Hendrik-Jan Ottevanger
Högskolan Dalarna, Sweden
Fachhochschule Heilbronn, Germany
Sport Tourism:
Factors of influence on sport event
visit motivation
Master of Arts in European Tourism
Management
Bournemouth University (UK)
August 2007
II
Abstract
Tourism and sport are key elements of today’s culture and have a specific influence
on the behaviour of society. Especially since the 1960’s sport has become a huge
international matter with large amount of media attention, money and also political
interest. On the other hand tourism remains the world’s largest industry as well as
very developing and growing.
Within sport tourism the distinction between active participation and passive
spectatorship is an essential difference. In this research a behavioural approach is
taken towards the principal of sport event tourism. There has been a significant
growth of sport event tourism over the years which provide certain tourists a lot of
opportunities for whom watching sport has become a primary reason to travel. This
development has encouraged the writer to examine the sport event tourist behaviour.
The aim of this study is to asses the factors of influence on sport event visit
motivation. Special interest goes out to the relation between the sport event and the
host-destination. To answer the aim and objectives the research was conducted in
two stages; the literature review presents an introduction on sport tourism, a deeper
understanding of the motivations of people to be a sport tourist and the relation
between the sport event and the host-destination. The second stage consisted
ofquestionnaire-based interviews with visitors of big sport events asking them which
factors played a role in their desire to attend and the relationship between them.
The gathered data was partly in line with the few other studies conducted on this
topic. Fan motives are the main reason why people would like to visit a big sport
event, followed by the factor of entertainment and the role of the host-destination as
motivation. Some surprising findings suggest that the festivities around an event are
more important then the competition itself and that visiting a big sport event is,
contrary to other forms of tourism, not seen as ‘time to take a break’.
III
Declaration of Authorship
I hereby declare that the dissertation submitted is wholly the work of Hendrik-Jan
Ottevanger. Any other contributors and sources have either been referenced in the
prescribed manner or are listed in the acknowledgements together with the nature
and scope of their contribution. I have read the section in the Student Handbook on
plagiarism and understand that such offences may lead the Examinations Board to
withhold or withdraw the award of Master of Arts.
Hendrik-Jan Ottevanger
22 August 2007
IV
Contents
Abstract ................................................................................................................... II
Declaration of Authorship.......................................................................................III
Contents ................................................................................................................ IV
List of Figures........................................................................................................ VI
List of Abbreviations ............................................................................................ VII
Acknowledgements.............................................................................................. VIII
Chapter 1.
INTRODUCTION .............................................................................1
1.1.
Background ...............................................................................................1
1.2.
Sport tourism research ...............................................................................2
1.3.
Research Aim & Methodology ..................................................................4
1.4.
Structure of the dissertation .......................................................................5
Chapter 2.
SPORT TOURISM ............................................................................7
2.1.
Introduction...............................................................................................7
2.2.
History of Sport Tourism...........................................................................8
2.3.
Defining Sport tourism ............................................................................10
2.4.
Active sport tourism ................................................................................14
2.5.
Sport Event Tourism................................................................................15
2.6.
Categorisation of events ..........................................................................17
2.6.1.
Local events.....................................................................................18
2.6.2.
Hallmark events...............................................................................18
2.6.3.
Mega events.....................................................................................18
2.7.
Conclusion ..............................................................................................19
Chapter 3.
SPORT TOURISM CONSUMER MOTIVATION ..........................20
3.1.
Introduction.............................................................................................20
3.2.
Sport, Tourism and Motivation ................................................................20
3.3.
Push and Pull factors ...............................................................................22
3.4.
Decision Making Process ........................................................................25
3.5.
Factors of influence .................................................................................26
3.6.
Conclusion ..............................................................................................27
Chapter 4.
SPORT TOURISM DESTINATIONS .............................................29
4.1.
Introduction.............................................................................................29
4.2.
Geographical perspectives on the confluence of sport and tourism...........31
4.3.
Location Hierarchies ...............................................................................33
4.4.
Relation between Activity, People and Place in a geographical context of
Sport Tourism. ........................................................................................34
4.5.
Conclusion ..............................................................................................36
V
Chapter 5.
METHODOLOGY ..........................................................................37
5.1.
Research Aim and Objectives ..................................................................37
5.2.
Data collection methods ..........................................................................39
5.2.1.
Secondary research ..........................................................................40
5.2.2.
Primary research ..............................................................................40
5.3.
Research design and Realization..............................................................41
5.4.
Research limitations ................................................................................46
5.5.
Conclusion ..............................................................................................47
Chapter 6.
MAIN FINDINGS ...........................................................................49
6.1.
Sample Description .................................................................................49
6.1.1.
Background .....................................................................................49
6.1.2.
Fan Motives.....................................................................................51
6.1.3.
Entertainment ..................................................................................53
6.1.4.
Host-destination...............................................................................54
6.1.5.
Relaxation .......................................................................................55
6.1.6.
Experience.......................................................................................56
6.1.7.
Socialization ....................................................................................57
6.1.8.
Escapism .........................................................................................58
6.1.9.
Novelty............................................................................................59
6.1.10.
Self-development.............................................................................59
6.1.11.
Self-exploration ...............................................................................60
6.1.12.
Constraints.......................................................................................60
6.2.
Conclusion ..............................................................................................62
Chapter 7.
CONCLUSIONS .............................................................................64
7.1.
General conclusions ................................................................................64
7.2.
Recommendations for further research.....................................................66
Appendix A ............................................................................................................68
Appendix B ............................................................................................................69
BIBLIOGRAPHY...................................................................................................73
VI
List of Figures
Figure 1: Conceptualisation of sport tourists based on sport and travel motivations
Figure 2: Types of Sport Tourism
Figure 3: Sport tourism demand groups and requisite visitor facilities
Figure 4: Sport tourism types and visitor profiles
Figure 5: Categorisation of Events
Figure 6: Travel Motives
Figure 7: The escaping and seeking dimensions of leisure motivation
Figure 8: A conceptual model of sport event interest
Figure 9: Relationship among Factors of Influence
VII
List of Abbreviations
UNWTO
World Tourism Organisation
FIFA
Fédération Internationale de Football Association
UEFA
Union of European Football Associations (EN) or
Union Européenne de Football Association (FR)
VIII
Acknowledgements
First of all, I would like to thank my supervisor, Ms. Ariane Portegies, for her
understanding, valuable comments and helping me to structure my ideas and
thoughts.
Furthermore I would like to thank all others who helped me realising this
dissertation, including the interviewee’s who provided me useful information.
I would also like to thank Mr. Rami Isaac for giving me the opportunity to
experience this unique year. Special thanks go furthermore to Dr. Jürgen Hartmann,
Ms. Hilland and Prof. Dr. Ganter who made the stays in Sweden and Germany very
nice. This last year has truly been a nice and rich experience which for sure will help
me in the future.
Last but not least, I would like to thank my fellow ETM students who studied with
me in Borlänge and Heilbronn. Thank you all for motivating me, for your energy and
making me laugh. It was a great time!
INTRODUCTION
1
Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION
This chapter gives an overview of the conducted study. It introduces the background
and general topics of the research area; presents the research aim and objectives and
the methodology is described. At the end the structure of the dissertation is outlined
1.1. Background
Tourism and sport are key elements of today’s culture and have a specific influence
on the behaviour of society. Especially since the 1960’s sport has become a huge
international matter with large amount of media attention, money and also political
interest. On the other hand tourism remains the world’s largest industry as well as
very developing and growing. For this reason a combination between the two can be
very lucrative and has a lot of cultural influence.
Sport and tourism can in different ways contribute to each others development. As
Weed and Bull (2004) describe the tourism industry can help evolve local sport
facilities or giving communities the opportunity to create them where that wouldn’t
otherwise be possible. Also tourism can benefit from sport because a lot of sport-
activities take place during holidays. Therefore it’s clear that greater co-operation
would be very attractive to both sectors in order to use mutual advantages.
Within sport tourism the distinction between active participation and passive
spectatorship is an essential difference which should be deliberated. As Hall (1992,
p.147) states ‘Sport tourism falls into two categories, travel to participate in sport
and travel to observe sport’. Many other authors (Maier and Weber 1993; Delpy
1997; Gammon and Robinson 1997; Gibson et al. 1997; Standeven and De Knop
1999) have described different levels of tourist engagement in participants and
spectator sports.
INTRODUCTION
2
In this research a behavioural approach is taken towards the principal of sport event
tourism. There has been a significant growth of sport event tourism over the years
which provide certain tourists a lot of opportunities for whom watching sport has
become a primary reason to travel. This development has encouraged the writer to
examine the sport event tourist behaviour.
1.2. Sport tourism research
Like many other areas of academic study, numbers of works have been made on the
topic of sport tourism. Especially since the beginning of the 1990’s such work has
appeared more regularly. In general we can say that most works are so-called
‘reviews’ or ‘overviews’. They are used in different forms by e.g. sport or tourism
agencies, published as articles or made out of conference keynotes.
However the diversity, the biggest part of these works are subjective overviews
based on opinions of the authors itself. The different kinds of reviews as mentioned
above are basically more descriptive rather than analyzing. As Weed (2006, p.6)
said, ‘as introductions to sport tourism research they are very useful, but as
evaluation of research in the area they may often been lacking’.
Taking a general look at research in the field of sport tourism it can be seen as a
twofold. The two big examined areas are sport events on the on hand, and on the
other hand so-called outdoor & adventurous activities. Furthermore some specific
sports like skiing have been researched as well.
The most featured topic in the literature is about behaviours, profiles and motivations
of sport tourists. Although the number of works is reasonable, most works are fairly
basic, giving more profiles of sport tourist behaviours rather then trying to give
explanation for this behaviour. Another popular item which is described quite a lot is
impacts of sport tourism, and then in particular the impacts of sport event tourism on
host-destination.
INTRODUCTION
3
There is a discussion in the field of sport tourism research about the contribution
which articles have to the body of knowledge. Often studies published in journals or
books are clear to the agencies that funded them, but have no significant meaning to
a broader understanding of sport tourism. As Stephen Page ((2005, p.664 Tourism
Management) cited in Weed 2006) said:
“So often one reads some of these papers and asks why have they been
written? Do they add anything meaningful to knowledge? … I would venture
to suggest if only 25% of the current tourism outputs were produced, our
knowledge base in this subject would not be adversely affected”.
As said before a significant number of studies have been made in sport tourism on
behaviours, profiles and motivations of sport tourists. Although the quantity of the
researches is sufficient the quality of these studies is often lacking. The
understanding of sport tourism participation is limited.
Already in 1998 Gibson (cited in Weed and Bull 2004) identified a number of
problems related to the field of sport tourism. He stated that there is a ‘lack of
integration in the realms of policy, research and education’. Furthermore he said that
‘at a research level, more multi-disciplinary research is needed, particularly
research which builds upon existing knowledge bases both in sport and tourism’.
Later Gibson (2004) argued in one of his articles it’s due to the fact that the majority
of research in the field of sport tourism focus on what kind of behaviours sport
tourists have, rather then trying to find out why they do so. He suggests that more
research should go deeper into the motivations rather then just giving an explanation
of this. A more detailed explanation of motivations will contribute to the
understanding of sport tourism.
The overall picture of sport tourism research is that is a broadly covered area but it
needs more deepening. Not much literature tries to give answer to the questions
‘why’ but gives more a general overview. This ‘lack of understanding’ formed the
starting point of the study reported on hereinafter.
INTRODUCTION
4
1.3. Research Aim & Methodology
The aim of this study is to asses the factors of influence on sport event visit
motivation. Special interest goes out to the relation between the sport event and the
host-destination. The study tries to discuss:
• the understanding of sport event tourism
• the motivations of visitors of big sport events
• the factors of influence on visitations with special interest in the host-
destination.
Assessing the factors of influence from the consumer side perspective may add to the
development of more realistic expectations. Furthermore it may indicate that current
expectations described in literature might be adjustable.
To investigate this topic this research will have the following objectives:
• review the characteristics of sport event tourism
• examine studies on motivations of visitors of big sport events
• explore the experiences of people who visited big sport events
In order to research the factors of influence the following questions have to be
answered:
• To what extend does background influence the decision to visit big sport
events?
• Do people visit big sport event as a response to what is missing now?
• Does the attractiveness of a certain destination make people visit a big sport
event?
• Which factors keeps people away from a big sport event?
It is important to choose appropriate research techniques to get a good answer to the
research questions. The used data collection can be seen as a ‘fit’ between the aim
and objectives and the available data. There are two different kinds of data collection
methods used in this particular research.
INTRODUCTION
5
To understand the topic and all the related concepts mostly English written
publications have been obtained. Most of the information are academical texts, for
example from books and journals, on sport tourism, consumer behaviour and host-
destinations of sport events. Based on the findings of the literature review, a
questionnaire-based interview was considered the most suitable method to examine
the motivations and factors of influence for sport event tourists.
The questionnaire based interviews were conducted in two different ways. Firstly the
author visited the international tennis tournament of Wimbledon in London, United
Kingdom, where 18 interviews were conducted with non-British visitors. Via the
Dutch internet-network ‘Hyves’ another eight interviews were taken from visitors of
big tennis events including Wimbledon and Roland Garros in Paris, France. The
findings of the survey come partly up to the expectations but give for sure on certain
point’s rather surprising results.
1.4. Structure of the dissertation
This dissertation consists of five parts: the introduction, the literature review,
methodology, main findings and conclusions.
The dissertation commences with an introduction, in order to give the reader a first
insight by describing the background of the study, the field of sport tourism research,
the research aim, methodology and the structure of the dissertation.
The literature review sets the framework for the dissertation. The first of the three
chapters is an introduction into the field of sport tourism by giving an overview of
important occurrences related to sport tourism and addresses sport tourism from
various points of views. The second chapter goes deeper into the motivations of
people to be a sport tourist and the decision-making process which is related to this.
The third chapter focuses on the theoretical foundation of the relation between a
sport event and the host-destination.
INTRODUCTION
6
The methodology of this dissertation is set out in chapter five. It reports about the
methodological approach adopted to investigate the research questions. It describes
the questionnaire-based interview design and the research realization. Furthermore
shortly the difficulties and how the author dealt with that and the research limitations
are presented.
In the main findings the data gathered by the interviews is described and analyzed. It
gives answer to the aim of this study to asses the factors of influence on sport event
visit motivation.
The last chapter gives a summary of the research conducted. It discusses the research
findings and ends with recommendations for further research.
SPORT TOURISM
7
Chapter 2. SPORT TOURISM
In this first chapter of the literature-review an introduction is given in the field of
sport tourism. It gives an overview of important occurrences related to sport tourism
and addresses sport tourism from various points of views, keeping in mind the aims
and objectives of this research. In the end sport event tourism is described and the
categorisation of these events.
2.1. Introduction
Tourism and sport are key elements of today’s culture and have a specific influence
on the behaviour of society. As the founder of the modern Olympic Games, Pierre de
Coubertin ones stated ‘competition produces harmony between competitors and the
organisations or nations they represent’. It was his belief that sport brings people
and nations together.
Especially since the 1960’s sport has become a huge international matter with large
amount of media attention, money and also political interest. On the other hand
tourism remains the world’s largest industry as well as very developing and growing.
For this reason a combination between the two can be very lucrative and has a lot of
cultural influence.
Sport and tourism can in different ways contribute to each others development. As
Weed and Bull (2004) describe the tourism industry can help evolve local sport
facilities or giving communities the opportunity to create them where that wouldn’t
otherwise be possible. Also tourism can benefit from sport because a lot of sport-
activities take place during holidays.
Therefore it’s clear that greater co-operation would be very attractive to both sectors
in order to use mutual advantages.
SPORT TOURISM
8
2.2. History of Sport Tourism
At present large numbers of people are participants or spectators of sport. The
connection between tourism and sport does exist already a long time, but the
relationship is gaining more and more meaning nowadays. A growing awareness of
people’s health is one of the main reasons. From this trend sport and tourism can
both benefit.
An important aspect in the development of sport tourism is the industrialization.
What makes this so important is the fact that from that time two clear trends can be
discerned: The development of sports requiring the participants themselves to travel
and the development of sporting activity involving travelling spectators (Weed and
Bull 2004, p.6)
Related to the sport participant’s two different groups originate at the same time. On
one hand there is the group who travels to participate in competitions and on the
other hand those who travel because they can’t find their own facilities in their
surroundings.
Besides the big changes which occurred over the centuries, by far the most important
era was the 20
th
century. Where in the beginning of the century different forms of
sport tourism where only for the middle and upper class, in the end this would have
changed dramatically.
Important occurrences were for example the diminishing of the working week. This
meant more leisure time and therefore more holiday time. Also the paid holiday time
was an important happening for the development of tourism. Although these
happenings were quite significant the most important changes were in the last quarter
of this century. One thing was that people got four or five weeks holiday per year.
Also leisure time and holidays were from then onwards seen as essential and
necessary life-cycle parts which has important implications for sport tourism.
SPORT TOURISM
9
Besides the fact that normal people had now the possibility to watch sport, they also
had the opportunity to participate in sport far away from their home environment. As
Weed and Bull (2004, p.12) said, ‘Sport and travel became central aspects of
people’s life’.
For various reasons sport and tourism were seen as important factors in life. Sport
was perceived as a way of fitness, health or achievement but nowadays it’s more a
matter of pleasure and fashion. Also the thought about holiday changed over the
years. Increasingly it became an important factor in people’s life, like Urry ((2002) in
Weed and Bull 2004) stated, ‘it is a crucial element of modern life that travel and
holidays are necessary’.
For this reason the life-style choice of combined sport and travel was becoming more
popular. This is particularly outlined by two types of sport tourism: outdoor pursuits
and international mega-events (Weed and Bull 2004).
The growth of big sport events is a result of different factors which influenced daily-
life in the twentieth century in general, namely commercialisation and globalisation.
As a result of global development sport has become more and more commercialised.
The reason for this is the internationalization of economic activity, growing impact
of sport culture, the expansion of communication possibilities, rising mobility of
people, acceleration of international migration and global regulations of
organisations like UNWTO which are important for sport and the sport-industry
(Dejonghe 2004).
SPORT TOURISM
10
2.3. Defining Sport tourism
If we start to talk about Sport as a way of tourism, we must define what is been
considered as Sport Tourism. Therefore conceptualising sport tourism is a good
starting point in this study. Broadly defined, sport tourism includes travel away from
one’s primary residence to participate in a sport activity for recreation or
competition, travel to observe sport at the grassroots or elite level, and travel to visit
a sport attraction such as a sport hall of fame or a water park (Gibson et al. 1997).
Tourists who are involved in sports at a destination are this because of different
reasons. They like a certain degree of dedication, competition or personal
achievement. Because of this reason the sport tourism market has often been
described as ‘niche’ markets or special ‘demand groups’. Like Delpy (1997) states ‘a
travel market focused entirely on participating or watching sport is a unique and
exciting concept’.
As described above the distinction between physical participation and spectatorship
is an essential difference which should be deliberated. Many authors have described
different levels of tourist engagement in participants and spectator sports.
An example is the theory of Hall (1992). On one side, Hall identified two types of
active sport tourist: ‘activity participants’, who regard their participation as a
medium of self-expression, and ‘players’, who are competitive in their participation.
On the other side, the passive sports do not pursue any individual sports activity. The
focus of this group lies with big sports events and distinguished sport sites. This
includes mainly attendants to high-performance athletes.
SPORT TOURISM
11
Another model is set out by Gammon and Robinson (1997) who make a distinction
in two forms of sport-tourism. They use the term ‘sport tourism’ if sport is the
primary reason to travel and ‘tourism sport’ if participation is seen as a secondary
activity. Furthermore they make a distinction in hard and soft definition.
Figure 1: Conceptualisation of sport tourists based on sport and travel
motivations
Sport tourism
Individuals and/or groups of people who actively of passively
participate in competitive or recreational sport while travelling.
Sport is the prime motivation to travel, although the touristic
element may reinforce the overall experience.
Hard definition
Active or passive participation in a competitive sporting event.
Sport is the prime reason for travel (e.g. Olympic Games,
Wimbledon, New York Marathon).
Soft definition
Active recreational participation in sporting/leisure interest (e.g.
skiing, walking, hiking, kayaking).
Tourism sport
Active or passive participation in competitive or recreational sport
as a secondary activity. The holiday or visit , rather then the sport,
is the prime travel motivation
Hard definition
Competitive or non-competitive sport as an important secondary
motivation that enriches the travel experience (e.g. sport cruises,
health and fitness clubs).
Soft definition
Competitive or non-competitive sport or leisure as a purely
incidental element of the holiday experience (e.g. minigolf, indoor
bowling)
Source: Gammon and Robinson (1997)
SPORT TOURISM
12
Related to the model of Gammon and Robinson given above is the description by
Standeven and De Knop (1999). At first they make the distinction between sport
tourism with non-holiday or holiday purposes. After that they distinguish between
active or passive sport tourists. Passive sport tourists are grouped according to how
important sport is during their trip. Casual observers are less involved in sport then
connoisseurs who like to visit sport events or sport museums. Active sport tourists
may engage in sport activity holidays, where sport is the main intention of the trip, or
in holiday sport activities, where sport is incidental.
Figure 2: Types of Sport Tourism
Passive
sport
Non-holiday/
business
Active
sport
Casual observer
Sport Tourism
Passive
sport
Connoisseur
Holiday
Organised
Holiday
sport
activities
Active Independent
sport
Multisport
activity
Sport
holiday
activity
holiday
Single sport
activity
holiday
Source: Standeven and De Knop (1999)
SPORT TOURISM
13
In addition to the above categorisations the description of Maier and Weber (1993) is
rather basic. They describe four different kinds of sport tourism demand groups and
their required facilities. These descriptions are based on the level of physical sport
activity.
Figure 3: Sport tourism demand groups and requisite visitor facilities
Demand
groups
Visitor demands and required facilities
Top
performance
athletes
The key-word for these travellers is efficiency. The priorities for
this group are good accessibility to training facilities,
accommodation as well as the opportunity to fulfil certain dining
demands and injury rehabilitation or other performance-related
services.
Mass sports
This aim of this group is to preserve their health and maintain
fitnessing by setting individual targets. The quality of sport
facilities in combination with good accessibility of holiday
regions are the key consideration of this demand group.
Occasional
sport (wo)men
For this group prestige plays a bigger role then sporting
ambitions. Sporting activities and cultural interest have both
similar priorities.
Passive sport
tourists
No individual sport activities are pursued by this group. They
focus on big sport events or visiting sport sights. They require
high-volume infrastructures.
Source: Maier and Weber (1993)
Besides the authors who basically distinguish between active participation and
passive spectatorship there are several other theories set out.
One of these popular theories is the diversification set out by Weed and Bull ((2004)
cited in Weed 2006). The five categories they differ are: sports training, sports
events, luxury sport events, sport participation tourism, and tourism with sport
contents. Just a separation in sport events and sport participation is in their opinion
not enough.
Also Reeves ((2000) cited in Hinch and Higham 2004) makes a different kind of
description of sport tourists. He identifies six different visitor types, which are
divided into; incidental, sporadic, occasional, regular, dedicated and driven. Within
SPORT TOURISM
14
these different visitor types a distinction is made in decision-making, participation,
non-participation, group profile, lifestyle and spending. The diversity in the sport
tourism market is by this schedule pointed out. In practice this schedule has it
limitations because sometimes is suggestive, e.g. spending patterns are rather
assumptions then based on academic research. Despite the limitations, it is a useful
theory because it provides important insight in the range of sport tourist types.
Figure 4: Sport tourism types and visitor profiles
Type
Decision-
making
Participation Non-
participation
Group
profile
Lifestyle
Spending
Incidental
Unimportant Out of duty
Not relaxing,
Holiday like
Family
Sport is
significant
Minimal
Sporadic
Relative
important
If convenient
Easily
contained/
put off
Friends
and family
Non-
essential
Minimal
except for
‘one-offs’
Occasional Sometimes
determining
Welcome
addition to
tourist
experience
Other
commitments
Often
individual,
especially
business
tourists
Conspicuous
consumption
High on
occasions
Regular
Important
Significant
part of
enjoyment
Money or
time become
prohibitive
Group or
individual
Important
Considerable
Dedicated
Very
important
Central to
experience
Due to
unforeseen
barriers
Individuals
and groups
of the like-
minded
Defining
element
Extremely
high and
consistent
Driven
Very
important,
but little
autonomy
Sole reason
Through
injury or fear
of it
Elite
groups or
solitary
The
profession
Extremely
high but
funded by
others
Source: after Reeves (2000 cited in Hinch and Higham (2004))
2.4. Active sport tourism
As described earlier in this chapter most literature refers to two major forms of sport
tourism. One of the two biggest forms of sport tourism described in literature is
Active sport tourism.
The active sport tourism market consists out of people who pursue to be physically
involved in competitive or non-competitive sports (Hinch and Higham 2004).
SPORT TOURISM
15
As Weed and Bull (2004, p.22) point out there are some major trends in the field of
active sport tourism;
• A spreading concerns for healthy living
• A strongly developed market for theme- and activity-based holidays
• A massive growth in demand for short breaks and second holidays
In combination with the knowledge that spare-time is increasingly seen as ‘time to do
something rather than relaxation time, this means a big opportunity to develop this
kind of tourism.
Another characteristic about active sport tourism is that it is rarely taken as the main
holiday, with many consumers seeing them as an extra break, taken outside the
traditional holiday period (Mintel (1999) cited in Weed & Bull 2004)
2.5. Sport Event Tourism
Over the years the significant growth of sport event tourism has been ascribed to
both a growing demand and a growing amount of commercial activities. As the focus
of this research is on sport event tourism, the development of this type of tourism
provides a lot of opportunities. The amount of tourists for whom watching sport has
become a primary reason to travel is rapidly growing.
From the destination’s perspective, sport event tourism is the development and
marketing of sport events to obtain economic and community benefits. For the
consumer the purpose is viewing, or participating in, a sport event.
From the event organizer’s perspective, tourist might be only one of the several
target markets to attract during the event. It might be necessary for some sport event
tourism organizations to give direction to events as tourism products. To become a
product for sale, the event has to be attractive to specific target segments, high in
quality, priced right, and packaged carefully to meet the needs of travellers.
SPORT TOURISM
16
Sport event tourism is somewhat unique. Getz (2003) considers the following special
characteristics:
• Many sport events are biddable; they can be attracted to a destination.
• Special events can attract more people than regularly scheduled games.
• Corporate sponsors love sport events.
• Major sport events can be catalysts for new facilities and infrastructure.
• New sport facilities, become permanent event venues.
• There is a potential for various sports events year round.
• Sport events appeal to everyone, regardless of age, gender or physical ability.
• Sport events can assist in destination branding.
• Sport events can benefit to tourism in rural areas that might have limited
attractiveness otherwise.
Hosting a big event is often seen as the ideal way for a city to put itself on the world
map. Especially big sport events, such as the Olympic Games and World Cup
Soccer, are seen as the perfect method to (re)create a tourist product centred on large
cities or countries.
The hosting of mega sports events appeals to many sectors of the community. The
opportunity to advertise products to a global audience, leverage business
opportunities in export and new investment, on-sell event management knowledge,
enhance the tourist industry of host-countries, and boost citizen morale and pride are
factors which motivate both corporate involvement and public support (Barney et al.
2002).
SPORT TOURISM
17
2.6. Categorisation of events
Events exist in various forms. They may differ in size, volume and impact, and they
reasons for hosting might be different, but one aspect is always is always the same,
they are of limited time duration. A particular type of event are the so-called special
events. These kinds of events are one-time or infrequently occurring events.
Within the field of sport events the focus in this research will be on big events or in
literature described as ‘hallmark’ or ‘mega’-event. But what makes a mega-event
‘mega’? There is several literature about ‘local’, ‘hallmark’ or ‘mega-events’ (Witt
1988; Roche 2000).
Events can be characterized according to their scale and size. In the figure below is
pointed out the proportion between the scale of impact and the category of event.
Figure 5: Categorisation of Events
High
Low
Local
Hallmark
Mega
Source: Own elaboration
S
cal
e
of
im
p
ac
t
Category of event
SPORT TOURISM
18
2.6.1.
Local events
Events with a low scale of impact are local events. Other used terms for these events
are minor events (Van der Wagen 2001) or community-based events (Douglas et al.
2001). Most sport events held fall in this category. Almost every town or city runs
small annual sport events. They are as well of limited time duration but held more
often then special events.
2.6.2.
Hallmark events
The second event listed in the figure above is the hallmark event. This term is used to
describe a certain type of event; nevertheless it can hold various meanings.
According to Getz (1997), hallmark events are those that posses such significance, in
terms of tradition, activeness, image or publicity that the event provides, the city,
community or destination with a competitive advantage. Ritchie (1984, p.2) defined
it this way:
“Major one-time or recurring events of limited duration, developed primarily
to enhance the awareness, appeal and profitability of a tourism destination in
the short and/or long term. Such events rely for their success on uniqueness,
status, or timely significance to create interest and attract attention”
An example of a hallmark sport event could be Wimbledon, the tennis tournament in
London or the Grand Prix Formula One in Monaco.
2.6.3.
Mega events
Two main characteristics of contemporary mega-events are firstly, that they have
significant consequences for the host-city, region or nation where the event is held.
Secondly they will also attract considerable media-coverage. Therefore we can
conclude that events with less media-attention can’t be categorized as a mega-event.
Especially Roche’s (200) definition is used a lot nowadays. He states that mega-
events are best understood as,
“Large-scale cultural (including commercial and sporting) events, which have
a dramatic, mass popular appeal and international significance”
SPORT TOURISM
19
Another author is Roberts (2004) who defines certain sport events as mega when
they are so-called discontinuous, out of the ordinary, international and simply big in
composition. Mega he means in this case, events that have the ability to transmit
promotional messages to billions of people. Examples of mega sport events are the
Olympic Games and FIFA World Cup Football.
2.7. Conclusion
As we can read in this chapter there’s extensive literature on sport tourism. The
writer of this report has tried to set out different point of views on the topic. Some
concluding remarks about this chapter, which can be related to the research aims, are:
• The need to play sports and travel are central aspects in people’s lives,
therefore a combination has big influence on everyday life.
• Sport tourism is a unique and exciting concept and sport tourists can therefore
be seen as a ‘niche’ market.
• There’s a growing market of sport related holidays and also of sport event
holidays.
From these conclusions it’s interesting to know what really drives people to be a
sport tourists and more specifically what drives them to travel to be a spectator of a
sport event. Therefore the next step in this research is to analyse the sport tourism
consumer motivation.
SPORT TOURISM CONSUMER MOTIVATION
20
Chapter 3. SPORT TOURISM CONSUMER MOTIVATION
In this second chapter of the literature review the writer goes deeper into the
motivations of people to be a sport tourist. The subject motivation in general will be
set out and the fact that this motivation has big influence on the decision making
process is analysed.
3.1. Introduction
In order to know what drives visitors to come to certain sport events is good to know
what their motivation is and which kind of factors play a role in that.
Proprietors, entrepreneurs and managers of company’s operative in sport event
tourism are without doubt very interested in what motivates their consumers.
‘Motivation to travel or to participate in some form of tourism might be defined as
that set of needs and attitudes which predispose a person to act in a specific goal
directed way’ (Pizam cited in Kurzman and Zauhar 2005). According to this
quotation attitudes can be interpreted as the sense to respond to certain people,
objects or situations. Motivations can be described as behaviour towards travel goals.
Consumer motivation identifies what people want to do or want to have and the
intensity they want this. When a consumer sees a link between their desires and the
product or service offered they go to the next step of the process, which might result
in taking possession of this product or service.
3.2. Sport, Tourism and Motivation
It was back in 1997 that it was first suggested that sport tourism could be better
categorised by a consumer motivation approach (Gammon and Robinson 1997). First
it was necessary to divide sport tourism into two parts; making a differentiation
between those who travel primarily for sports, sport tourists, and for those where
sport is a secondary consideration, tourism sport.
SPORT TOURISM CONSUMER MOTIVATION
21
When reviewing literature related to the combination of sport, tourism and
motivation it becomes clear that the explanations offered often depend on the
interpretation of the principle motivation. An example of this is that most writers
within the tourism literature give as the main straightforward reason to travel that
people ‘just need to take a break’. Such simplistic explanation doesn’t take in
account the cultural, sociological and physiological reason to travel. Also it fails to
discover whether the motivation is based upon a need to escape from a present
environment, push-factor, or the desire to escape to another, pull-factor, or maybe a
combination of both. Furthermore something which should be realized is that it’s
often unclear for tourists themselves why they are making the trip.
In addition, it’s kind of ambivalent whether (sport) tourism motivations should be
focused on the expressed or the underlying motives of travellers, while this last
initially drives them. To illustrate this point, the explanation of Iso-Ahola ((1980)
cited in Robinson and Gammon 2004) helps, when describing expressed leisure
needs using an iceberg. The tip of the iceberg (i.e. the part which is visible)
represents expressed motives while the big majority of the iceberg, the part which
stays under water symbolizes the underlying motives such as personality factors.
Figure 6: Travel Motives
Expressed motives
Underlying motives
Source: Own Elaboration after Iso-Ahola (1980)
SPORT TOURISM CONSUMER MOTIVATION
22
3.3. Push and Pull factors
Although these underlying factors maybe interesting, it is unrealistic to identify all
the reasons for travel, which often maybe contradictory anyway. As a result of this
most sport tourism motives literature tends to categorise the reasons for travel as
escaping from and/or escaping to a particular destination.
Some examples of writers who categorise the travel motives are summed in the book
of Pizam and Mansfeld (2000). Dann (1977) gives a basic model with seven different
categories of travel motivations, namely:
1. Travel as a response to what is missing now (push factors)
2. Attractiveness of a certain destination (pull factors)
3. Willing to fulfil a fantasy
4. Motivation as a classified purpose, such as visiting friend and relatives or
study
5. Motivational typologies
6. Experienced based motivations
7. Motivation as auto-definition, which means that it’s better to define tourist
situations rather then just observes their behaviour.
Crompton (1979) agreed with Dann, concerning the theory of push and pull factors.
He deepens the idea of push and pull factors and classifies nine motives to travel.
Seven of those are socio-psychological or push motives; the other two are described
as cultural or pull motives. Push motives are escapism, self-exploration, relaxation,
prestige, regression and social inter-action. Pull motives are novelty and education.
Mannel and Iso-Ahola (1987) identified two main types of push and pull factors,
personal and interpersonal. They suggest that people want to leave behind their
personal or interpersonal problem in order to find personal or interpersonal rewards.
The personal rewards are; self-determination, sense of competence, challenge,
learning, exploration and relaxation. The interpersonal awards are a result of social
interaction
SPORT TOURISM CONSUMER MOTIVATION
23
Figure 7: The escaping and seeking dimensions of leisure motivation
Seeking Personal Rewards
Escaping
Seeking
Interpersonal
Interpersonal
Environments
Rewards
Escaping Personal Environments
Source: After Mannel and Iso-Ahola (1987 cited in Pizam and Mansfeld (2000))
Krimpendorf (1987) agrees with the other authors but has more his own ideas. He
states that travel is motivated by ‘going away from’ rather than ‘going towards’
something. He also mentions the fact that travellers’ motives and behaviour are self-
oriented. He lists 8 primary reasons for travel; recuperation and regeneration,
compensation and social integration, escape, communication, freedom and self-
determination, self-realisation, happiness and to broaden the mind.
The tourist motivation model presented by Plog (1974) is one of the most well-
known models. He classified travellers as allocentric and psychocentric. Allocentric
means the people are more into unstructured vacations and involved in local cultures,
while the psychocentric tourists more familiarity and touristy areas pursue. Later he
added to this theory energy which refers to the level of activity desired by the tourist.
It is important to point out that with all the approaches detailed above, and with
others elsewhere in the literature, a single motive is rarely identified as the sole
reason travel; rather are a number of motives for travel – though they maybe one
which takes precedence over the others (Robinson and Gammon 2004, p.223).
Most people’s holidays are a combination of motivation factors, where mostly one
motive becomes dominant (Swarbrooke and Horner 1999). Therefore tourism
motivation research demonstrates a combination of conscious and sub-conscious
SPORT TOURISM CONSUMER MOTIVATION
24
reasons for travel, which illustrate the complexity of this area of study. Not only does
this research tries to address the causes why an individual may wish to visit a sport
event, but also the reasons of this event choice related to the destination which are
often conflicting. Furthermore Robinson and Gammon (ibid.) suggest that motives
do not act independently but are often combined. This combination is often divided
into primary and secondary tourism drives.
Equally, sport tourism has this multiple approaches to motivations, of which some
are similar to ‘normal’ tourism. These are for example, escaping from daily-life and
recuperation. However, there are also some very specific motivations, which are
special for sport, such as competitiveness, willingness to win and the opportunity to
share a special interest together with other people (Weed and Bull 2004). These
motivations can be applied to both active and passive sport tourism, which makes it
even more complex. For example Wann, Melnick, Russell and Pease ((2001) cited in
Robinson and Gammon 2004) identified the 8 most common sport fans motives;
group affiliation, family, aesthetic reasons, self-esteem, economic motives, eustress,
escape and entertainment.
As mentioned in the sport tourism motive literature, there are differences in
participating motives, either active or passive, and the underlying motives as well.
Although it may be better to try to define the different motives for active and passive
participation, this might be in practise difficult. Therefore a general approach to
define primary and secondary in sport related tourism might be better.
In a sport tourism context it’s not difficult to describe the variety of motivational
factors. An example is a sport tourist who travels to the UEFA Euro 2004 Football
Championships. Predictable reasons to travel to Portugal may be to watch his or her
team play, enjoy the nice summer weather, be part of the festivities around the games
or take advantage of the local hospitality. This example illustrates the complexity of
sport tourism motives and therefore its unrealistic to identify all the motivations
variables found in both sport and tourism.
SPORT TOURISM CONSUMER MOTIVATION
25
3.4. Decision Making Process
The motivations for people to visit big sport events have big influence on the
decision making process of it. The questions of how decision-making could be
described and explained and how its outcome could be predicted have received
extensive attention in social science research. Early works in the field referred to the
purchase of products. The most influential so-called grand models of consumer
behaviour:
• view consumer behaviour as a decision-making process,
• focus on the behaviour of the individual consumer,
• assume behaviour to be rational and in that matter explainable,
• believe the consumer to engage in information search and evaluation,
• theorize that the individual narrows down the information in time and
chooses among the alternatives formed during the decision-making process,
• include a feedback loop demonstrating that outcomes from past behaviour
affect future decisions. (Sirakaya and Woodside 2005)
Based on these models researchers have developed a wide range of tourist behaviour
theories. In general, decision-making is modelled as a multi-stage process (Sirakaya
and Woodside 2005):
1) recognizing the necessity to make a decision,
2) formulating wants, goals and objectives,
3) creating a set of alternatives from which to choose,
4) searching for information about the alternatives,
5) making the choice among the alternatives,
6) acting upon the decision and
7) giving feedback for the next decision.
SPORT TOURISM CONSUMER MOTIVATION
26
More related to tourism the theory of Kurtzman and Zauhar (2005) is applicable.
They speak about different factors which lead to the following sequential phases of
the travel decision:
1) incentive phase
2) decision phase
3) preparatory phase
4) travel phase
5) return phase
6) evaluation phase
3.5. Factors of influence
As already suggested earlier, the travel decision is influenced by a number of
interrelated factors, which Sirakaya & Woodside (2005, p.823) divide into:
• internal variables (i.e. attitudes, values, lifestyles, images, motivation, beliefs
and intentions, personality, lifecycle stage, risk reduction methods,
information search behaviour)
• external variables (i.e. constraints, pull factors of a destination, marketing
mix, influences of family and reference groups, culture and sub-culture,
social class, household-related variables such as life-style, power-structure)
• the nature of the intended trip (party size and composition, distance, time,
duration of trip)
• trip experiences (mood and feeling during the trip, post-purchase evaluation)
In order to try to give answer to the research aim of this topic external variables are
most considered. In this argumentation McIntosh and Goeldner (in Kurzman and
Zauhar 2005, p.27) identified four categories of travel motivators that could be
applied to sports travel, namely,
• Physical motivators – directly related to physical needs and drives such as
fitness, sports.
• Cultural motivators – linked to traditions, mores and heritage, such as sports
museums, halls of fame and historic sites.
SPORT TOURISM CONSUMER MOTIVATION
27
• Interpersonal motivators – include the socialization potential to be found in
sport resorts, cruises and world games.
• Status and prestige motivators – demonstrated by people enticed by high
profile destinations athletic celebrities and distinctive sport events.
All motivational theories show that travel decisions are based on specific
informational steps, particularly for the sports tourist. The travel decision could be
point out by the following steps:
1) Awareness
2) Interest
3) Desire
4) Action
First the sport tourist must hear through external sources or by previous experience
know that a potential destination or event exists. This means certain awareness is
created. After that the person further develops his/her interest to the
destination/event. After this stage, the sport tourist considers the potential of such an
experience. From this reflection the sport tourist makes a final decision to pursue or
not to pursue the destination experience.
3.6. Conclusion
The multitude of explanations detailing why people choose to actively or passively
participate in sport and how this decision is made, together with the several touristic
motives for travel illustrates the difficulty and variety in sport tourism. One can
conclude that motivations and behaviour are closely related and in some cases
overlapping each other.
Tourist behaviour, and in particular sport tourist behaviour, is very complex and
therefore difficult to understand and analyse. As it is impossible to understand very
single aspect of sport tourism behaviour, a relevant collection of aspects has been
addressed, by applying several theoretical concepts. As a result of the literature
review some concluding remarks have emerged;
SPORT TOURISM CONSUMER MOTIVATION
28
• The main expressed reason why people travel is because they ‘just need to
take a break’.
• It’s often unclear to people themselves what initially drives them to be a sport
tourist.
• Motivation is based on the need to escape from a present environment (push
factors) or the desire to escape to another (pull factors), or a combination of
both.
SPORT TOURISM DESTINATIONS
29
Chapter 4. SPORT TOURISM DESTINATIONS
This third chapter of the literature review analyses the theoretical foundation of the
research aim about the relation between a sport event and the place where it’s held,
in other words the host-destination. It gives a look on the geographical perspective of
the confluence of sport and tourism, and the relation between the three main
components of tourism, activity, place and people.
4.1. Introduction
As pointed out before special interest in this study goes out to the relation between
the sport event and the host-place, specifically the influence of a destination on
visitations of big sport events. Therefore the understanding of what destinations
mean in sport tourism is very important and can be seen as a starting point for further
research.
Destinations are complex and diverse tourism systems. The reasons why people
choose to travel to particular destinations maybe many or few, related to sport
tourism these reason are similar and unambiguous. In one way or another sport
participation or –experience motives are increasingly common by tourists. There are
not many forces which generate such significant and heterogeneous travel flows as
sport. Furthermore sports are associated with rich and various visitor experiences and
therefore contribute to the image and characterization of tourism destinations.
(Higham 2005)
In this matter it is important to understand what role places or destinations play in the
field of sport and tourism. The relationship between tourists and the places they visit
is a very interesting research area. Sheller and Urry (2004, p.1) state that places to
play are also places in play. In other words places are not only made by physical
presence but moreover they are made and remade by the mobilities and performances
of tourists and workers, images and heritage, the latest fashions and the newest
diseases.
SPORT TOURISM DESTINATIONS
30
This playfulness of place is in part about the urge to travel elsewhere, the pleasure of
immersing oneself in another environment, and the fascination with little differences
in the materiality of the world. Related to this several question occur like ‘What
creates a fascination to visit other places?’, ‘What makes this place desirable to
visit?’ and ‘If we desire that other place, why do we actually go through the trouble
of physically visiting it?
Besides the questions about why people would like to visit other places, playfulness
of places also means in which ways places are themselves always ‘on the move’.
Relation to other places makes them more or less wanted and as a result more or less
visited. Places consist of physical presence, which itself is always in motion; new
infrastructure (hotels/airports), changement of nature (jellyfishes/erupting volcanoes)
and external forces (threat of terrorism) shape a place. So therefore we always ask
‘What needs to be mobilized in order to become a desirable place for (sport) tourists?
An important conception related to this is the so-called ‘tourism mobilities’ principle.
Sheller and Urry (2004, p.1) say,
“We refer to ‘tourism mobilities’, then, not simply in order to state the
obvious (that tourism is a form of mobility), but to highlight that many
different mobilities inform tourism, shape the place where tourism is
performed, and drive the making and unmaking of tourist destinations.”
This can mean mobilities people and objects, airplanes and suitcases, plants and
animals, images and brands, data systems and satellites, all are involved in ‘doing’
tourism. Tourism is also concerned to mobilizations of memories, emotions and
atmospheres. Places have multiple contested meanings that often produces
disruptions and disjuncture’s. Tourism mobilities involve complex combinations of
movements and stillness, realities and fantasies, play and work. (Sheller and Urry
2004)
SPORT TOURISM DESTINATIONS
31
4.2. Geographical perspectives on the confluence of sport and tourism
As stated above place is a very important factor to help conceptualise the field of
(sport) tourism. A broader perspective is pointed out by Hall & Page (1999) who use
the geographical categorisation of space, place and environment. In this theory, space
refers to specific locations. It describes the relationship between sport tourism and
areas and destination. In other words, space relates to the ways in which sport
influences the travel patterns of tourists, whether as primary, secondary or tertiary
travel motivation (Hinch and Higham 2004).
The second geographical factor is place. Place refers to space that is infused with
meaning ((Lew 2001) in Hinch and Higham 2004). Standeven and de Knop (1999,
p.58) treat sport and tourism as cultural experiences – ‘sport as a cultural experience
of physical activity; tourism as a cultural experience of place’. From this they argue
that the nature of sport is therefore ‘about an experience of physical activity tied to
an experience of place’. It has been argued that sport infuses tourism destinations
with one of the most types of attractions. The concept of place in tourism raises
questions which are related to the role of sport in promoting tourism destinations.
Space and place have a central role in the geography of sport and the geography of
tourism. Sport has characteristics which are, unlike recreation and play, fixed spatial
parameters, such as time and dimensions. Tourism is also characterised by these
spatial parameters. Somebody must leave his/her house and travel to be considered as
tourist. The difference between space and place is though that place cannot be
measured objectively. It is a subjective concept which is changing constantly.
Thirdly Hall and Page (1999) describe environment in relation to the geography of
sport tourism. In which degree tourists find a place attractive is strongly influenced
by its physical environment, including landscape and climate ((Krippendorf 1986) in
Hinch and Higham 2004). Evidentially a lot of sports are closely linked to the
physicality of a destination.
SPORT TOURISM DESTINATIONS
32
A well-known general tourist motive is the search for regional diversity in the
landscape. Related to sports tourism Bale (2003) introduced in this matter the term
‘sportscape’ to describe the highly impacted and modified (e.g. golf-courses and ski-
slopes) sport environment. Essentially this means that sportscape describes the
tendency to transform landscapes into sporting environments
In order to try to give answer on the research questions in this report several analyses
which are made in the past can be useful to understand the principal theme. Tourism
destination analyses give important information which is a first step in the
development and management of sport tourism destinations and motivation for
people to visit it.
‘The spatial analysis of sport tourism involves the study of the locations in which
sports occur and the movements of tourists to these locations’ (Hinch and Higham
2004) is one of the useful bases analyses. Related to this some authors (Bale 1989;
Rooney 1988 in Hinch and Higham 2004) introduced several concepts such as
central place theory, distance decay and location hierarchies for consideration in the
field of sport tourism.
From this point is clear that distance is applied in both sport and tourism. In the
context of sport tourism, there’s a big advantage for sports that take place in central
locations. In theory this means that the power of attraction that a sport or sport event
has related to the travel decision process reduces due to less knowledge about the
travel location.
In reality, there are numerous factors which influence the distance decay, (Miossec
(1991) in Hinch and Higham 2004) such as political, cultural and climatic
characteristics, which may act as barriers or facilitators to travel. Furthermore Urry
(1990) addresses the urge of tourists to go to exotic and distant places, which give an
opposite picture to distance decay travel patterns. Other factors of influence on the
distance decay function are the quality of opposition, accessibility, and also the costs
of participating in the sport activity at the destination.
SPORT TOURISM DESTINATIONS
33
Clearly, sport tourism takes is related to spatial parameters in a complex way.
Different sports need different degrees of resources. Some sports are best performed
in remote areas where others need big central places. Another important point about
the relation between place and sport is the distance-time-cost threshold (Veal 1987;
Hinch and Higham 2004). The relation between the three have big influence on
spatial travel patterns of sport tourists, although sport tourism market range and
travel flows are influenced by a range of factors that are not well understood.
This time-distance-cost relation is such that the more people invest on those three
aspects this will bear upon the visitor experience. For instance, the further sport
tourists travel, the more likely it is that they will spend some time at the destination
engaging in tourist activities (Nogawa et al. (1996) in Hinch and Higham 2004) It is
also noteworthy that the area that a sports team represents may in fact stimulate
‘home’ supporters to travel considerable distances to support their team. The spatial
area that a team or a player represents may vary considerable from their reach. Reach
in this case means the exposure they have on sport tourists. This raises the prospect
of people travelling domestic or international, following their representative team or
sporters, without having the feeling they left home. Alike, these sporters may be
supported by expatriates who have a strong link with teams from countries or regions
they have lived in the past. This phenomenon contributes to the discussion about
travel mobilities related to sport tourism and sport tourists’ destinations. This
discussion opens questions about personal identity, representation, and fan interest.
4.3. Location Hierarchies
In order to attract sport tourist destinations or locations need to have specific
facilitations, because sport tourism is constantly changing. Often these modifications
are a result of changement in economy, location of sport facilities and the
transformation of sport destinations. Sports attractions exist within a hierarchical
organisational structure which is similar as hierarchy of ‘normal’ tourist attractions.
The hierarchy reflects that some locations have a local attraction function, while
others have a regional, national or international function.
SPORT TOURISM DESTINATIONS
34
Bale (2003) explains that sport facilities in central locations are located ‘as close to
potential users as possible in order to maximize pleasure from the sport experience
and to minimize travel, and hence costs’. These characteristics have been difficult
over the last years, as new factors have revealed which influence status of sport
locations. Examples of these changing factors are facility sharing, changing access to
infrastructure and the influence of media markets. Some tourism destinations
compete in these location hierarchies, while others focus on a specific sport. For
example Dubai is currently trying to be the world first dedicated ‘sport city’ with all
newly build facilities. An example of a destination which specifies is Hawaii which
uses surfing to profile them as a destination of prominence.
4.4. Relation between Activity, People and Place in a geographical
context of Sport Tourism.
The interaction between the three main components in tourism has been described by
Weed and Bull (2004, p.37) as ‘a social, economic and cultural phenomenon arising
from the unique intersection of activity, people and place’. The relationship between
this hasn’t been addressed systematically in sport tourism literature (Hinch and
Higham 2004), while the nature of this relation summons more questions.
There are some examples of studies which tried to research the relation between the
activity, the people and the place. Green and Chalip (1998) made a study of women
football players from across the United States, who were participating in an annual
tournament in Florida. They found out that the real attraction for the players was not
that they could play their sport away from home or the place itself, but the fact that
they could celebrate their subculture with other from distant places.
Another study was conducted by Kim and Chalip (2004) who surveyed 600 people
from USA about attending the FIFA World Cup Football in South Korea and Japan
in 2002. The main reason for people to visit South Korea and/or Japan was because
of interest in the World Cup. On the contrary the financial constraints affected
negatively the sense that people would attend. These two conclusions describe the
relation between the activity, the people and the place.
SPORT TOURISM DESTINATIONS
35
In addition to this it’s noteworthy to mention that people themselves also have
‘place-making qualities’ (Hinch and Higham 2004). An example of this is the
congregation of football fans who watch the games in public spaces on a temporary
screen, for example during the FIFA World Cup in Germany in 2006. The gathering
of all the people created a place which attracted people who were not interested in
football but just in ‘being in a sport-atmosphere’.
To make the place more profound in the geographical perspective of sport tourism
the paper of Hinch and Higham (2004, p.42) is useful. They describe the three
variants of place which have relevance to sport tourism. They are place attachment,
place identity and place dependence. Each of these three variants can help to clarify
the role of place in sport tourism.
Place attachment can be seen as a positive relation between an individual and a
specific place. Greater insight in the nature of the attachment between is a more
deepen question in the understanding of activity, people and place, which is
described earlier. Weak place attachment, for example as in the study of Green and
Chalip (1998) means little commitment to a specific destination. On the other hand, a
lot of attachment not only means a lot commitment but also that visitors try to protect
a certain destination. Place identity can be applied to individuals as well as groups.
Individuals may strongly identify particular sites which are associated with their
sport, while groups may identify nations with a certain sport, for example, Swiss
nationals and alpine ski resorts. Place dependence is the third variant described by
Hinch and Higham and is set out as a form of attachment which is based on the
possibility of a certain place to fulfil specific needs or wishes from sport tourists.
Related to place identity it means that an individual may not get a real sense of
identity from a place but may depend on this in order to participate in an activity.
SPORT TOURISM DESTINATIONS
36
4.5. Conclusion
Destinations have a crucial role in both tourism and sport tourism. By using the
geographical perspective on the confluence of sport and tourism with the concepts of
space, place and environment a useful guidance is given to the questions of this
research. By adopting these concepts an attempt is made to give direction to try to
asses the influence of the destination on sport event visit motivation. Some
concluding remarks from this chapter are:
• Sport tourism destinations are always ‘on the move’, in a physical way and a
more unclear way of image, performances and desirability.
• Physical characteristics of a destination will always be very important in sport
tourism
• The time-distance-cost relation is such that the more people invest on those
three aspects, the more it will bear upon the visitor experience
• Issues like personal identity, representation and fan interest are narrowly
connected to sport event visit motivation.
METHODOLOGY
37
Chapter 5. METHODOLOGY
In this chapter an explanation will be given on the different methods being used to
gather information for this research, in order to address and fulfil the statements that
have been detailed in the research and aim objectives. This chapter addresses each
stage of the research process that has been undertaken, to enable the reader to follow
the methods. This chapter will also outline the various methods of analysis and the
limitations encountered during the research process.
5.1. Research Aim and Objectives
As becomes clear in the literature review related the combination of sport, tourism
and motivation, the explanations offered often depend on the interpretation of the
principal motivation. An example of this is that most writers within the tourism
literature give as the main straightforward reason to travel that people ‘just need to
take a break’. Such simplistic explanation doesn’t take into account the cultural,
sociological and physiological reason to travel. Also it fails to discover whether the
motivation is based upon a need to escape from a present environment (push-factor)
or the desire to escape to another (pull-factor), or maybe a combination of both.
The aim of this study is to asses the factors of influence on sport event visit
motivation. Special interest goes out to the relation between the sport event and the
host-destination. In order to investigate the factors of influence in the selection
process, the following questions have to be answered:
• To what extend does background influence the decision to visit big sport
events?
• Do people visit big sport event as a response to what is missing now?
• Does the attractiveness of a certain destination make people visit a big sport
event?
• Which factors keeps people away from a big sport event?
METHODOLOGY
38
The four main questions of this research mentioned above have each several sub
research areas. In general the questions, which will be explained in the next part of
this chapter, represent respectively;
• The background of visitors; indicators like demography, experience, financial
situation are examined within this question
• Push factors; indicators like escapism, relaxation, self-exploration,
entertainment and socialization
• Pull factors; indicators like prestige, novelty, self-development and fan
motives
• Constraints; indicators like financial risks, threats and competition
As described in the literature review, research suggest that pull factors, push factors
and constraints should effect each other (Robinson and Gammon 2004, p.23
Subsection 3.3). In the opinion of the author of this research the item of background
should be added to this, in order to get a complete picture of possible factors of
influence for people attending a big sport event. Therefore the author made a
conceptual model (Figure 8) describing and visualising the relationship between
them.
The model shows the relationship between background, push factors, pull factors and
constraints (Pizam and Mansfeld 2000; Robinson and Gammon 2004; Weed and Bull
2004). The first three determents are drawn on one line showing they have same
importance, or in other words it’s difficult to estimate which one is most important. It
depends on the response of the visitors. The arrows in between background, push
factors, and pull factors show that everything is linked and has effect on each other.
Constraint is in the authors’ opinion in such a way important that it’s drawn
underneath the background, push- and pull factors. It shows that one of the first three
factors can be very important, one or more constraints can have that much influence
on interest that it’s most likely it will affect visitation negatively. After the
consideration of all the factors the result is described as the outcome of the
attendance motives.
METHODOLOGY
39
Figure 8: A conceptual model of sport event interest
Background
• Demography
• Financial situation
• Previous experience
↔
Push factors
• Escapism
• Relaxation
• Self-exploration
• Entertainment
• Socialization
↔
Pull factors
• Novelty
• Fan motives
• Self-development
• Destination
Constraints
• Risks
• Threats
• Competition
Outcomes
Attendance motives
Source: Own elaboration (after Pizam and Mansfeld 2000; Robinson and Gammon 2004; Weed and
Bull 2004)
5.2. Data collection methods
It is important to choose appropriate research technique to get a good answer to the
research questions. The used data collection can be seen as a ‘fit’ between the aim
and objectives and the available data. There are two different kinds of data collection
methods: secondary and primary research, which are both used in this particular
research.
METHODOLOGY
40
5.2.1.
Secondary research
The secondary research in this report is conducted to be able to give an academically
and theoretical basis for further primary research. Secondary research includes data
which is published previously in various forms. Veal (1997) describes secondary
data as previous published data (can be words and statistics), which have been
collected and analysed by others, and is immediately available at minimal costs and
provides a good starting point for further research.
Literature in research can function in different ways; it can be used as the whole
basis for a research, it can give the authors different point of views of the topic or it
can be used to compare or support the new research. For this research different
resources have been used to collect data. Most of the information are academical
texts, for example from books and journals. Additionally, different websites, mainly
the one from Bournemouth University, provided the author with information in the
form of e-journals and articles from related academical magazines. Furthermore
some previous studies in the field of sport event tourism have been applied as well.
5.2.2.
Primary research
Primary research is described by Veal (1997) as the gathering of information not
available from any other source. The new data in the research can be acquired by
quantitative or qualitative methods. A quantitative approach is research which
involves statistical analysis and relies on numerical evidences to draw conclusions or
to test hypothesis. On the other hand, qualitative research involves gathering a great
deal of information about a small number of people. In this research the use of a
qualitative approach is the appropriate measure to collect the primary data, which
will be explained further in this chapter.
Qualitative research is described by Veal (1997, p.129) as ‘an approach which tends
to collect a great deal of information about relatively few people rather than more
limited information about a large number of people’. From this point of view it is
quite clear that the appropriate research method to fulfil the aims of this research is a
qualitative one. Especially when it comes to better understanding of the behaviour of
METHODOLOGY
41
sport event tourists, qualitative research is most appropriate. Nardi (2003, p.15) adds
to this:
“If the goal is to understand human behaviour in its natural setting and from
the viewpoint of those involved, then the appropriate method is a qualitative
one. Qualitative research explores new topics by getting into the setting
where people carry out their lives”.
There are several qualitative methods to gather primary data. In-depth interviews,
group interviews and focus groups and participant observation are some of the
common types (Veal 1997; Nardi 2003).
5.3. Research design and Realization
Creating a research design or plan is essential carrying out a scientific study. By
carefully specifying the steps necessary for researching a topic someone avoids
certain pitfalls. When it comes to designing a research there are several stages which
should be followed.
In this research the author conducted a series of questionnaire-based interviews
(Appendix B). This qualitative method has been chosen because, ‘the best, and often
the only, sources of information about individuals’ leisure or tourism behaviour or
attitudes are the individuals’ own reports about themselves’ (Veal 1997, p.33).
The interviews were conducted in two different ways. Firstly the author visited the
international tennis tournament Wimbledon in London, United Kingdom. Secondly
via the internet-network ‘Hyves’ other visitors of big sport events were found to
conduct more interviews. Later on these two methods will be explained more
detailed.
The most decisive factor for the success of a qualitative research is the willingness of
people to participate in any form of interview, which might sometimes be a problem.
But there are more difficulties associated when it comes to the dependency on
people’s account. People can have problems recalling the past, don’t understand
METHODOLOGY
42
questions or exaggerate or bend the truth. The accuracy of the answer therefore
cannot be guaranteed. Yet in practise, to explore people’s feelings, ideas, experiences
and motivations, interviews as type of research is the only possible method.
To explore the above mentioned internal variables, the questionnaire-based interview
was considered the most suitable method. The participation likelihood is generally
higher than in-depth interviews. Also this kind of method can take more visitors into
account, the responses are more accurate and the relation between different factors
can be examined. Also reactions and comments of visitors can add to the
understanding. Other advantages of this technique are that theirs is a form of
interaction between interviewer and interviewee which can cause new perspectives
as well.
The design of the questionnaire has been based on two studies on sport event
visitation motivation (Kim and Chalip 2004; Robinson and Gammon 2004), the
literature review combined with the own ideas of the author of this dissertation. The
questionnaire includes 7 questions and 21 statements divided into 4 sections and 15
categories. The sections and categories are:
• Questions 1 – 6 are related to background; with the categories demography,
financial situation and previous experience.
• Statements 7 – 14 are related to push factors; with the categories escapism,
relaxation, self-exploration, entertainment and socialization.
• Statements 15 – 22 are related to pull factors; with the categories novelty,
fan motives, self-development and destination.
• Statements 23 – 27 are related to constraints; with categories risks, threats
and competition.
• Question 28 is a combination of background (experience), push factors and
pull factors.
METHODOLOGY
43
The first section has some personal questions for the visitors. Questions are related to
age, gender, education and income. Zhang et al. (2001) found out in sport event visit
motivation research that demographic characteristics of spectators added to the
prediction of attendance. Also financial situation has great influence of attendance
expectancy as described in the distance-time-cost threshold (Veal 1987; Hinch and
Higham 2004, p.33 Subsection 4.2). Another category is this section is previous
experience, in which the personal experiences are central. Those who have
previously attended are more likely to attend than those who never attended before
(Wann et al 2001). Besides personal experience, also the experiences of family or
friends as they are seen as a very influencing factor (Sirakaya & Woodside 2005,
p.26 Subsection 3.5).
The second section comprises information about the reasons why visitors leave there
place to come to the sport event. Those aspects are in ‘regular’ tourism seen as main
travel motives (Crompton 1979, Mannel and Iso-Ahola 1987 and Krimpendorf 1987,
p.22-23 Subsection 3.3), but can that theory also be applied to sport event tourism?
In order to asses the answers to the questions of this sections more accurately, the
principle of regeneration has been split up into escapism, relaxation and self-
exploration, because a positive attitude towards escapism doesn’t automatically
means the need for relaxation as well. This part also embraces the question about the
influence of the entertainment factor on visitation. Last category is the importance of
sharing certain interest with other visitors, in other words how significant is
socialization.
The third section encloses eight statements divided in the categories novelty, fan
motives, self-development and destination. Novelty describes the need for people to
do something unique or as Dann (1997, p.22 Subsection 3.3) stated ‘willingness to
fulfil a fantasy’. Secondly fan motives are assessed in this section. Fan motives are
event interest, identification with teams or players and the beauty of the game (Wann
1995 and Funk et al 2001 in Kim and Chalip 2004). The third category is self-
development which refers to the fact that tourist want to ‘learn’ something when
there on holidays. Zhang and Lam (1999) describe this as the need from people to
increase knowledge about a foreign destination.
METHODOLOGY
44
As described before special interest in this research goes out to the relation between
the host- destination and the sport event. Bale (2003) states that sport facilities in
central locations are located ‘as close to potential users as possible in order to
maximize pleasure from the sport experience and to minimize travel, and hence
costs’.
The last section with statements deals with the constraints which may affect the sport
event visit. Although a strong attraction to an event may exist, it’s not a guarantee to
generate travel to attend. Especially constraints can influence attendance likelihood
strongly.
The three determents research are risks, threats and competition. The author means
high financial costs, unfamiliarity with a particular destination and possible negative
weather circumstances as a risk. A study by Um and Crompton ((1992) in Kim and
Chalip 2004) shows that monetary cost and risk were perceived as important
inhibitors to travel to sport events. Also weather can strongly influence the timing
and success of the event (Turco et al. 2002).
Threat is a category which has not been described much as a constraint in literature,
but came as an idea from the author itself. Especially with the terrorism threat in
certain important sport event tourism destinations, e.g. London, it seems according to
the author an interesting subject to research. The last category in this section is
competition. Competition in this case comes from broadcasting media rather then
from other sport events.
The last question is asked to research the relation between background (experience),
push and pull factors as mentioned above. It asks respondents to judge ten items in
order of importance. Those items are; experience, escapism, relaxation, self-
exploration, entertainment, socialization, novelty, fan motives, self-development and
destination.
The questionnaire based interviews were conducted in two different ways. Firstly the
author visited the international tennis tournament Wimbledon in London, United
Kingdom. It was decided to partly conduct the visitor survey during a big sport event
METHODOLOGY
45
because of several reasons. As mentioned earlier there are some difficulties when it
comes to qualitative research. People can have problems recalling the past, don’t
understand questions or exaggerate or bend the truth. By interviewing visitors on-
the-spot these difficulties where tried to reduce to a minimum.
The interviews were basically conducted at one particular spot in the Wimbledon
Park. This place, called in popular language ‘Henman Hill’, is a grass area where a
on a big television screen matches on different courts are shown. Numerous people
usually sit here to eat and drink something. It was found that this area was most
suitable to accomplish the interviews because next to the tennis courts silence is
requested. Besides most people were having lunch or talking so they had most likely
interest and time to participate.
The interviews were conducted on Friday the 6
th
of July. The prerequisite for the
interviewees set by the author of this report was non-British citizens. The reason for
this is that visitors from outside the U.K. really have to travel far to attend this sport
event. Randomly visitors sitting at Henman Hill were approached and asked if they
had about ten minutes time to answer some questions for the interviewer’s master
thesis on tourism. Most people reacted reticent, however as they were assured their
answers would be treated confidentially, they agreed. As most people came from
London or its surroundings it was difficult to find interviewees who fitted in the
profile. Therefore listening to the language that people spoke was important to find
as much people as possible. Also the large amount of non-British inhabitants in
London created an extra difficulty.
Approximately 30 non-British people were asked to participate and 18 persons
reacted positive on that. Reasons for non-participation were a lack of time, language
barriers or no interest. 13 of the 18 interviews were conducted in English, the other
five in Dutch. The questions were asked in order as outlined in the questionnaire.
Sometimes, interviewees’ comments referred to questions which were not addressed
yet. In those cases the interviewer had to respond to modify the questions at that
time.
METHODOLOGY
46
The second method used in this research was conducting questionnaire-based
interviews via the Dutch internet-network ‘Hyves’. Hyves, named after the English
word (bee-)hive, exists since October 2004 and is a free Dutch profile-site which is
aimed to maintain and enlarge a social network. Hyves is particularly popular among
students and young professionals. Hyves has approximately 3 million Dutch users.
A special item within Hyves is the so-called categorical interest. Members have
different interests and can be part of a category or as called ‘Hyve’. The addressed
persons were members of two different Hyves; the Tennis-Hyve and the Wimbledon-
Hyve. In total these two categories have approximately 13.500 members. At the 25
th
of July these persons were approached to participate in the survey. Because it is not
clear which part of this group ever attended Wimbledon or another big tennis
tournament the response was very doubtful. In total 8 persons responded positively
on the appeal. Those people were send a questionnaire by e-mail and the request if
they agreed on giving a short explanation by phone to the questionnaire they filled in,
which they all did.
The interviews by phone were conducted the same as the interviews at Wimbledon.
Because the respondents already returned the filled-in questionnaire to the author of
this research, the phone call was usually less then 10 minutes.
5.4. Research limitations
The selected method of questionnaire-based has several disadvantages. The main
shortcoming is the fact that it only considers visitors of sport events and not persons
who decided not to go. Furthermore the reliability and accuracy of the answers on the
questions was sometimes doubtful.
As mentioned before, the author had difficulties finding appropriate candidates. In
the limited cases somebody was found, people tended to be very reserved. Time
constraints were the main reason not to participate. Also six of the 26 interviews are
METHODOLOGY
47
doubtful whether they can be categorized as interviews. Those 6 respondents filled-in
the questionnaires themselves and couldn’t, mostly because of language barriers, add
orally any new information.
Another major limitation of this research is fact that people have difficulties
expressing their attending motives. As described in the literature review (Figure 6, p.
21 Subsection 3.2) this has shown to be a problem. The task of the interviewer was in
this case to go deeper into the question. Direct contact between the interviewer and
interviewee may result in these cases in biased responses. On the one hand, in some
occasions the interviewer had the idea that the respondents answered in an
affirmative way, because they had the feeling that was correct. On the other hand, the
responses may be influenced by the interviewee’s desire to be helpful. Also the
language barriers may have had an influence on the outcomes of the interviews, as
the interviewer and most of the time also the respondents were not native English
speakers.
5.5. Conclusion
This methodology chapter has tried to point out the importance of research methods
used. The method has been chosen to fulfil the research aims and objectives of this
report. The potential limitations have been set out and made it clear why the
questionnaire-based interview is the best way to explore motives of sport event
visitation.
The author started to set out the research aims and objectives of this study. The four
main questions of this research are divided into background, push factors, pull
factors and constraints. In order to demonstrate the relationship among those research
areas the author created a model, based on a combination of literature, which shows
the link between the factors on influence. The model shows that the background,
push factors and pull factors are strongly linked. The relation with the constraints is
seen as vital; one of the three factors can be very important, one or more constraints
METHODOLOGY
48
can have that much influence on interest that it’s most likely it will affect visitation
negatively.
After the description of the research areas, the data collection methods are described.
This is done in order to give a theoretical framework for the research design and
realization which is set out thereafter. In this research the author conducted a series
of questionnaire-based interviews in two different ways. Firstly the author visited the
international tennis tournament Wimbledon in London, United Kingdom. Secondly
via the internet-network Hyves other visitors of big sport events were found to
conduct more interviews. The two used methods combined brought in 26 valid
interviews with visitors of big sport events.
Despite the limitations which are set out in the end of the chapter, the multi-staged
combination of methods is seen as the best way to fulfil the research aim and
objectives. By combining several data collection methods different approaches are
used.
MAIN FINDINGS
49
Chapter 6. MAIN FINDINGS
In this chapter the gathered data from the questionnaire-based interviews is
examined. It gives answer to the aim of this study to asses the factors of influence on
sport event visit motivation. Special interest goes out to the relation between the
sport event and the host-destination. The literature review will be used wherever
applicable to understand the qualitative research.
6.1. Sample Description
The sample interviewed embraces 26 visitors of big sport events. 23 of those visited
the tennis tournament of Wimbledon in London and three visited the tennis
tournament of Roland Garros in Paris, France.
6.1.1.
Background
The first part of the interview deals with the background of visitors in order to create
an intelligibility clear framework as a starting point. It embraces six questions which
respectively ask for age, nationality and place of living, gender, education level,
income, personal previous experience and possible influence of family, friends or
relatives. The question of place of living is not explained more detailed as it is a
question which is to ensure that the respondent falls into the target group, as
described in the literature review (p.33 Subsection 4.2) ,‘sporters may be supported
by expatriates who have a strong link with teams from countries or regions they have
lived in the past’.
Besides this information as starting point and to ensure the respondent fall into the
target group it has another function as well. Zhang et al. (2001) found that
demographical characteristics (e.g. age, gender, education) add to the prediction of
attendance.
MAIN FINDINGS
50
From the interviewed persons 18 are coming from Europe and 8 outside Europe
(Appendix A). The age lies in between 19 and 64 with an average age of 34 years,
which was predictable concerning the approach target group via the internet-forum
Hyves. All, but three respondents, travelled in company, mostly with the partner.
The level of education of the respondents is predominantly high. Most persons
finished an education on bachelor or master level. Five respondents are still studying
of which three on master level. Of all the respondents, 23 are working and therefore
have an income. The twenty persons who responded, three respondents didn’t answer
this question, have mostly an annual income around €30.000. This information is
useful because some literature (Kim and Chalip 2004) suggests that income-based
segmentation may allow sport event marketers to reach those who are likely to feel
constrained by event costs.
The last question of the interviews is implemented in order to research the relation
among the proposed factors and therefore what is perceived as the main reason or
reasons to visit a big sport event. The respondents were asked to choose three items
which influenced their visit mostly. Outcomes are presented in the form of a chart.
Figure 9: Relationship among Factors of Influence
0
5
10
15
20
25
Experience
Escapism
Relaxation
Socialization
Fan Motives
Host-destination
Self-exploration
Entertainment
Novelty
Self-development
MAIN FINDINGS
51
To give a better overview which factors are most important the writer of this
dissertation follows the order of the outcome of the research rather than the sequence
of the questions.
6.1.2.
Fan Motives
As can be seen fan motives are rated as the most important factor to visit a big sport
event, it is the variable with the largest impact on attendance desire. In literature fan
motives are described as very important factors for sport event tourists to visit a
certain sport event. (Kim and Chalip 2004; Robinson and Gammon 2004)
Three statements tried to analyse the influence of this factor by dividing it into event
interest, identification with teams or players and ‘the beauty of the game’ (Wann
1995 and Funk et al. 2001 in Kim and Chalip 2004).
If it comes to event-interest the comments were unambiguous. 25 of 26 respondents
strongly agreed on the statement that they wanted to experience a big sport event.
Only a Japanese backpacker (17) answered by saying; “I had no plans for today, but
saw this on television and decided to come”. Other comments were; “This is a very
nice experience” (13), “Without doubt I would like to experience a big sport event,
it’s my main reason to come here” (12) and “Wimbledon is great!”(2).
“Of course I come to see players from my country, who doesn’t”? This comment was
made by a respondent from the USA (4) on the statement if identification with
certain players influenced the reason to attend Wimbledon. The most exceptional
remark was made by two South-American women (1+2). They stated; “We came
especially for Nadal (Spanish player) and Gonzalez (Chilean player). On the
question if they therefore travelled that big distance they answered; “Basically yes”.
In the research of Kim and Chalip (2004) they also experience that supporting the
national team had by far the strongest effect among all the variables, which is
consistent with previous work (Chalip et al. 1988).
MAIN FINDINGS
52
Contrary to these comments is the theory of Higham and Hinch (2006) who state that
‘the spatial area that a team or club represent may vary considerably from the
spatial extant of the team supporter and player catchments’.
Some related comments came from European visitors. “I like to see players from my
country, but I’m more interested in the real toppers” (19). However the negative
effect of interest in particular players, mainly by Dutch respondents, it is commonly
argued that an interest in national sport stars will foster attendance (Graham,
Goldblatt and Delpy 1995 cited in Kim and Chalip 2004). A reason for the saying
above might be the lack of high profile stars from a specific country. Or maybe the
level of proudness has an influence in this matter.
Another comment came from a Belgian visitor (7), “We are interested Justin Henin
(Belgian player), but she’s not the main reason why we are here”. Other literature
which describes the relation between background variables and attendance motives is
the article of Higham and Hinch (2006). They suggest that personal identity and
representation implicate interesting questions for travel mobilities to sport events
Thirdly part of fan motives is ‘the beauty of the game’ as reason to attend. Some
comments about this came from a Dutch respondent (22). “I’m a tennis player myself
and to see some men/women playing my sport this good makes me want to visit”.
Another interviewee (9) added; “Maybe tennis is not the most exciting sport to
watch, but I love it!”
Analysing these two sayings result in the conclusion that the positive rating of ‘the
beauty of the game’ is similarly consistent to other work on fan behaviour (Wann et
al. 2001)
MAIN FINDINGS
53
6.1.3.
Entertainment
Rated as second most important factor is entertainment. Two statements are
presented in the questionnaire in order to cover this item. Both the general
atmosphere of a big sport event and the festivities around it were attended to the
matter.
The statement resulted in a very clear picture about the influence of both the
atmosphere and the festivities, which confirms MacAloons ((1984) in Kim and
Chalip 2004) theory saying that the festival surrounding an event is one of its key
appeals to attendees. “Even if I wouldn’t see any tennis, because for example of rain,
my day would be a success”, was the comment of a Belgian man (7). A Swiss
respondent (10) adds to this opinion by saying; “A friend of mine who visited the
World Cup Football told me that he enjoyed more the festivities in Dortmund around
the game rather then the match Switzerland – Togo he saw”. He continued by
saying; “I ones visited the Tour de France (cycling) and the activities around it
where more interesting than seeing the racing cyclists”.
The festivities around a big event are rated even more important than the atmosphere.
As for example Green (2001) points out the importance of the festivities around a
sport event because it provides an opportunity for attendees to revel in an atmosphere
that celebrates the sport’s sub-culture. Another, often refered, writer is Chalip (1992)
who adds to this that event organizers should pay particular attention to the way they
construct their event’s atmosphere.
An experienced tennis event visitor from USA (2) said; “The specific activities or
festivities around a big sport event are for me decisive. The atmosphere is mostly the
same at different tennis events. This saying can be analyzed as that the type of sport
is also an important factor. A Dutch respondent adds; “I’m a sports-fan and
therefore I like to visit sport happenings like football, formula 1 or tennis. Especially
in tennis the atmosphere is very friendly”. He continued by saying; “You can even
see the players walking between the public, that’s something which doesn’t happen
in every sport”.
MAIN FINDINGS
54
The relation between the general atmosphere and specific festivities around an event
was also expressed by the Australian respondent (18), “The atmosphere here is
similar, but the festivities around the Olympics were much better”.
6.1.4.
Host-destination
Special interest in this research goes out to the connection between the host-
destination and the sport event. The relation between Activity (big sport event),
People (sport event visitors) and Place (host-destination) in a geographical context of
sport tourism is examined, as outlined on page 31, subsection 4.2.
Some comments about the relation between host-destination and the sport event
were; “I came only for Wimbledon” (14) and “Low-cost airlines make it easy to go
for a day to a certain place” (13).
Contrary to the theory of Standeven and De Knop (2004) who stated that sport
tourism is ‘an experience of physical activity tied to an experience of place’, was the
comment of a Swiss respondent. She said; “Even if this event was at in remote
country-side village I would have come (11).
The opinions that the event is the sole reason to attend were partly backed up by
other respondents who confirmed there main reason to visit was the sport event, but
as long as they were at the host-destination they visited other places as well.
Examples of this were given by a Dutch respondent (25) “I combined visiting Roland
Garros with a city-trip”, a Swiss couple (10+11) “Our main reason is visiting
Wimbledon, but we will go to other places as well” and three Belgian friends
(7+8+9) “Wimbledon today, Tour de France tomorrow, perfect weekend for us”.
Furthermore the passionate reaction of a Canadian respondent (5) is useful
information. He said; “Do you really think I travel 18 hours and pay $1000 just to
see some people hitting a ball?” This comment confirm the theory of that the further
sports tourists travel, the more likely it is that they will spend some time at the
destination engaging in tourist activities (Nogawa et al 1996; Gibson 2002).
MAIN FINDINGS
55
The results of this part of the research confirms a central aspect of the connection
between the host-destination and the sport event, in fact the distance-time-cost
threshold (Veal 1987; Hinch and Higham 2004) which is described in the literature
review (p. 33, Subsection 4.2).
Another aspect in relation to the influence of a destination on sport event visitation is
the culture of the host-destination. Remarkably this seems to be very important. “The
tradition of Wimbledon attracts me, this kind of culture of a sport event you only find
here” (11) and “Every Grand Slam (4 big tennis tournaments in Australia, France,
United Kingdom and USA) has its own culture, but in Wimbledon this plays a major
role”.
6.1.5.
Relaxation
Rated a fourth most important is relaxation. This item tries to research the degree of
relaxation related to big sport event motivation. Nineteen respondents rated this
relation as strong or decisive (4-5). An older female respondent from Germany (15)
said; “It’s the third time I visit Wimbledon with my sister. This is for us a form of
relaxation, the excitement of such an event, while our husbands find it too busy”. Her
sister (16) added, “Even with all the negative happenings around this event, such as
queuing, it’s relaxing to visit”.
This is backed up by another respondent (21) who said; “When I told my family or
friends that I went to Wimbledon to relax, they were surprised. “Isn’t such an event
far from relaxing?” asked my father”.
Although the comments show that not everybody considers a big sport event a
relaxation, most of its visitors do so. This confirms the theory that relaxation is a
main motive to travel set up by several authors (Crompton 1979; Mannel and Iso-
Ahola 1987, p.22 Subsection 3.3)
MAIN FINDINGS
56
6.1.6.
Experience
The hypothesis that ‘those who have previously attended are more likely to attend
than those who never attended before’ (Wann et al 2001 in Kim and Chalip 2004)
and that ‘the experiences of family or friends are seen as a very influencing factor’
(Sirakaya & Woodside 2005, p26 Subsection 3.5) are tested in this question.
For most of the respondents it was their first visit to a big sport event. Ten
respondents visited a big sport event before where they had to travel a substantial
distance to attend. There is a strong connection between present visitation and
previous experience. All of these respondents said that previous experiences
influenced the current visit positively. A respondent (18) from Australia stated: “In
the year 2000 I was a volunteer at the Olympic Games in Sydney. The good time I
had made me wants to experience this abroad as well”. An interviewee (8) from
Belgium added, “Visiting Roland Garros a few years ago was always a dream for
me, since that I have the sport event visit virus”.
On the question if anyone of the family had any influence on the visit the answers
were ambiguous. The comment of a Swiss interviewee (10), “A friend of mine visited
the World Cup Football in Germany last year. When I asked his opinion on visiting a
sport events or more particularly Wimbledon he said, don’t hesitate, and go!”
Furthermore a respondent (25) said, “The enthusiastic story of a friend of the tennis
club who visited Wimbledon last year, made me think about visiting as well.
Although it was not her purpose, in some kind of way, she encouraged me to go”.
As expected previous attendance, both personal and of acquaintances, has a large
influence. This is consistent with work showing that experiences with leisure
activities affects future interest and repurchase intentions (Williams, Schreyer and
Knopf 1990; Petrick 2002 cited in Kim and Chalip 2004).
MAIN FINDINGS
57
6.1.7.
Socialization
In literature meeting other people was found to be a primary tourist motivation.
These contacts can be both fleeting but some travellers also look for more permanent
relations (Turco et al 2001). This item investigates the relation between the
opportunity to meet new people, the opportunity to share a common interest with
other people and sport event visit motivation. Two statements were made by the
researcher: the first one insinuated that a big sport event is an opportunity to meet
new people. The second one says that a big sport event gives people an opportunity
to share a sport interest with other people.
The answers on the questions were similar, although the opportunity to share sport
interest is seen more important than meet new people. A Dutch respondent (21)
stated; “In some kind of way, it’s very easy to get in contact with other people at
such an event. I think it’s because of a certain common interest”. On the question
how ‘deep’ these contacts are he said; “I remember I had lunch with another couple
at Roland Garros, but that is quite exceptional I think. There’s been no contact after
that anymore”.
Another Dutch respondent (24) reacted more significantly; “I like to share my
interest with other people, but it’s not a prerequisite. I’m not here to build up life
long relationships”.
The comments above show various opinions about socialization, whilst this is in a
study of Kim and Chalip (2004) not the case. Contrary to above, here the respondents
felt that socialization is a main reason to travel to a big sport event. Also Weed and
Bull (2004) describe the opportunity to share a special interest together with other
people as a very specific main motivation.
MAIN FINDINGS
58
6.1.8.
Escapism
This item researches the relation between the need to escape daily life and the
attendance a big sport event. In other words, to what extend has escapism influence
on motivation to visit a big sport event? The first statement is saying that attending is
a result of escapism. The second assumes that escapism leads to visitation of sport
events.
Most respondents rated the first statement between any influence and quiet important
(3-4). A respondent (6) said, “Of course, I get away from every day life. This is
completely different than what I usually do”. This answer assumes that attending a
sport event always means ‘getting away from every day life’. Contrary to this a
Dutch respondent (26) stated; “Visiting a big sport event for one day, doesn’t mean I
get away from daily life”.
From the statements mentioned above can be concluded that the relation between the
length of the trip and the degree of ‘getting away’ is strong.
The second escapism-statement approached this item from a different angle. It
presumptions that the need to escape leads to big sport event visitation. The result of
this statement was not very clear, although most people tend to a mention a weak
relationship.
A respondent from USA (3) clarified this by saying; “Obviously this is a form of
escaping, but if I really want to escape I go to a quieter place, for example the
forest”. A Dutch respondent (25) added; “Yes I saw my Roland Garros-trip as
escaping, but the real escape is our main summer holiday”.
MAIN FINDINGS
59
6.1.9.
Novelty
Novelty describes the need for people to do something unique or the so-called
‘willingness to fulfil a fantasy’ (Dann 1977, p.22 Subsection 3.3). This statement
researches the relation between the need for novelty and the motivations to visit a big
sport event.
21 of the 26 respondents answered ‘strongly agree’ on the statement; ‘Attending a
sport event is always been a dream for me’. An interviewee (8) from Belgium said,
“Visiting Roland Garros a few years ago was always a dream for me, since that I
have the sport event visit virus”. Another respondent (15) adds; “The first time was
fulfilling a life-long wish. Although it’s not the first time anymore now, its still is very
impressive”. The opinion of 41-year old Dutchman (23) is less strong by saying; “A
dream is maybe too much, but it was ‘high’ on my list”.
An interesting comment was made by a Dutch respondent (26) who said; “To be
honest, I feel kind of proud that I visited Wimbledon. I know that several colleagues
would like to do so as well”. By saying this she points out the factor of prestige,
which is in a certain way linked to novelty.
6.1.10.
Self-development
This item is referred to in literature as ‘the fact that tourist want to ‘learn’ something
when there on holidays’ (Zhang and Lam 1999). On the statement was reacted very
differently.
“I come to watch tennis, not to learn about Wimbledon or London”, was the
comment of a Belgian visitor (7). An alternative outcome was given by an older
German visitor (16) who said; “The history and tradition of Wimbledon interests me.
Where is better to satisfy this interest than here”.
Opposing results to this come from the study of Kim and Chalip (2004, p. 703) who
reported the opportunity to learn about a host-destination as a major influence of
attending a sport events. Their theory ‘that respondents’ interests in learning about a
destination can be a significant marketing asset when marketing an event’ can’t be
applied in this research.
MAIN FINDINGS
60
6.1.11.
Self-exploration
Statement number ten in the questionnaire researches the relation between self-
exploration and attending a big sport event. Wann, Melnick, Russell and Pease
((2001) cited in Robinson and Gammon, p.24 Subsection 3.3) identified it as one of 8
different factors.
The estimation of the statement was clear. All the respondents who replied, not
everybody understood the meaning of self-exploration, answered with disagree or
strongly disagree. One comment came from a Dutch visitor (12) at Wimbledon. “I’m
not here to explore myself. I have no time to think about that”. This presumes that
the length of the trip has an influence of the level of self-exploration. However, a
Canadian visitor (5), who was in London for a week, said; “Self-exploration
someone should do in a quiet place is my opinion or at least in a less-thrilling
environment”.
6.1.12.
Constraints
The last section with statements deals with the constraints which may affect the sport
event visit. Although a strong attraction to an event may exist, it’s not a guarantee to
generate travel to attend. Especially constraints can influence attendance likelihood
strongly. As the answers will show, risks, threats or competition are not seen as
constraints in order to visit sport events.
The first of five statements referred to the financial aspect of sport events. It
investigates the influence of high costs. As already shown in other comments, of
respondents 5 and 13, high financial costs have some influence. A Swiss girl (11)
added by saying; “For me the costs don’t matter, now I’m here I want to enjoy it as
much as possible”. A Dutch respondent (21) complements this; “I don’t keep my
eyes on my wallet those days”.
Besides those two comments the general opinion is that financial constraints
negatively affect sport event attendance. This supports the research by Kim and
MAIN FINDINGS
61
Chalip (2004) where in their study costs were, on average, rated as a significant
constraint.
Another researched item was unfamiliarity with the host-destination. “What is
unfamiliarity nowadays?” was one of the comments. A Dutch respondent added; “It
attracts me even more when it’s a relatively unknown host-destination”.
Surprisingly, this outcome is similar to earlier studies where respondents desire to
attend increased with the anonymity of a host-destination. It’s unclear where this
approach comes from but maybe it’s a result of the greater ability to deal with
unknown situations.
Especially the bad reputation if it comes to climate of London resulted in the
statement that bad weather prediction leads to fewer visitations. Also the climate
issue related to the Olympic Games 2008 in Beijing, possible smog problems, seems
for the author interesting item to investigate. “When I told my parents I was planning
to visit Wimbledon they reacted reserved. They said it’s always raining there and
England is so expensive. Maybe it’s true, but this is not keeping me away!” a Dutch
respondent (20) stated. “Even if I wouldn’t see any tennis, because for example of
rain, my day would be a success”, was the comment of a Belgian man (7). A
Canadian couple (5+6) was more reserved in their comment; “We looked at the
weather-predictions for this week and therefore we decided to go today”.
Most of the visitors of Wimbledon said that the failed bomb-attacks in London of the
29
th
June made them think about their plan to attend. “All the things which happen
lately here in London made me think not to go. But the instigation to go is too
strong”. This was said by a Dutch respondent (12) at Wimbledon in relation to the
threat of safety during a big sport event. A Belgian visitor (7) said; “Of course you
think for a moment not to go”. In this case besides a safety also a health threat was
considered.
The last investigated item related to constraint is about competition. Competition in
this case is meant by broadcasting media rather then from other sport events. The
MAIN FINDINGS
62
answers were as clear as plain day-light. “You can’t compare watching TV with
being here” commented an American woman (4). “Tennis is a great sport to watch
life” and “The real-life experience is so much better than watching it from my living
room” were other comments given by respectively a German respondent (15) and a
Dutch respondent (26).
This research shows alternative outcomes related to constraints then the theory that
constraints and perceptions of constraints play a vital role in the leisure choices
individuals make (Jackson and Scott 1999)
6.2. Conclusion
Concluding the research about the factors of influence on visitors of big sport events
there are several characteristics and factors which can be related to sport event visit
motivation. Some things which should be kept in mind are related to the
shortcomings of this research. The fact that the sample is taken among persons from
all over the world makes certain question difficult to evaluate. The diversity of the
answers confirm the theory of Sirakaya and Woodside (2005, p.823) who stated that
‘behavioural approaches suggest that tourists are motivated by a number of factors
which may need their needs’.
• Experiencing a big sport event is percepted by its visitors as excellent.
• Identification with players is related to the culture of people, but also to the
travelled distance to the host-destination.
• Specific type of sport events are visited by this type of sport-lovers, rather
than people with a general interest in sport
• Entertainment is very important factor. Surprisingly the festivities around the
sport event are more important than the competition itself.
• Regardless the location of the host-destination people will visit anyway.
• The travelled distance to the host-destination has major influence on the
length of the stay and the program of the trip.
MAIN FINDINGS
63
• The relation between the distance, the time and the costs is a major factor in
sport event visit motivation.
• People would like to experience the culture of a host-destination.
• Attendance at a big sport event is relaxing for its visitors.
• Everybody has a good previous experience when it comes to sport event visit.
This personal previous experience has big influence on repeating visit
motivation.
• Sport event tourists are determined. Experiences from family, friends or
relative have major influence on visit motivation and negative opinions not
based on experience are mostly ignored.
• Visitors of big sport events like to get in contact with other visitors, but its
not seen as a condition for a successful visit.
• Contrary to other forms of tourism, in sport event tourism escapism is not
seen as a main travel reason.
• Getting away from daily life stress doesn’t have a major influence on sport
event visit motivation, although there is strong relationship between the
length of the trip and the degree of ‘getting away’.
• Visiting a sport event for the first time is seen as ‘fulfilling a fantasy’.
• Visitors like to tell others about their experiences as a form of prestige.
• Self-exploration has no relation to sport event visit motivation, even if the trip
is long and people have time to ‘think’.
• Sport event tourists a difficult to bring to a halt in order to fulfil their wish to
visit big sport events.
• Sport event tourists are realistic people who care about possible safety issues.
CONCLUSIONS
64
Chapter 7. CONCLUSIONS
The research aim of this dissertation was to asses the factors of influence on sport
event visit motivation. Special interest goes out to the relation between the sport
event and the host-destination. In order to investigate the factors of influence in the
selection process, the following questions have to be answered:
• To what extend does background influence the decision to visit big sport
events?
• Do people visit big sport event as a response to what is missing now?
• Does the attractiveness of a certain destination make people visit a big sport
event?
• Which factors keeps people away from a big sport event?
The main objective was to find out which factors influence the motivation of sport
event tourists. Several factors have been examined according to the discussions
within the research field.
7.1. General conclusions
The last question of the questionnaire-based interviews shows which factors are
perceived as most and which less important for sport event tourists. Fan motives are
the main reason why people would like to visit a big sport event. Interest in
experiencing a big sport event was the variable with was rated as most important
factor. However this is according to the expectation, surprisingly the majority of the
experienced visitors rated this as most important as well. Another conclusion from
fan motives is that identification with players is related to the culture of people, to
the travelled distance to the host-destination and to the potential of national high
profile stars. This can be concluded according to the different comments of
respondents from different countries. The last conclusion from fan motives is that
‘the beauty of the tennis-game’ attracts tennis-lovers rather than people with a
general interest in sport.
CONCLUSIONS
65
The need for entertainment is a very important reason for people to visit a big sport
event as well. Surprisingly the festivities around an event are more important for
visitors than the competition itself. Also the location of the host-destination is not
seen as an obstacle because people will visit it anyway. They are willing to travel a
big distance to the event-location. Although large travel distances don’t stop the sport
event tourist, it has a major influence on the length and the program of the trip. If
people stay within their continent the trips are usually shorter and the only activity is
visiting the sport event, whereas they travel intercontinental the trips are longer and
besides the sport event tourist activities are undertaken as well. Also the budget of
the trip has influence on this. High amounts of travel costs are spend on more time
consuming trips. Therefore it can be concluded that the travelled distance, the used
time and the spend money are closely linked.
Other findings indicate that most of the visitors experience a big sport event as
relaxing, which is remarkable because the atmosphere around big sport events is
usually not relaxed as a result of the nature of sport, e.g. competitiveness. The
interviewed visitors who experienced a big sport event previously did all have a good
experience. This personal previous experience has big influence on repeating visit
motivation. Related to this is the influence of family, friends or relatives which plays
a major role as well in the decision to visit a big sport event.
Contact with other visitors is appreciated as well by the majority of the respondents,
although this is not seen as a ‘must’ in order to have a good experience. Usually the
contact is for the time being and doesn’t continue after the event. Related to the item
of escapism sport event tourists have a different opinion. Contrary to other forms of
tourism escapism is not seen as a main travel reason. Neither is ‘getting away from
daily stress’ seen as a main travel reason, although there’s a strong relationship
between the degree of getting away and the length of the trip. The more time people
spend away from home the more they have the feeling they get away.
CONCLUSIONS
66
Most first-time visitors of a big sport event see it as a form of ‘fulfilling a fantasy’.
Media coverage and experiences of relatives add to this perception. As a result of this
‘fulfilment’ visitors are eager to tell other people about their experiences. This makes
people proud and is seen as a form of prestige.
Generally speaking, the big sport event visitor appeared to be a determent person,
who has a strong affection with the sport at the event. The big sport event visitor
keeps in mind the possible negativities related to an event but is difficult to bring to a
halt in order to fulfil the wish to attend. Sometimes they have difficulties expressing
their motives to attend because it’s unclear to people themselves what initially drives
them to be a sport event tourist.
7.2. Recommendations for further research
The study identifies several areas for further research. As described before there are
not much studies made on this particular topic. Although the number of works is
reasonable, most works are fairly basic, giving more profiles of sport tourist rather
then trying to give explanation for their behaviour. Another popular item which is
described quite a lot is impacts of sport tourism, and then in particular the impacts of
big sport events, like Olympic Games or World Cup, on host-destinations.
Some outcomes of the research show very interesting result which summons
questions. An example of this is the interesting result that previous attendance
predicts future attendance likelihood. In other words it shows repurchase intentions.
This suggests the value of further work that explores the effect of event attendance
history and therefore the way visitors formulate their future attendance decisions.
This suggests the use of database marketing for both the organisation and tourism
industry.
Another part of this dissertation which could be further researched is the fan motives
as main factor of influence on attendance likelihood. Because this research only
addressed three fan motives, better understanding by approaching more fan motives
CONCLUSIONS
67
is advisable. Presumably not all fan motives will have a positive effect on event
interest. It would therefore be necessary to study the fan motives of target markets in
order to identify the best motives and to explore the underlying causes and
consequences of fan motives.
Furthermore this research has shown that there are differences in between
nationalities and ages. Especially related to proudness of national sporters large
differences appear between visitors from various countries. Also there were some
items which gave different results between different ages. Examples of these items
are the interest to experience the host-destination culture and the want to learn
something about the host-destination.
As observed in this study, there is a general lack of knowledge about the constraints
factors determining the choice to attend. In this research only people who did visit
the event were examined, where moreover people who decided not to go can provide
useful information as well.
68
Appendix A
Demographic characteristics respondents
Person
Nationality
Age
Gender
1
Colombia
37
F
2
Chili
35
F
3
USA
64
M
4
USA
56
F
5
Canada
29
M
6
Canada
28
F
7
Belgium
45
M
8
Belgium
37
M
9
Belgium
49
M
10
Switzerland
23
M
11
Switzerland
22
F
12
Netherlands
24
M
13
Netherlands
21
M
14
Spain
35
M
15
Germany
56
F
16
Germany
58
F
17
Japan
19
M
18
Australia
27
M
19
Netherlands
21
M
20
Netherlands
21
M
21
Netherlands
26
M
22
Netherlands
37
M
23
Netherlands
41
M
24
Netherlands
23
F
25
Netherlands
24
F
26
Netherlands
34
F
Source: Own Elaboration
Persons 1 to 18 were interviewed at the tennis tournament Wimbledon in London;
the other eight (19-26) were interviewed by phone.
69
Appendix B
Questionnaire Wimbledon
Background
Demography
1. What’s your age?
2a. What’s your nationality?
2b. Where do you live?
3. What’s your gender?
• Male
• Female
4. What’s the highest level of education you have completed?
• Ground School
• Secondary School • High school
• Bachelor
• Master
Finance
5. What’s your annual income?
• < €15.000
• €15.000 – €30.000 • €30.000 – €45.000
• €45.000 – €60.000 • €60.000 – €75.000 • €75.000 >
Previous experience
6a. Did you ever attend a big sport event, which included an overnight stay,
before?
Big sport event can be e.g. Olympic Games, World Cup Football, and Grand
Slam Tennis before?
• Yes
• No
6b. Did anyone of your family, friend or relatives had any influence on this visit
here?
• Yes
• No
If yes, in which way?
70
Push factors
Escapism
7. By attending a big sport event I get away from daily life stress
Strongly agree
Strongly disagree
•
•
•
•
•
8. Escaping from daily life stress makes me want to visit a big sport event
Strongly agree
Strongly disagree
•
•
•
•
•
Relaxation
9. Visiting a big sport event is for me a form of relaxation
Strongly agree
Strongly disagree
•
•
•
•
•
Self-exploration
10. Attending a big sport event is a form of self-exploration for me
Strongly agree
Strongly disagree
•
•
•
•
•
Entertainment
11. The atmosphere at a big sport event makes me wants to visit
Strongly agree
Strongly disagree
•
•
•
•
•
12. I would like to be part of the festivities around the big sport event
Strongly agree
Strongly disagree
•
•
•
•
•
Socialization
13. Attending a big sport event gives me an opportunity to meet new people
Strongly agree
Strongly disagree
•
•
•
•
•
14. Attending a big sport event gives me an opportunity to share my sport interest
with other people
Strongly agree
Strongly disagree
•
•
•
•
•
71
Pull factors
Novelty
15. Attending a big sport event has always been a dream for me
Strongly agree
Strongly disagree
•
•
•
•
•
Fan motives
16. I would like to experience a big sport event
Strongly agree
Strongly disagree
•
•
•
•
•
17. To see national sporters/team play makes me want to visit a big sport event
Strongly agree
Strongly disagree
•
•
•
•
•
18. The beauty of the game of sport makes me want to visit a big sport event
Strongly agree
Strongly disagree
•
•
•
•
•
Self-development
19. I would like to learn something about the destination where the sport event is
held
Strongly agree
Strongly disagree
•
•
•
•
•
Destination
20. The sport event is the only reason I travelled towards the destination
Strongly agree
Strongly disagree
•
•
•
•
•
21. I would like to visit other places besides the sport venues
Strongly agree
Strongly disagree
•
•
•
•
•
22. I would like to experience the culture of the place/country where the sport
event is held
Strongly agree
Strongly disagree
•
•
•
•
•
72
Constraints
Risks
23. High financial costs keep me away from a big sport event
Strongly agree
Strongly disagree
•
•
•
•
•
24. An unknown country where the sport event is held keeps me away
Strongly agree
Strongly disagree
•
•
•
•
•
25. The risk of bad weather keeps me away from a big sport event
Strongly agree
Strongly disagree
•
•
•
•
•
Threats
26. Probable safety or health problems keep me away from the sport event
Strongly agree
Strongly disagree
•
•
•
•
•
Competition
27. I would prefer to watch the sport event on television
Strongly agree
Strongly disagree
•
•
•
•
•
73
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Books
Bale, J. (2003) Sports geography, 2
nd
edition, London: E & FN Spon.
Dejonghe, T. (2004) Sport en Economie – ‘Een noodzaak tot symbiose’, Nieuwegein:
Arko Sports Media.
Getz, D. (1997) Event management & Event tourism, Elmsford: Cognizant
Communication Cooperation.
Getz D. (2003) Sport event tourism: Planning, Development and Marketing,
Elmsford: Cognizant Communication Cooperation.
Gratton, C., Shilbi, S. & Coleman, J. (2004) Developing Citizenship through Sport:
The Impact of a Sport-Based Volunteer Programme on Young Sport Leaders, New
York: Metapress.
Hall, C. (1992) Hallmark tourist events: Impacts, management and planning,
London: Bellhaven Press.
Hall, C. & Page, S. (1999) Geography of tourism and recreation: Environment,
place, and space, London: Routledge.
Higham, J. (2005) Sport tourism destinations – Issues, opportunities and
analysis(Edited), Burlington: Elsevier Publishing.
Hinch, T. & Higham, J. (2004) Sport Tourism Development, Clevedon: Channel
View Publications.
Horne, J. & Manzenreiter, W. (2006) Sport mega-events; social scientific analyses of
a global phenomenon, Malden: Blackwell Publishing
Hudson S. (2003) Sport and Adventure Tourism, Binghamton: The Haworth Press
74
Nardi, P. (2003) Doing survey research: A Guide to Quantitative Research, Boston:
Allyn and Bacon
Pizam, A. & Mansfeld, Y. (2000) Consumer behaviour in travel and tourism, New
York: Haworth Hospitality Press.
Ritchie, B. & Adair, D. (2004) Sport Tourism – Interrelationships, Impacts and
Issues, London: Cromwell Press.
Roberts, K. (2004) The Leisure Industries, London: Palgrave.
Roche, M. (2000) Mega-events and modernity, London: Routledge.
Scarrott M. ed. (1999) Sport, Leisure and Tourism Information Sources – A guide for
researchers, Woburn: Reed Publishing.
Sheller, M. & Urry, J. (2004) Tourism Mobilities – Places to play, Places in play,
London: Routledge.
Standeven, J. & De Knop, P. (1999) Sport Tourism, Leeds: Human Kinetics.
Swarbrooke, J. & Horner, S. (1999) Consumer Behaviour in Tourism, Leeds: Human
Kinetics.
Turco, D.M., Riley, R. & Swart, K. (2002) Sport Tourism, Morgantown: Fitness
Information Technology.
Urry, J. (1990) The tourist gaze, London: SAGE Publications.
Van der Wagen, L. (2001) Event management, for tourism, cultural, business and
sporting events, Elsternwick: Hospitality Press.
Veal, A.J. (1997) Research Methods for leisure and tourism, a practical guide, 2
nd
edition, Harlow: Prentice Hall.
Wann, D., Melnick, M., Russell, G. & Pease, D. (2001) Sport fans: The psychology
and social impact of spectators, New York: Routledge.
75
Weed, M. & Bull, C. (2004) Sport Tourism: Participants, Policy and Providers,
Burlington: Elsevier Publishing.
Articles
Barney R.K., Wenn S.R. & Martyn S.G. (2002) Selling the Five Rings: The
International Olympic Committee and the Rise of Olympic Commercialism,
Olympika: The International Journal of Olympic Studies, volume XI 2002, pp. 173-
176.
Chalip, L. (1992) The construction and use of polysemic structures: Olympic lessons
for sport marketing, Journal of Sport Management, 6, pp. 87-98.
Chalip, L., Green, B. & Vander Velden, L. (1998) Sources of interest in travel to the
Olympic Games, Journal of Vacation Marketing, 4(1), pp. 7-22.
Deery, M., Jago, L. & Fredline, L. (2004) Sport tourism or event tourism: are they
one and the same?, Journal of Sport & Tourism, 9(3), pp. 235-245.
Delpy, L. (1997) An overview of sport tourism: Building towards a dimensional
framework, Journal of Vacation Marketing, 4(1), pp. 23-28.
Delpy, L. (1998) Editorial: Introducing the Journal of Vacation Marketing, 4(1), pp.
4-5.
Gammon, S. & Robinson, T. (1997) Sport and tourism: A conceptual framework,
Journal of Sport Tourism, 4(3), pp. 8-24.
Gibson, H., Attle, S. & Yiannakis, A. (1997) Segmenting the sport tourist market: A
lifespan perspective, Journal of vacation marketing, 4(3), pp. 52-64.
Gibson, H. (2004) Moving beyond the ‘what is and who’ in sport tourism to
understanding ‘why’, Journal of Sport Tourism, (9)3, pp. 247-265.
Green, B. & Chalip, L. (1998) Sport tourism as a celebration of sub-culture, Annals
of Tourism Research, 25(2), pp. 275-291.
76
Green, B. (2001) Leveraging subculture and identity to promote sport events, Sport
Marketing Quarterly, 1(1), pp. 31-36.
Higham, J. & Hinch, T. (2006) Sport and Tourism Research: A Geographic
Approach, Journal of Sport & Tourism, 11(1), pp. 31-49.
Kim, N-S. and Chalip, L. (2004) Why to travel to the FIFA World Cup? Effects of
motives, background, interest, and constraints, Tourism Management, 25 (2004), pp.
695-707.
Kurtzman, J. & Zauhar, J. (2005) Sport tourism consumer motivation, Journal of
Sport & Tourism, 10(1), pp. 21-31.
Lee, C. & Taylor, T. (2004) Critical reflection on the economic impacts assessment
of a mega-event; the case of the 2002 FIFA World Cup, Journal of Sport Tourism,
9(1), pp. 3-12
Maier, J. & Weber, W. (1993) Sport tourism in local and regional planning, Tourism
Recreation Research, 18(2), pp. 33-43.
Ritchie, J. & Smith, B. (1991) The Impact Of A Mega-Event On Host Region
Awareness: A Longitudinal Study, Journal of Travel Research, 7(30), pp. 3-10.
Robinson, T. & Gammon, S. (2004) A question of primary and secondary motives:
revisiting and applying the sport tourism framework, Journal of Sport Tourism, 9(3),
pp. 221-233.
Sirakaya, E. & Woodside, A. (2005) Building and testing theories of decision
making by travellers, Tourism management, 26, pp. 815-832.
Weed, M. (2006) Sport Tourism Research 2000-2004: A Systematic Review of
Knowledge and a Meta-Evaluation of Methods, Journal of Sport & Tourism, 11(1),
pp. 5-30.
Witt, S. (1988) Mega events and mega attractions, Tourism management, 9(1),
pp.76-77.
77
Zhang, J., Pease, D., Lam, E., Bellerive, L., Pham, U., Williamson, D., Lee, J., Wall,
K. (2001) Sociomotivational factors affecting spectator attendance at minor league
hockey games, Sport Marketing Quarterly, 10(1), pp. 43-56.
Zhang, Q. & Lam, T. (1999) An analysis of Mainland Chinese visitors’ motivations
to visit Hong Kong, Tourism Management, 20, pp. 587-594.
Wyszukiwarka
Podobne podstrony:
Pol J Sport Tourism 15 pp174 183
Pol J Sport Tourism 18 pp275 289
WYCHOWANIE DO I PRZEZ SPORT
bezwzgledny sport www prezentacje org
Sport w WOPR
Nauczanie technika sport
radio i sport
SPORT 2
sport niwidomych, Rehabilitacja
egz pyt sport, testy(pytania) awf katowice
Weiderowska Zasada Treningu Cyklicznego, Sport
sport osób niepełnosprawnych(1)
2006 gene therpay in sport Br J Sports Med
Maslow (1943) Theory of Human Motivation
Jeep Cherokee Sport 2 5 Litre Turbo Diesel Manual
2 media marketing luty 2008 dodatek sport
2002 czerwiec Sport test
Brzuch doskonaly, Sport, Muscle Sztuki walki Aikido - Krav Maga itd
więcej podobnych podstron