Types of grammar

- descriptive - describes the lg synchronically

- historical - describes a lg diachronically how lg changes through time

- contrastive - comparing grammars of two lgs with respect to differences btw them

- prescriptive - not describing lg in all its aspects but teaching lg users how to speak correctly.

Definitions of LG - nativist/inatist [CHOMSKY]

-inborn capacity of humans

-lg is innate

-children acquire lg

-input/output

[grammar rules] +[ lexicon] = infinite utterances

-grammar/rules and lexicon results in lg creativity

-lg is a dual system:

1^st lvl of sounds = limit

2^nd lvl of meanings = no limit

It is unlike any other code.

-lg is an arbitrary code

Lexicon is open infinite system

-new elements, describing the world around can be added freely

-adding new elements does nat involve the change of meaning of elements

Grammar is closed system

-deals with categorical facts- the whole categories of elements [N/V, number, tense, gender, aspect]

- a complete set - adding new elements would be linked to changing the meaning of the already present ones, e.g. the number in English [now=sing/plural, then=sing, dual, plural]

Grammaticalization of the lexicon - takes place when single, irreplaceable element become categorical, e.g. English modal verbs [now used as auxilaries]

Lexicalization of grammatical phenomenon - takes place when a category disappears, e.g. ox - oxen/ child - children

Can, caould >> gramaized lexicon

-en/ -s >> children/oxen

Deixis - they refere `I point to it'

Deictic pronouns - the ones that `point' to sth and are understood only when the listener knows whet the speaker is referring to, e.g. here, there, this, that, tomorrow, now, then, she, our.

Phonological units - tone unit, foot (unit of rhythm, how stresses are distributed in time), syllable, phoneme

Tone unit - a unit of spoken lg related to a change of tone

Tonality - how an utterance is divided into tone units, the speaker's choice unmarked [BASIC, usuall] vs marked tonality [different from this idea]

Unmarked tonality: 1 tone unit = 1 clause

Marked: 1 tone unit ≠ 1 clause

The FALL = telling, new information, asking WH Q

The FALL-RISE = referring, shared information, asking making sure, nice Q (Do you mind?)

Both 4 Y/N Questions

If F-R/F

There is a change of tone on the tonic syllable.

Every tonic syllable is stressed.

Only one per tone unit.

Always last of stressed syllables.

TONICITY - a way a tone unit is divided into pre-tonic and post-tonic part.

pre-tonic post-tonic

---------------------|--------------------

// was there COffe room //

Unmarked - when the last syllable is tonic and in a lexical item

Marked - any other position of the tonic syllable and in a non-lexical item.

Functions of intonation

-emotional - to express attitudinal meaning (shock, scream, delight, anger)

-grammatical - to help to identify grammatical structure in speech.

-textual - to contrast and cohere larger units of speech (changes in prosody reflect the progress of the action)

- psychological - to organize speech into units that are easier to perceive and memorize, e.g. sequence of numbers

-indexical - to mark social or personal identity, e.g. lawyers, preachers, newsreaders, commentators are identified through their distinctive prosody.

Primary and secondary stress

-fixed and movable stress

`king `kingly `kingliness un`kingliness fixed

`stand under'stand misunder'stand stress

`telegraph tele'graphic te'legraphy

`photograph photo'graphic pho'tography movable stress

`transport transpor'table transpor'tation

Word function vs phonology

+considerable stress and vowel pronunciation change (photograph)

+no stress change and vowel attention (nation/national)

+a few affixes assuming primary stress (`ette/ launder'ette)

+prefixes having secondary stress if they are disyllabic (inter-)

+if the base begins with unstressed syllable (,unat'tractive) and if they are new uses of old items (pre-/re-)

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