MORPHOLOGY - the branch of linguistics dealing with the internal structure and formations of words

Units called WORDS are composed of units called MORPHEMES.

MORPHEME - the smallest individually meaningful element in the utterances of a language

A WORD may be composed of several morphemes -> such a complex form is a reflection of linear order (morphemes are put together or added to another complex form)

MEAN | ING | FUL

root affixes

free morpheme - can function bound morphemes - never

as an independent word occur in isolation

Some words are morphologically SIMPLEX -> MONOMORPHEMIC (consisting of one morpheme) (mean, the, element)

EMPTY MORPHEMES - units of form without corresponding meaning (malin-a) - they do not mean anything on their own

PAR-O-WÓZ DW-U-PIĘTROWY

connective vowels (examples of empty morphemes)

*TWO CASES IN WHICH THE MEANING-BASED DEFINITION OF THE MORPHEME FAILS

1.

CRAN | BERRY MAL | INA

| meaningful | meaningful

| unit? | unit?

BLUE | BERRY JARZĘB | INA However, the residual elements
BLACK | BERRY ŻURAW | INA `cran-` and `mal-` do not occur independently

2.

ZERO MORPHEME - units of meaning without form, (to) cook - (a) cook

WORD-FORMS - a combination of phonetic or orthographic units, potentially constituting a fragment of a larger utterance

LEXEME - a dictionary item/an abstract notion; a lexeme may have several contextual realizations in terms of a particular word forms -> one of such forms is the CITATION-FORM

CITATION FORM - the form of a lexeme that refers to the given lexeme in dictionaries (np. w słownikach języka polskiego rzeczowniki występują w mianowniku i l.poj.; przymiotniki w mianowniku , l.poj. i r. męskim)

MATKA KUPIŁA DZIECKU NOWE BUTY.

|

5 word-forms representing the following lexemes

|

MATK-N KUPI-V DZIECK-N NOW-A BUT-N.

|

respective citation forms

|

MATKA KUPIĆ DZIECKO NOWY BUT

MORPH - a textual, context-sensitive realization of a morpheme

ALLOMORPHS - distinct morphs that may represent a morpheme (as an abstract); different realization of the same morpheme.

ALTERNATIONS IN MORPHOLOGY

1. BUT - [but] buty distribution of allomorphs is PHONOLOGICALLY CONDITIONED

- [buć] bucik

2. KOŃ - KONIE [-e] distribution of endings depends on gender of nouns -> such alternations are

NOC - NOCE [-e] MORPHOLOGICALLY (GRAMMATICALLY) CONDITIONED

OKNO - OKNA [-a]

SERCE - SERCA [-a]

PAN - PANOWIE [-ov'je]

3. DZIECKO [dzieck] DZIECI [dzieć] LEXICALLY CONDITIONED alternation

different root morphemes

RULE OF ALLOMORPHY - apply to a morpheme of other than phonologically designated set of morphemes, in the immediate environment of a designated morpheme or set of morphemes

MORPHOLOGY

Is divided into 2 subcomponents

INFLECTIONAL MORPHOLOGY DERIVATIONAL MORPHOLOGY

Production of word-forms corresponding to a given Methods of forming new lexemes from
lexeme, marking morpho-syntactic categories like: the already existing ones

• number - gender - tense - mood

• person - aspect - voice

• inflection never changes part of speech

• in English inflection is restricted to suffixation.

*some processes (adverb-formation) are between inflection and derivation.

AFFIXES (formatives) may be divided into inflectional and derivational.

STEM - the part of the word-form which remains when all inflectional affixes have been removed

PŁACZ | ĄC | EGO

verbal stem inflectional morphemes (affixes)

BASE - a lexeme/morpheme from which another complex lexeme is formed

Word-forms which represent a given lexeme are organized into PARADIGMS -> closed set of forms of which only one may fill a particular syntactic slot

Nom. KOT - o

Instr. KOT - EM <- information about case, number and gender is enclosed in this formative `-EM'

`-EM' is a CUMULATIVE EXPONENT of 3 different inflectional categories:

Case, number and gender

INFLECTIONAL SYNCRETISM - some endings in noun declension (in Polish) are used more than once to mark distinct inflections -> neutralization of certain inflectional oppositions within the paradigm as well as in syntactic context

CREATIVITY - one is capable of producing virtually unlimited number of (derived) words; the native speaker's ability to extend the language system in a motivated, but unpredictable (non-rule-governed) way

PRODUCTIVITY - one of the defining features of human language; allows the native speaker to produce an infinitely large number of sentences, many (or most) of which have never been produced before

PROCESS OF WORD-COINING - English adjectives: contractile, erectile, flexile

Unique suffixes: laughter, hatred, bishopric, rękaw

REGULARITY - there are regular rules for making up new words

• actual words

• possible but non-existent words

• impossible and non-existent words

• possible sentences (in syntax)

• impossible sentences (in syntax)

TRANSFORMATIONALIST APPROACH - morphology was not a separate component of the grammar but rather formed an integral part of syntax; derivation of complex words by means of transformation

LEXICALIST APPROACH - derivational morphology (as a separate component of the grammar) should be removed from syntax and made part of an extended lexicon (special word formation rules)

LEXICON - a list of lexical entries where information on each lexeme is provided

LEXICALIZATION - coining new lexemes as a result of applying a productive morphological rule to a base form; the element `-ure' was mildly productive in deriving nouns but now new words are no longer derived by this element (all nouns ending with `-ure' have to be listed in the lexicon -> whole derivational pattern has undergone lexicalization)

SEMANTIC LEXICALIZATION - kind of lexicalization where a derived lexeme has developed an unpredictable meaning

BLOCKING - the nonoccurrence of one form one to the simple existence of another -> the presence in the lexicon of the abstract noun `glory' blocks the derivation of `gloriosity' from the adjective “glorious'(it does not affect the highly productive nominalizer `-ness' - `gloriousness')

SUPRASEGMENTAL FEATURES - connected with intonation, pitch, laudness. Sometimes it can change the meaning.

SUPRAFIXATION - insult /'insalt; in'salt/

NON-AFFIXATION PROCESSES

• CONVERSION without affix or zero affix (to attack <v>; attack <n>)

• BLENDING we take part of one and part of another word (television - eurovision, wardrobe - floordrobe)

• ACRONYMISATION NASA, AIDS, laser

• CLIPPING

• EPONYMS A word or name derived from the name of a person (Braille, Morse, atlas)

• TRUNCATION (editor - to edit)

PROBLEMS WITH THE MORPHEME

1. conversion (to father - a father)

2. truncation (David - Dave)

3. extended exponence

4. desegmentation (confer, refer, prefer; keep-kept)

DERIVED NOUNS

I Deverbal nouns

Nomina Actionis

function: abstract deverbal action nouns

meaning: act(ion)/process of V-ing

gerundive: -ing; totally productive, no blocking (even rivals)

derived nominals:

-conversion: (drive, go, ride, scan, walk; contrast, transport, insult; attack, supply)

-ation [-tion, -ion, -ution, -ition];

- ation: -ize (neutralize-neutralization, verbalize-verbalization),

-ate (truncation of `te'-> celebrate-celebration, imitate-imitation);

-ify, -ply -> -ication (verify-verification, simplification; apply-application, implication)

-tion: z noncoronals (b) -scribe, -ceive, - duce, -sume

-ion: z coronals (l,n,t,d) (rebel-rebellion, prevent-prevention, decide-decision); czasem -sion/-cion

-ment:

words beginning with en-, em-, be- (embarassment; enlargement, endorsement; beseechment, bedazzlement) (but betrayal);

where -ation can't be cos of phonological rules -[sz, dż], syllabic sonorant (l, n)

(abolishment; encouragement, management; unravelment, enlighentment, improsonment)

-al: bisyllabic, ONLY final-stress verbs (arrival, denial, proposal, refusal); exception: burial; one monosyllabic verb ending in -al: try-trial

-ance: -fer, -side (prefer, refer, residence)

-age: monosyllabic bases (carriage, stoppage, storage)

-ure: (departure, failure, exposure)

-y: (delivery, discovery, flattery, robbery)

haplology - omission of 1 or 2 syllables that sound the same (adulterer-adultery, sorcerer-sorcery)

Residual: -t (flight), -th (depth) -ice (service), -ter (laughter), -er (merger); semi-suppletion

(choose-choice); consonant alternation (relief,descent); suppletion (despise-contempt, lend-loan)

How to form deverbal nouns?

• nomina actionis

• subject nominalization

• object nominalization

Subject nominalizations:

often polysemous words (printer, conductor, protector)

Nomina Agentis:

function: suffix forms agentive nouns

meaning: sb who V-es sth

-er: native monosylabic; usually transitive; derived v. -ize; (baker)

-or: Latinate only (poza sailor) (actor, inspector); -ate (imitator, creator, translator);

allomorphic extensions (comment-commentator, compete-competitor);

-ant: mostly Latinate; -ate (truncation-> occupy-occupant; extension-> apply-applicant)

-ee: v. rare (usually Patientive); (escapee, standee);

cos of blocking in: (adatpee-adapter, waitee-waiter, mergee-merger)

-conversion: usually colloquial speech; (to coach-a coach, to judge-a judge; cook; spy)

Residual: -al, -ar, -ist, -ian; denominal -ism-> -ist; lexicon

Constrains: homonymy blocking the existence of homonym blocks creation of the word by conversion (liver, let-letter, shut-shutter); synonymy blocking existence of synonym (stealer-thief,

seer->on-looker); visible/audible action; not modals and v. derived from agent nouns (fool-to fool *a fooler)

Nomina Instrumenti:

function: Names of Instruments

meaning: An instrument (tool, machine) that V-es

many lexicon, if Latinate-2 bases (tele-graph, tele-phone, micro-scope); simplex - native; complex-Latinate

-er: (copy-copier, grind-grinder; compute-computer, develop-developer, propel-propeller);

-ize (atomize-atomizer; plasticize-plasticizer); -ify (amplifier)

-or: -ate (calculate-calculator, radiate-radiator, insulate-insulator) NO TRUNCATION!

-ant: science/technology language; -ate, -ize -> truncation (irritate-irritant, deodorize-deodorant);

(lubricate-lubricant, saturate-saturant, repel-repellent)

-ing: (covering, fitting; coat-coating, dress-dressing, wire-wiring)

Residual:-le/-el (stop-stopple, spin-spindle); conversion (to cover-a cover); lexicon (dig-spade, sweep-broom)

Object nominalizations:

Patientive Nom.:

function: suffix forms `passive nouns'

meaning: (sb who is V-ed - DO; sb to whom sth is V-ed - IO);

-ee (employee, appointee, expelee, draftee, grantee, payee, promisee); stress shift;

-ate has truncation (assessinate-assassinee, libartae-liberee)

Residual: conversion (to pervert, a pervert, to suspect-a suspect); -ant (arrestanat); -ary;

denominal (prisoner); lexicon (teacher, teach-pupil)

Objective/Resultative Nom.:

function: suffix forms objective nouns

meaning:(sth which is/has been V-ed);

- conversion (to award-an award, to drink-a drink, to find-a find, import-import, hand out- handout)

Residual: -ing, -ation, -ment, -ure (painting; publication; attachment; payment; enclosure); lexicon (eat-food, give-gift)

II Deadjectival nouns

Nomina Essendi

function : suffix forms abstract deadjectival nouns

meaning: quality/state of being A

monomorphemic Latinate bases (avidity, falsity, rigidity)

-ness: more native bases (is native suffix); adj in -ful, -ish, -less, -ly (orderliness), -y (lengthiness),

-some (lonesomeness); compounds (black-and-blueness); (frankness, softness, ugliness)

-ity: Latinate, simplex bases;

-ive (sometimes -ness), -ile, -al, -ar (creativity, perfectivity; agility, fertility; brutality, verticality; familiarity, peculiarity)

-able/-ible: (acceptability, nameability; preventability, resistibility; feasibility)

BUT when adj. based on noun (not verb) -ness

-ic: alternation k->s (domestic-domesticity, toxic-toxicity)

-ous: truncation -> (curious-curiosity, generous-generosity; ambiguous-ambiguity,

simultaneous-simultaneousity)

trisyllabic laxing: Every noun in -ity receives stress on the antepenultimate syllable, this causes trisyllabic laxing (=shortening);vowel shortening; ai->i, au->A, i:->e, ei->ae (divine-divinity, profane-profanity)

!often both -ity and -ness are possible (falseness/falsity, accurateness/accuracy)

-ancy: Latinate -ant/-ent (redundancy, adjacency, flamboyancy);

sometimes -ance/-ence (innocence, fragrance);

sometimes one word both NA i NE (persistence, resistance) -> DOUBLE MOTIVATION

-(ac)y: -ate (truncation of t: accurate-accuracy, intricate-intricacy);

chyba, że denominal (affection->affectionate->affectionateness)

-(it)ude: (fortitude, plenitude, solitude) OFTEN: aptitude/aptness (different meaning)

-ism: -ic (cynicism, eroticism, lyricism, romanticism, exoticism)

Residual: -th (depth, length), -dom (freedom), -tion (ONLY: precision),

-hood (livelyhood, falsehood); -ance/-ence (importance)

wise /wais/-wisdom /I/ (pronunciation <the great vowel shift>, because of consonant cluster (s+d) the vowel preceding it was shortened)

III Denominal nouns

Diminutives - duck - duckling, book - booklet

Female - ess, -x (waitress)

Collective - ery, -dom,- age,- ship (partnership, kingdom)

DERIVED ADJECTIVES

Relational (connected with, related to <meaning>) 

ONLY Latinate (exceptions:

one adj. can have different meanings

relational (religious problem) vs. qualitative (religious man)

no rules of distribution of -al and -ic(al)

-al: not from: deverbal nouns in -ment, -ure, -ance/ence, if verbs exists:

(encouragement-> encourage-> *encouragemental

ornament-> *orna-> ornamental)

exception: governmental/developmental (not relational adjective - formed from government in a sense of group of people and not in the sense of NA;)

NE -ity, -y (*puritial, *curiosital; *frequential,)

many in -(at)ion: (conditional, adaptational, decisional, traditional), UNLESS NA (-iz-ation)

`i' extension (proverbial, industrial)

[-ial, -ual, -inal, -ar]

-ce: -ial (s->sz) (facial, spatial; gerundial)

-l: -ar (pole-polar, line-linear, molecule-molecular)

-ic(s) -al OR -ical OR both (logical, mathematical, semantic, linguistic)

agentive not, ONLY -or; extension -> i (dictator-dictatorial, author-authorial)

-ic(al): with Greek-origin bases; mostly complex;

-ist (-ism): -ic (idealistic, realistic)

Latinate -ma: extension `t' (aroma-aromatic, drama-dramatic)

-m: extension `at' (idiom-idiomatic, paradigm-paradigmatic)

ethnic names (Arabic, Celtic, Slavik, Mongolic)

-y (truncation: monogamy-monogamic, geography-geographical)

-ia (truncation: nostalgia-nostalgic, onomatopoeia-onomatopoeic); sometimes -(ia)c

-sis: -tic (s->t) (emphasis-emphatic, sclerosis-sclerotic) exceptions: (*oatic, thetic)

-itis: -itic (phlebitis-phlebitic, laryngitis-laryngitic)

-ite: -itic (dolomite-dolomitic)

[-ical, -iactic, -istic]

Residual: -ary (in -ion, -ment) (revolutionary, elementary)

-ory (in verbs -fy, -ply, -ate)

usually not derivation but compounding: (speech organs, thinking process, headache)

Possessional (having sth, characterized by sth; covered with; abundance),

-y: monosylabic words (spotty, edgy, bony, juicy)

-ed: prefers concrete nouns; COMPOUNDS (rosy-cheeked, almond-eyed, cool-headed); different meaning of head - heady;

sometimes impersonal nouns (keyed, iced, roofed)

-ful: NOT with NE (as they are derived from adj.)

Residual: -ous (courageous, famous); -able (reasonable); -ate (passionate, affectionate); -al, -(at)ic

Privative: (not having sth)

-less: free of sth neutral; prefers abstract, simplex nouns (worthless, tasteless, soulless);

rare with personal nouns BUT family (parentless, sisterless, childless)

-free: semi-suffix; free of sth negative (commercial-free, drug-free, sugar-free, rain-free)

Similitudinal (like sth)

concrete nouns

-like: prefers simplex bases; objects/substances (bell-like, catlike, sugarlike, childlike)

-ly: personal nouns in coronal consonant (n, t, d, l, r); fatherly-fatherlike (-like can be relational,-ly not)

eulogistic (positive/neutral) (motherly, wifely, ladyly)

dyslogistic (pejorative) (miserly, slovenly, cowardly)

-y: simplex, monosyllabic; objects, substances (cottony, milky, spongy); animals (catty, foxy, doggy); (can be possessional-> starry, pearly)

-ish: animals (apish, goatish, toadish); blocked if -vowel (bee, fly) exceptions: monkeyish, puppyish);

personal nouns (not neutral) (amateurish, foolish, clownish, freakish)

Residual: -ed (hooked, forked); silken; globular/globose

Objective/Potential (that can be V-ed) 

denominal: with -ness, not -ity

deverbal: no preference

can't be derived if no verb derivation (picture->to picture->pictureable;

problem->*to problem->*problemable)

-able [-ible, -uble: soluble]

Latinate, transitive (not after dark l)

phrasal verbs -> NOT

Atenuative (somewhat like, not exactly like)

-ish: prefers monosyllabic;

NOT with -sz, -cz, -dż

colours: (bluish, reddish)

some qualitative (biggish, smallish; goodish, badish)

Residual: -y (blacky, bleaky, bluey)

Negative (not sth)

-un: native, Latinate, complex, simplex, denominal, deverbal

NOT with: pejorative, monomorphemic, colours

non-: (non-abstract, non-obvious; non-infected; non-living)

iN-: not with words in in-

-im (m, p, b); -il (l-); -ir (r-); reszta in-

dis: handful of Latinate (disloyal, disobedient)

Residual: a(n/b)- (amoral, abnormal); n- (none); no- (no-win); mis- (misbegotten)

DERIVED VERBS

Stative

-be N/Adj.

(be ill, be a king)

-conversion: (slack - to slack)

Causative (to make A)

products are TRANSITIVE

+qualitative, not with complex (NIE jak -ful, -less, -y, -able, -some, un-, -ish)

deadjectival

-en: (to worsen sth, to lessen sth, to loosen sth);

monosyllabic base ONLY, must end in (sonorant +) obstruent (plosive, fricative, affricate)

(*longen *strongen - lengthen, strengthen);

-ize: bi-, polysyllabic, Latinate bases;

-al (legalize, generalize, pluralize)

-ar (familiarize, velarize, polarize)

-an (Americanize, Christianize, humanize)

-ic (k->s: eroticize, plasticize, publicize); truncation -> aromatic-aromatize

(-ile) (fertilize, sterilize); stress NEVER just before the suffix (popularize, familiarize)

- ify: native suffix, unproductive; stress just before the suffix (purify, clarify)

-ate: Latinate bases; lexicalization (activate, validate; duplicate, triplicate etc.)

-conversion: prefers native bases in -vowel or -sonorant; (to better, to dry, to ready, to slow);

Latinate: -ate (to animate, to subordinate)

eN- native suffix; (enrich, ensure)

eN- -en: (embolden, enliven)

Residual: be- (becalm, belittle); vocalic modification (full - to fill, hot - to heat); lexicon (long-prolong, mean-demean; easy-facilitate, free-liberate)

Inchoative (to become A)

products INTRANSITIVE

one entry in dictionaries with causative (causative prior)

-en (to worsen, to loosen, to darken)

-conversion (to empty, to dry)

turn...

become...

(suber) up

(calm) down

or causative in inchoative meaning

Reversative (to undo)

deverbal, deadjectival

constrains the same for all suffixes:

- base is transitive, resultative

- physical ability to undo

un-: prefers native bases; no irreversable actions (only in “I wish I could...”)

dis-: prefers Latinate starting with vowel (disarrange, disjoin, disorganize, disengage)

de-: with causative -ize; sometimes -ate, -ify (dechristianize, decentralize, depolarize)

Ornative (to provide with N, to add)

concrete nouns

-conversion (to colour, to salt, label)

-ize/-ate: chemical substances (alcoholize, aromatize, vitaminize; chlorinate, glycerinate)

Privative (to remove N/free from)

denominal; less productive than reversative

get rid of animals/insects, excesive substance, body parts

de-: usually monosylabic nouns (deflea, delouse, deodorize, desalt)

-conversion dressing, cleaning; monosyllabic, abstract (to weed, to skin, to worm plants)

Residual: un- (unmask, uncap); dis- (disarm, discourage);

be-head, dis-limb, dis-member

Repetitive (to do sth again)

re- rewash

complementizer that, if, whether

drzewka:

M modal: might (stoi osobno)

S sentence

AP = ADJ P.

D their, a, the

ADV suddenly

PP -> (P+NP)

---