 236f
Peugeot iOn (BEV), 235–237, 237f
Renault Fluence Z.E. (BEV), 237–238, 238f
Renault Kangoo Z.E. (BEV), 238, 238f
Renault Zoe Z.E. (BEV), 239, 239f
Smart ED Brabus (BEV), 239–241, 240f
Smart Fortwo Electric Drive (BEV), 239, 240f
Smart Fortwo Rinspeed Dock+Go (BEV or

EREV), 241, 241f

Tesla Roadster (BEV), 241–242, 241f
Toyota eQ (BEV), 242, 242f
Volvo C30 BEV, 243, 243f

Zic Kandi (BEV), 243–244, 244f

classification, 208t

battery electric vehicle (BEV), 210
extended-Range EV (EREV), 209–210
fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV), 210
full hybrid, 209
microgrid, 208
mild (or medium) hybrid, 208–209
plug-in HEV (PHEV), 209

electric microcars

Belumbury Dany (heavy quadricycle),

244–245, 245f

Renault Twizy (light and heavy

quadricycle), 245, 245f

Tazzari Zero (heavy quadricycle), 246,

246f

HEVs

Audi Q5 Hybrid (full HEV), 210–211, 211f
BMW ActiveHybrid 3 (full HEV), 211, 211f
BMW ActiveHybrid 5 (Full HEV), 212, 212f
BMW ActiveHybrid 7 (mild HEV), 212–214,

213f

BMW Concept Active Tourer (PHEV),

214–215, 214f

BMW i8 (PHEV), 215–216, 215f
Honda (Acura) NSX (PHEV), 216, 216f
Infiniti EMERG-E (EREV), 216–217, 217f
Infiniti M35h (full HEV), 217–218, 217f
Mercedes E300 BlueTEC HYBRID (full

HEV), 219, 219f

Mercedes S400 Class Hybrid (mild HEV),

218, 218f

Mercedes Vision s500 Plug-in HYBRID

(PHEV), 219–220, 220f

Toyota Prius+(full HEV), 222–223, 222f
Toyota Prius Plug-in (PHEV), 221–222, 221f
Volvo V60 Plug-in Hybrid (PHEV), 223,

223f

new concepts of urban transport vehicles

Audi-Urban Concept, 246, 246f
Opel Rak-E, 247, 247f
PSA VELV, 247, 247f
Volkswagen Nils, 248, 248f

Index

607

F
Fast charge

fast charging characteristics of various

lithium battery chemistries, 44–47, 45t,
46t, 47f, 47t

fast charging tests of 50Ah lithium titanate

oxide cells and modules

cell testing, 47–49, 48t, 49f, 50f, 51f
module testing

fast charging characteristics of the

modules, 51–54, 52f, 53f, 54t

life cycle testing of the module with fast

charging at 4C, 54–55, 54f, 55f

module characteristics, 49–51, 51t, 52t

general considerations and requirements

fast charging power requirements,

43t, 43

general approach to battery charging for all

battery chemistries, 43–44

what is meant by fast charging?, 42

M
Manufacturers, materials, recycling

lithium battery manufacturers, 531f

overview of companies, 530–531, 532t, 533t,

534t, 536t

materials used for battery production and

their cost, 536–539, 536t, 537f, 538f,
539t

recycling

law regulations, economic and

environmentally friendly aspects of
battery recycling, 539–540, 539t, 540f

processes in rechargeable battery re

cycling, 541f

chemical processes, 542
physical processes, 541–542

selected industrial methods of battery

recycling

Accurec GmbH (Germany), 542–543,

543f

AkkuSer OY (Finland), 543–544, 544f
BatrecIndustrie AG (Switzerland), 544,

545f, 546f

Recupyl (France), 547–548, 549f
Toxco Inc. (Canada), 544–546, 547f
Umicore (Belgium&Sweden), 546–547,

548f

summary of battery recycling, 548–549

Manufacturing costs for electric vehicles

battery parameters affecting cost

cell capacity–parallel cell configurations,

116–117, 117f

cell chemistry, 109–113, 110f, 111f,

112f

electrode thickness limitations, 113–114,

114f

pack integration components, 117–119,

118t

power and energy, 107–109, 108f, 109f
useable state–of–charge and life

considerations, 114–116, 116f

effect of manufacturing scale, 121–123, 122f
performance and cost model

cell and battery pack design format,

99–100, 100f, 101f

cost modeling

additional investment costs and

expenses, 106–107

manufacturing plant design, 105–106,

106f

materials costs, 104–105, 104t

performance modeling, 100–103, 101t

uncertainty in point price estimates

cell capacity, 120–121
electrode thickness, 120
example of contribution to calculated

uncertainty, 121, 121f

materials and capital equipment,

119–120

N
Nanostructured electrode materials

carbon-based nanocomposites, 75–76
carbon nanostructures as active materials in

negative electrodes, 71–74, 72f, 74f

conversion electrodes, 64–68, 65f, 66f,

68f

608

Index

lithium alloys for negative electrodes,

68–71

nanoscale effects in intercalation-based

electrode materials, 58–61, 60f,
61f

nanostructured lithium metal phosphates for

positive electrodes, 61–63

titanium-based nanomaterials for negative

electrodes, 63–64

P
Past, present and future of Li-ion batteries

can new battery technologies open up novel

horizons for LIB?

ceramic coated separators, 37–38
dithiooxamide, 35–36, 36f
positive electrode with excess lithium, 34,

35f

trioxotriangulene, 36–37, 36f, 37f

how LIB was born, 22–25, 24f
improvement of LIB

LIB with gelled polymer electrolyte,

28–32, 30f, 31f, 31t, 32f, 33f

LIB with LiFePO

4

cathode, 32–33

Si based anode, 28
Sn based anode, 26–27, 27f
Ti based anode, 28

performance that users expect from LIB,

25–26, 26f

PHEV battery design–electrothermal

modeling, 251f

model parameter extraction

heat convection, 254–259, 255f, 257t, 258f
thermal capacitance, 260–261, 261f
thermal resistance, 259–260

results and discussion

calibration of the developed model,

261–264, 262f, 263f, 264f

evolution of the heat transfer coefficient,

267, 267f

validation of the developed model,

264–267

set-up description, 253–254, 253f, 254f
theory, 251–253

R
Recycling of traction batteries

geographic distribution of lithium reserves

and resources

characteristics of lithium reserve

distribution, 514–516, 515t

overview of lithium resources, 510–514,

512t, 513f

impact of future electric mobility on lithium

demand, 516–519, 519f

influence of different recycling quotas on

lithium availability, 522–524, 522f, 523f

introduction: criticality of resources, 509–510,

511t, 512f

review of presently used recycling quota in

different studies, 519–522, 520t

S
Safety, 410–411

abuse tolerance tests

thermal abuse tolerance and thermal

stability, 415–417, 416f

electrical abuse tolerance

external short test, 417, 418f
overcharge test, 417–418, 419f

mechanical abuse tolerance, 418–420, 420f
need for a controlled internal short test,

420–424, 421f–424f

cell level safety, 413–415, 414f
internal short and thermal runaway, 425–429,

425f–428f, 426t

large format cells & safety, 429–432, 431f
lithium deposition, 432–434, 432f, 434f
system level safety, 412–413, 412f

Safety of commercial cells and batteries

commercial lithium-ion battery packs for

portable equipment, 388–389

commercial lithium-ion cell and battery

safety certification process, 402–405,
403f

limitations of commercial lithium-ion cells,

389–401, 390f–400f, 395t

quality control of commercial lithium-ion

cells, 401–402

Index

609

Safety of high-power batteries

electrolytes

control of the SEI, 439–440
fire retardants, 443–444, 444f
protection against overcharge, 442
safety concerns with Li salts, 440–442

Li

4

Ti

5

O

12

/LiFePO

4

: the safest and most

powerful couple, 449–451, 450f, 451f

other factors related to safety

current limiting self-resetting devices, 453
design, 451–452
electrode engineering, 452–453

separator, 444–446
thermal stability of the cathode, 446–448,

447f

Satellite Li-ion batteries

Li-ion batteries for satellites, 319f

main specifications

GEO batteries requirements, 320
LEO batteries requirements, 320–321
MEO batteries requirements, 321

qualification plans, 321–322, 323t

satellite battery technologies and suppliers

ABSL, 324–325

battery design and their characteristics,

326, 327f, 328f, 329f

COTS cells and their characteristics, 325
cell qualification, and life test results,

326

Mitsubishi Electric Corporation (MELCO),

329

cell designs, 330
module and battery designs, 330, 330f

Quallion, 330, 331f

15-Ah and 75-Ah cell characteristics: long

life & deep discharge capability,
331–333, 333f, 334f

modeling lithium-ion cell characteristics

and performance, 335–337

test battery cycling data and the case for

no cell balancing, 335, 336f, 337f

Saft, 337

batteries, 340–341, 341f, 342f

cell designs and performance, 338–339,

338f

in-orbit experience, 342
model, 341–342

satellite missions, 314t

GEO satellites, 313–316, 314f, 315f
LEO satellites, 316–317, 316f
MEO/HEO satellites (medium earth orbit or

high earth orbit), 317

Solid-state lithium-ion batteries for electric

vehicles

all-solid-state lithium-ion batteries

advantages of all-solid-state lithium-ion

batteries, 276–278, 277f

Li

+

conducting solid electrolytes, 278–280,

278f, 280f

environment surrounding vehicles, 273–274
expectation toward novel Li-ion batteries for

electric vehicles, 276

issues of all-solid-state lithium-ion batteries

Li

+

conduction at interfaces, 281–285, 282f,

283f, 284f, 285f

Li

+

conduction in active materials, 285–288,

286f, 287f, 288f, 289f

rechargeable batteries for automobile use,

274–275

trends and issues for electric and hybrid

vehicles, 275–276, 275f

Storage of renewable energies and electric grid

back-up, 294f

applications

quarter battery storages in the distribution

grid, 298–301, 299f, 300f, 301f

residential battery storages in combination

with PV systems, 296f, 296t

case 1: variation of lead-acid battery

capacity, 296–297, 297f

case 2: variation of lithium-ion battery

capacity, 297–298, 297f, 298t

components and requirements

battery systems, 304–305
communication infrastructure, 306–308,

307f

610

Index

energy management systems

distribution grid management, 306
home energy management system and

data acquisition, 306

power electronics, 305

system concepts and topologies

AC coupled PV battery systems, 301–302,

302f

DC coupled PV battery systems, 302

DC coupled high voltage systems,

303–304, 304f

DC coupled low voltage systems, 303,

303f

T
Thermal stability of materials

basic considerations on cell safety, 462–463,

462f

chemical reduction of the electrolyte by the

negative electrode

graphite electrode, 463–466, 464f, 465f
Si/Li alloy, 466–468, 467f

electrolyte oxidation at the positive electrode

FeF

3

, 476–478, 476f, 477f

LiCoO

2

, 475–476, 475f

safety evaluation by abuse tests, safety

devices, 479–480

thermal decomposition of the electrolyte

LiPF

6

/alkyl carbonate mixed-solvent

electrolytes, 468–469, 468f, 469f

LiPF

6

/methyl difluoroacetate electrolyte,

469–475, 470t, 471f, 471t, 472f, 473f,
474f

Thermodynamics

data before ageing: cell chemistry assessment,

570–572, 571f, 572f

long-cycled cells

aging method, 591
discharge characteristics, 591–592, 591f, 592t
entropy and enthalpy profiles, 593–597,

593f, 594f, 595f, 596f

OCP profiles, 592–593, 592f

measurements: procedure and equipment,

569–570, 570f

memory effect, 597–600, 597t, 598f, 599f,

600f

overcharged cells

discharge characteristics, 573–574, 573f
entropy and enthalpy profiles, 575–579,

579f

OCP profiles, 573–574, 574f
overcharge ageing method, 573

thermally aged cells

discharge characteristics, 580–581, 580f,

581t

entropy and enthalpy profiles, 583–590,

583f, 584f, 585f, 586f, 587f, 588f, 589f,
590f

OCP profiles, 581–582, 582f
thermal ageing method, 579–580

Transit buses

background and scope, 178
case studies and safety lessons learned

from LIB bus operations,
192–194

deployment trends for electric drive in transit

buses, 178–180

examples of HEB/EB transit buses with LIB-

based RESS

FTA advanced transit bus demonstration

and deployment programs

the FTA TIGGER and clean fuels grant

programs, 191–192

The National Fuel Cell Bus Program

(NFCBP), 189–191, 191f

overview of transit buses with Li-ion

batteries, 183–184

the BAE systems HybriDrive with lithium

iron phosphate (LFP) battery, 184

the DesignLine ECOSaver IV HEB with

LIB and Capstone microturbine APU,
186–187, 188f

the Enova systems HybridPower for

school and city PHEBs, 187–189

the ISE Corporation ThunderPack

integrates LIBs with ultracapacitor
APU, 185–186, 187f

Index

611

Transit buses (Continued )

the Proterra bus with TerraVolt RESS

using lithium titanate (LTO) battery,
184–185

integration of lithium-ion batteries (LIB) in

electric drive buses, 180–183, 181f,
182f, 183f

LIB for bus market: prospects and challenges,

194–197

V
Value chain-Status, Trends and Implications

cell and material manufacturing process

current cost structure, 556–558, 557f, 558f,

559f

long-term cost structure (2015-2020),

561–562

mid-term cost structure and profitability

levels (2015), 558–561, 560f, 561f,
562f

LIB market, 554–555, 554f, 555f
structure of the value chain and expected

changes

cathode and other materials, 562–563,

563f

cell manufacturing, 564–565

Vehicles, Voltec system

battery operation strategy, 165–169, 167f,

168f, 169f

brief history of electric vehicles, 152–158,

153f, 154f, 155f, 156f, 157f

development and validation, 169–171, 170f
extended-range electric vehicle, 158–160,

159f, 160f, 160t

vehicle field experience, 173f
Voltec propulsion system, 161–164, 161f, 162f
Voltec drive unit and vehicle operation modes

driver selectable modes, 165
drive unit operation, 164–165, 164f, 166f

612

Index