1. Noun phrase

NP * pre-modifiers + N + post-modifiers

• *Determiner - determines if a noun is definite (specific - the) or indefinite (non-specific - a)

• Modifiers (modify the meaning of the NP)

• Det, N obligatory

• Pre-/post-modifiers optional

• Proper Nouns don't take determiners

• Zero determiner has no written representation: (___ people need ___ love)

2. Determiners

• articles (a book, the book)

• demonstrative pronouns (that book)

• possessive pronouns (my book)

• genitive NP's (John's book)

• Wh-pronouns (whose book, which book)

• indefinite pronouns (some books, any book)

Determiners are mutually exclusive!

NP Det + N [my friend's] book (possessive det applies to `friend', genitive NP)

• recursive role of determiners - they can be applied many times

(my mother's friend's daughter's dog's bone)

Elements that can pre-modify the NP:

• adjectives (a nice girl, a [very nice] girl)

• other nouns (a car factory - always in singular)

e.g. arm(s) - part of the body - arm control (control of the part of the body)

arms - weapons - arms control (control of weapons, we can't drop `-s' because the meaning would change)

PRE-MODIFIERS - are not mutually exclusive, they are structured.

POST-MODIFIERS - are not limited

• adjectives PP

• prepositional phrases PPP+NP a house [in the woods]

• clauses

e.g. the house [which he bought]

the man [in a white shirt][with a dog]

the man [in [a white [shirt] with a dog]]

*Such phrases are usually ambiguous - it's not possible to have 2 relative clauses - they must be joined by `and'.

3. Functions of NPs:

* subject - [The man] dies.

* object - I like [coffee] Oi Od

* object indirect - I bought [my son] [a toy]

* a complement of a preposition

* a subject complement - I am [a teacher] (Cs)

* object complement - He made me [a fool] (Co describes an object, we can replace it with an adjective

* an adverbial - It was [last Friday]

* apposition - 2 nouns are in apposition when one is right after the other, they both function as a sentence constituents - they refer to the same person/thing. [My son Andrew is a student].

3. Gender - indicates the biological sex

Grammatical gender - is seen as the property of the noun itself rather than it's property

Natural gender - depends on the biological sex

Pronoun substitution

*personal pronouns

*reflexive pronouns

*relative pronouns

Nouns:

*animate

*inanimate (refer to non-alive things, sex is not distinguished)

*personal (referring to people, we use `who')

*non-personal (animals and non-alive objects, we use `which')

Top genders - refer to people (+animate nouns)

1. masculine ( a N belongs to this gender if it can be replaced by he/who)

2. feminine (she/who)

Exceptions: a pope - doesn't have a feminine form

Boy vs. girl - no relation is visible - gender is morphologically unmarked

Waiter vs. waitress - the same base - gender is morphologically marked

1. Duall gender (he/she they)

*student/teacher

b) Common gender ( - I know a baby [she/he]

- I don't know the baby [it])

c) Collective gender (group, team, government, family)

- non-personal, inanimate - when we talk about an institution (it, which + singular verb)

- personal, animate - when we talk about the collection of individuals (they, who + plural verb)

d) masculine higher animals (non-personal, inanimate): cock, bull, lion

e) feminine higher animals: hen, cow, lioness

f) lower animals (dual animal gender): cat, ant, sparrow

g) inanimate gender

Plural
Compound nouns:

- (noun + noun): passer-by; looker-on; (the plural will be attached to the noun);

- (non-nouns): forget-me-not; grown-up; (typically plural at the end);

- (at least 2 nouns): mother-in-law; baby-sitter; (plural at the N that refers to a person);

- (Nouns of equal importance): woman doctor; manservant; (both N will be pluralized).

Irregular plurals:

1) voicing: house houses /iz/; mouth mouths ; cloths vs. clothes; chief chiefs; wife wives; scarf scarfs/scarves;

2) mutation: man men; snowman snowmen; postmanpostmen; womanwomen;

3) `-en' plurals: oxoxen (-en +mutation); childchildren; brotherbrethren;

4) zero plural: sheepsheep; a duck ducks (individual)/duck (zero plural); *nouns both sg. and pl.: offspring; data; dice;

5) foreign plurals: museummuseums (fully assimilated into English, so -s pl.); phenomenonphenomena (original foreign plural); cactuscactuses/cacti; indexindexes (in a book)/ indices (maths);

(i) Latin: -us i; *-us ora/era; -a-ae; antennaantennas/antennae (biology); formulaformulas/formulae (maths); -um-a; -ix/-ex-ices;

(ii) Greek: -is-es (basisbases); -on-a (criterioncriteria);

(iii) French: corpscorps (pronounciation); -e(a)u-x/s (adieus/adieux);

(iv) Italian: -o-I (solosoli) (used in music when talking about Italians);

(v) Hebrew: -im (kibbutzkibbutzim);

Determiners (common nouns - determiners necessary):

Predeterminers…central determiners…postdeterminers

6 classes of determiners:

1) determiners that can be used with all common nouns, e.g. `the', possessives, 3 wh- pronouns (whose, which, what) (mutually exclusive with `the'), some, any;

2) determiners that cannot be used with sg. countable : some, any (when not stressed), enough;

3) determiners used with singular nouns: this, that;

4) only with plural nouns: these, those;

5) only with sg. countable: every, each, neither, either;

6) only with uncountable nouns: much

(!!!) 2 functions determiners and pronouns (some, any, this, no, much, either, neither, these, etc.) - a pronoun substitutes the noun phrase;

- a determiner is a part of the noun phrase, and determines the head noun.

(!!!) articles/possesives cannot be pronouns

PREDETERMINERS: all, both, half; multipliers; fractions; all; both; half;

Floating quantifier (all, both) - they can change their position in the sentence (The students have all passed); all, both, half correspond in meaning to different construction with `of' there they are no longer determiners; multipliers can be used with non-countable nouns & plurals (twice the size; double the amount; once a year; 3 times this week)

POSTDETERMINERS: cardinal numbers, ordinal numbers, general ordinals (next, last, another, other), quantifiers (few, little); cardinal numbers can be used with pl. N, may be preceded by zero article; ordinal numbers do no collocate with non-countable N; but my first time; ordinal number (1)+ cardinal number (2)(order); general ordinals + cardinal no. (order doesn't matter); quantifiers few (count. plural nouns); little (uncountable N);

ARTICLES

Reference - we use the noun to refer to different entities (general or specific);

REFERENCE - a) specific ; b) general: (sth in particular) `A cat likes milk' can be created using 2 other structures: `Cat likes milk' and ` The cat likes milk';

Uncountable nouns - generic use - zero article;

Adjective as a noun - whole group of people - preceded by an article (the rich);

`man' in a generic meaning - zero article in sg.

Generic use of countable nouns - abstract meaning (the power of the written word);

Names of the currencies (the with the strong ones: the pound);

SPECIFIC USE OF ARTICLES:

Indefinite noun: a) indef. Article - sg. count. noun; b) zero article - pl. noun/ uncount. noun;

N is indefinite when it is mentioned for the first time, it is definite when it was already mentioned.

N can be definite also : extralinguistic context, physical context, reality, when it refers to unique objects (sun, moon, earth, world); locative nouns ref. to places (school, church, hospital); means of transport (by car, by bus); temporal nouns (at dawn, at sunset); meals/ illnesses; plural constructions (hand in hand; day by day); human couples (husband & wife; bro & sis); pairs (from down till dusk);

Artiles in intensive complementation: - complements of subject; - complements of objects; indef. art. after be, become, see (he became a criminal), BUT: turn, go he turned criminal; he went priest;

Naming verbs: We elected him an MP. (not a unique post); We elected him President. (unique);

Proper nouns: personal names (exceptions: `stress' - “The Kaczynski?');

Calendar items: def. art. if they are pre-or-post modified: in January - but - in the January of 2009);

Exceptions: - lakes; -countries; -names of places; geo names.

Case: NOUN: common case (unmarked); genitive case (marked).
PRONOUN: subjective case (I, U, he,…); objective case (me, you, him,…).
possessive case: 1) my, your, his (used as determiners - possessive articles); 2) mine, yours, his (possessive pronouns - can be used to replace NP).
GENITIVE: (`s) - “s” genitive; (_') - zero genitive, (of-) -of genitive; difference in end focus between `s, _' and of genitive. Gender scale - the higher the noun on the gender scale the more likely it is to take `s genitive. N ref. to people - `s gen.; inanimate nouns - usually “of” gen.; nouns ref to animals -`s gen.
Collective nouns: 1) personal (collection of people) - `s gen.; 2) non-personal “of”;
Locative nouns: 1) geographical institutional name (dep. On the end focus);
Temporal nouns: `s gen.
Types of genitive: 1) genitive of attribute (Tom's courage); 2) subjective genitive (the boy's application - the boy applied); 3) objective gen. (the boy's release - X released the boy); 4) genitive of origin (my aunt's letter - a letter from my aunt); 5) genitive of measure (ten days' absence); 6) partitive genitive (piece of…); 7) positive gen (the city of York (only of gen.); 8) descriptive gen. (woman's college - describes the type/kind/use of the main N (always premodifier; 9) group genitive; 10) independent (elliptical) gen. (the head N is being omitted in this structure, linguistic context is clear - the head N was mentioned before; 11) double genitive - a picture of Tom's (one of Tom's pictures) - restrictions applying to NPs - a picture is NP1 - has to be indefinite (a, some not the or possessives); Tom's is NP2 (has to be definite - prop name, possessive pronoun etc.) EXCEPTION - demonstrative pronoun (different meaning) - this dog of yours (negative context)

RELATIVE CLAUSES:

a) adnominal (most typical, attached to the noun, `The man who lives next door is rich. part of the phrase - post-modifier;

b) Nominal (parts of nominal/noun clauses; `whoever did it must have been very clever') - not attached to the noun; the clause doesn't refers to any other sentence elements; sentence constituent on its own; - we can say instead `The person who did it' - if it is possible it is the relative clause;

c) sentential (`Tom was late, which surprised everybody.') -doesn't follow any noun; - we cannot think of any paraphrase; - relative clause refers to the whole previous clause; - the fact that Tom was late.

Adnominal and nominal relative clauses can be finite or non-finite:

Finite: the man who lives next door (relative PRN); non-finite: the man living next door. (-ing form); The man to ask is Jim. (infinitive); The men killed in the accident was my friend. (-ed form).

Finite relative clauses: (i) defining clauses (restrictive) - integral part of the sentence; semantically cannot be removed; if u remove it, the sentence changes meaning,; (ii) non-defining clauses (non-restrictive) - gives additional information, separated by commas from the rest of the sentence;

The use of relative PRN in: 1) defining clauses (that who, whom, which, ø; 2) non-defining relative clauses (we cannot omit the relative PRN!!!, no contact clauses);

Sentencial relative (always non-defining): He gave me flowers, which I thought was very nice of him. (WHICH is the only correct PRN!);

Non-finite clauses (not introduced by any relative PRN)

The man sitting next to John is my brother. (-ing; replace active voice);

The man sentenced to death was not guilty. (-ed; replace passive voice in finite clauses);

The man to ask is John. (infinitive; used to replace modal verbs in finite clauses).

!!! -ing/ -ed relative clauses are only possible when the relative PRN functions as the subject!

`to' infinitives can replace finite clauses where the relative PRN has any function;

Ordinals - the use of `to' infinitive - `John was the first person to leave the party.

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