Historia Anglii - opracowanie Roman Britain
Ad 43 Claudius invaded Britain on the pretext of dealing with tribal princes and druids. The Romans occupied Britain and took advantage of its mineral and agricultural wealth (mostly, coal fields, also iron and silver). The Roman army built legionary forts, camps, paved roads and towns. A number of important military installations were built close to pre-existing tribal centers, which then became the focus of Roman-British towns, e.g. Colchester. The Romans also constructed the channels of communication. The Romans brought their particular style of architecture to the countryside in the form of villas (farms: either small cottages or vast complexes). Mostly, they were created in the South, where the soil is very fertile, and owned by richer people. The villas were usually close to towns, so that the crops were easily sold and exported. The Northern part of the country is less fertile, so it was used for sheep farming. Later, woolen cloth was the main exported product that dominated the economy. In the 1st cent. the Romans experienced a number of tribal revolts, but they had the long-established practice in quelling unrest. Rome created three client kingdoms: the Icenti, the Brigantes, the Atrebates. In AD 60 the Icenti rose up under the leadership of Boudicca, destroying the Roman towns of Colchester, London and St Albans. The crushing of the Boudiccan revolt was followed by a period of expansion of the Roman province. Later, it was enlarged, taking in all Wales, Anglesey, northern England and southern Scotland. In the 2nd cent. Hadrian's Wall was built in order to separate the province from the barbarian north, but also to be a barrier to the power of Rome. In AD 139-42 a new frontier defense system was created between the Forth and the Clyde - the Antonine Wall - but it was short-lived and Hadrian's Wall was again the frontier. Roman towns fell into three types: coloniae, municipia, civitates. In coloniae Roman citizens lived, a municipium was a self-governing community with certain legal privileges, and the civitates - towns of non-citizens, Britain's administrative centers, included the old celtic tribal capitals. Towns contained temples, public baths, aqueducts, and an amphitheatre. At first, they had no walls. Many of these towns were at first army camps (castra - "camp"). Also, markets and shops were established, some buildings had central heating. 4th cent. - towns dominated by stone-built mansions, villas grew in size, became more enclosed, also embellished in mosaics. Latin spread, many Britons adopted Latinized names. The Romans brought the skills of reading and writing, which was helpful in spreading ideas and also for establishing power. In the 4th cent. Christianity came to England. When the Roman introduced their reign in Britain, Emperor worship and temples became known. Mithras was a Persian cult, a new kind of religion, monogamist faith arrived. Somebody was scarified in order to be then reconciled.
Anglo-Saxons
Germanic people who settled in Britain between 4th and 7th cent. They included Angles, Saxons and Jutes. Religious life was very developed, many missionaries (Boniface), churches and burial practices - the ship-burial at Sutton Hoo. It was a site containing up to 20 burial barrows. The kings were buried in a rowing boat with two silver spoons. Days of the week were named after Germanic gds, also new place-names appeared on the map. The Anglo-Saxons formed a number of kingdoms, smaller kingdoms were taken over by larger ones. By the middle of the 7th cent. three largest kingdoms existed - Northumbria, Mercia and Wessex. In Mercia ruled King Offa who was very powerful.
In the 9th cent. the threat of the Vikings. They came from Norway and Danemark, they burnt monasteries and churches. The Vikings were determined to settle in England. They quickly accepted Christianity and didn't disturb the local population. In 878 king Alfred won a decisive battle with the Vikings who had already taken most of England.
The great period of conversion was the 7th cent., an age of saints and monastic foundations. During the Anglo-Saxon period, law foundations were set up. Criminal and civil questions were decided on the basis of custom. Kings wrote down the laws and made codexes of law after 5th cent. Law was based on a tribe - a family could seek revenge. Bloodfud became formalized. The moots (gatherings of people) took decisions on criminal matters, they met in hundreds. The way in which criminal was brought to the moot depended on a family. They were responsible for founding the criminal. Decisions of the whole community whether a person was guilty or not weren't based on evidence. The accusatory and the accused brought as many people as possible (witnesses). They were called compurgators or oath-helpers. The guilt depended on the number of oath-helpers. A murderer had to pay compensation to his victim's family - wergeld. Women had percentage from the death of their husbands. The criminal law was based on punishing the outcasts from the society. Wergeld - the fixed amount payable by a killer and his kin to his victim kinsmen. A man's kin was obliged to seek vengeance for his death, but payment of wergeld was an alternative to blood-feud. The amount of wergeld was an important mark of social status. Historical development brought a growth in royal power and authority in a society wherein a participation in government of free men had a long history. The status of women has been seen as comparatively high, some queens and royal ladies were playing an important role in political and religious role. During the Anglo-Saxon period many institutions were created, e.g. the King's Council - Witan. It was a formal body, issuing laws and charters. However, the king could ignore the Witan's advice. The Witan had right to choose kings and to agree the use of the king's laws. It later contributed to the development of the Privy Council. Christianity easily spread; the Britain was now respecting papal authority. Pope Gregory the Great sent a monk to re-established Christianity in England. This monk - Augustine - became the first Archbishop of Canterbury. The bishops from the Roman Church lived at the courts of the kings, which they made centers of Church power. In 663 the Celtic and Roman Church disagreed over the date of Easter. At the meeting in Whitby (the Synod of Whitby the king of Northumbria decided to support the Church of Rome. Saxon kings help the Church to grow and it also increased the power of kings. Kings had "God's approval". An eldest son didn't automatically become king, because kings were chosen from among the members of the royal family. The schools were based on Christian culture - usually these were monasteries where people could learn. Villages and towns grew around the monasteries and increased local trade. Involvement with Normandy came in the 10th cent. Trade, especially in slaves in the early period and wool in the later, brought great wealth. Coinage was under royal control. Prosperity sustained the frequent collection of large Danegelds (The king Ethelred paid the Vikings to stay away and to find money for this he set a tax on his people. These were the money which would provide the armies). By the 11th cent. with its hundreds, shires, ealdormen and reeves, law courts, and tax-collecting. The Saxons divided the land into new administrative areas, based on shires and counties. Over each shire was appointed a shire reeve who was the king's local administrator. There was no capital in Anglo-Saxon England, but Winchester was almost a capital. The country was united.
Domesday Book made by William the Conqueror proved an administrative genius. It was a record of landowners and of the manors they held. It seems to be primarily concerned with resources and assessments. The Anglo-Saxons introduced a new plough that led to changes in land and ownership and organization. Village lands were divided into two or three very large fields, which then were divided again into long thin strips. Each family had a number of strips and used them for planting spring and autumn crops. The rest of the land was used for animals. The Saxons cut down many forests in order to have a richer soil, and they began to drain the wet land. In each district there were manors - simple buildings where local villagers came to pay taxes, where justice was administered, and where men met to join the army (fyrd). Ealdormen were local officials, but in the 11th cent. they became warlords. In Anglo-Saxon England export and import was very lively developed - mostly woolen goods, cheese, hunting dogs, pottery and metal goods were exported, while wine, fish, pepper, jewellery were imported.
The Anglo-Saxons weren't Christian. St Patrick was responsible for Christianity's revival in the 5th cent. He's patron saint of Ireland. Often at risk, he was fearlessly determined to destroy paganism. The nature was important for Anglo-Saxon religious practices. The beliefs of the human life were down to earth. By the 6th cent. the fact that England wasn't part of Christian Church had resulted in trading problems. Thus English kings became interested in becoming part of. Queen of Kent was Christian. The conversion process began. The Irish Church was beginning missionary activities and it had continued to develop. It had maintained many features of primitive Christianity, e.g. monks and nuns lived in poverty, they were going from town to town preaching. Roman church had good structural organization; it was collecting taxes. The Irish church didn't have institutional organization.
Synod of Whitby was in 664. It was a meeting between Catholics and Anglo-Saxons. The most controversial difference between them was the date of Easter. Eventually, Roman Christianity won and the synod prepared the way for unification of the English church. After the conversion, the church put administrative forms. After Synod of Whitby a parish system was introduced. A parish priest collected church taxes. Parish churches were buildings at the centers of their communities. Christianity was connected with centralized power, the inheritance of the throne arrived. The arrival of writing came from the church and also the coronation took place by the church. The idea of "divine rights" became to take over. Pilgrimages became popular. In Anglo-Saxon period family was an economic unit. Women had strong position, they could own the property after their husbands' death. A family had large numbers of children. More children meant better economic situation because of the workforce provided by children.
Norman Conquest and the Middle Ages
William the Conqueror's victory at the battle of Hastings in 1066 was followed by six years of campaigning. In the succeeding decades, Wales and Lowland Scotland was expanded. He managed to put order in Norman life. The Normans destroyed the places they couldn't control, and built forts to guard others. William gave the land as a reward to his captains, but always remembered to have more in order to remain stronger than his nobles. He also granted the land to the monastic houses. William kept the Saxon system of sheriffs, and used these as a balance to local nobles.
Feudalism - land held in return for duty or service to a lord. The king owned all land but it was held by others - vassals - in return for services and goods. The nobles had to give the king part of the produce of the land. The greater nobles gave part of their lands to lesser nobles. Some freemen paid for the land by doing military service, while others paid rent. The noble kept "serfs" to work on his own land. They weren't free to leave the estate, and were often little better than slaves. When a noble died his son usually took over his estate, but first he had to receive permission and make a special payment. If he wasn't mature, the king would often take the produce of the estate. If the king didn't give the nobles land they would not fight for him. Tenants-in-chief were those who held Norman lands directly from the king. They granted the manors to lesser lords. They constituted a Great Council. It began as a meeting of the tenants-in-chief and barons and was largely advisory. Consequently a more specialized council developed, consisting of household officers. This was the king's council, though it wasn't formally an institution with defined functions until the later 13th cent. Great Council was summoned during the feasts. Villeins were the peasants in a state of serfdom - subject to a lord and under obligation to perform labour services. They weren't free men, but they held less land, and were well above the slaves. They could escape the villeinage by purchasing freedom from the lord - commutation (they were proposing the lords instead of working on the land to pay rent), by escaping to a town for a year or one day, by taking holy orders (with the lord's permission). Villeins were supposed to do any kind of work and they paid taxes in goods. The feudal system brought the increase in marketplace economy. Also, it was the army that stimulated the food production. Rich peasants could also buy land from other peasants. Social status changed in the 13th cent. The life became more prosperous, the food ameliorated. Yet, the situation changed in the 14th cent. when the Great Plague arrived. In 1349 there was an outbreak of the disease of rats in Dorset. Later (1349-51), the population was reduced possibly by half. Many villages were abandoned, no one stayed alive. The lords had no farmers to work on their lands. Feudal peasants would persuade their lord to rent them the land, relief them from the problem with land. Yeomen were freeholders, also called tenant farmers. They paid regular rents each year and could also go to another lord and offer their services. The feudal system collapsed in the 14th cent. The peasants were no longer obliged to work on the lords' land. Yeomen began to build themselves houses, send their sons to schools, even to universities. They began to purchase cloth in the market or to make their own cloth. Feudal nobility - the fight for the king in order to have land. They received money from the agricultural tenants. Black Death - an epidemic of catastrophic proportions, 1348. It had major economic effects, the area under agricultural exploitation was sharply reduced and some lands were turned over to pasture. Labour became more expensive. Bailif was a manager of the farm. Woolen export grew, it was basically exported to the North. In Yorkshire where great ecclesiastical manors were, people kept sheep. In 1295 there was a turning point in English manufacture. Edward I imposed a tax on the export of wool, which became the income of the royal estate. However, soon instead of raw wool, cloth was exported. Cloth industry began in towns, which were renewed after the Norman Conquest. William built strongholds outside which settlements grew up. William granted charters that allowed the towns to exist. These were the grants of privilege. The towns could hold markets or fairs (market that held once a year), to collect tolls, or to elect their own officials. Merchants could form groups and trade, most of the profit was restored to the king. The tenants-in-chief issued the charters. Up to the 13th cent. these towns had sheriffs who collected taxes. Merchant guilds - major towns had specialized guilds for different trades, they regulated the local market. This took the form of control of the price and quality of goods. The craftsmen joined in the guilds, apprenticeship usually lasted seven years and they got no reward for their work. The journeymen were qualified craftsmen who were employed for wages by masters. Weaving sheds - primitive factories. Guild hall - center of the merchant guild, they wanted to become the government of the towns. Some people weren't satisfied with merchant and craft guilds. The riots began. The Normans also set up an administration operation that is the clerks (they were writing down what the council decided) in chapel. From 1066 members of the church were very educated. William the Conqueror died in 1099. William Rufus, his son, was killed during hunting expedition. His brothers - Henry I and Henry II. Exchequer was a financial institution. During the reign of Henry I the clerks began to use the counting frames. During the reign of Henry II the records started to be kept in writing form (pipe rolls). The Exchequer thus exercised a judicial as well as financial competence. Chancellor of the Exchequer was the main figure in the administration. In 1199 Richard I was captured by his enemies and a ransom was demanded. England was able to pay it, because it needed central figure as the feudal system was based on it. Richard I became king in 1377 aged 9. There was no formal regency, but the government during his early years was dominated by his uncle John of Gaunt. John was engaged in the French war and lost all the English territories in France. The English were driven out of France. The tenants-in-chief decided that king policies couldn't be allowed any longer. In 1215 there were restrictions on the king. The barons of England demanded to restrict the power of the king - Magna Carta. It was designed to be a negotiated peace, but it turned out to be a failure in this. John had no intention of adhering to Magna Carta, agreeing to it only to gain time. For the first time in written law establishing defined limitations to royal rights. The king couldn't throw a great landowner to prison or take away his land without consulting the matter with other lords. The king couldn't take legal decisions without consulting them. This the king wasn't the highest authority. The main points of Magna Carta dealt with the regulations of feudal system. The king had to agree that 25 barons were in Parliament. The barons were checking and observing the king. The feudal lords attacked the king's central power and they came together in arms marching towards London. They demanded the king to answer their demands which were written down. The barons wanted to limit the power of the king in financial terms. Sums of money were agreed the king could demand. Also, the length of military service was specified. Scutage or shield-money was commutation in lieu of knight service as a fixed levy on the fee. The king appealed to the king of France and to the pope. The civil war broke out. John defeated the barons, but they later ruled in the name of Henry III. In the middle 13th cent. the civil war broke out for the second time. This time not only barons stood against the king, but also the knights. In 1250s English barons refused to pay taxes. Simon de Montfort was one of the French courtiers. He became the leader of the opposition to the king. In 1258 he brought about a meeting of Parliament - a discussion group, meeting to talk of the lower classes. He won a battle at Sussex against the king. Finally, he was killed. English Parliament originated from three needs: the need of monarchs to obtain advice and information, the realization that subjects were more likely to pay taxes if they knew what they were for, and the need to find some way of dealing with grievances and petitions (requests to king to do something). The representatives from the shires and towns collected the petitions. Parliament was a national body, with a representative element, reflecting the demands of government for money. A good deal of public business was done at crownwearings, ceremonial occasions. Since the great men were expected to attend to show respect, it was easy to consult them. In the 13th cent. these meetings came to be referred to as discussions. In the conflict between de Montfort and the king, both sides appealed to the Parliament. However, its role wasn't so big. Attendances weren't always good, partly because travel was difficult and the involvement wasn't always welcome. Sessions were usually short. By the 13th cent. Parliament summoned every 3 years. It was easy to collect money when it was agreed by the meeting. Every decret was issued by the king in the Parliament. It met in two houses, it had no fixed place to meet. House of Commons - town's people and knights met here. They met in St Stephen's chapel. Knights of the shire were first called to Parliament in 1254 and in de Montfort's Parliament of 1265 they were joined by representatives from certain boroughs and cities. The speaker was a representative who voiced opinions, he also decided who shouted louder in the Parliament. Impeachment was a summoning somebody to the House of Commons, punishing somebody and executing king's ministers. Sitting arrangement - sitting was on two sides, so there was a distance between these sides. People couldn't fight during the meeting, which happened quite often during this period. From 1399 if king (Richard II) wasn't behaving well according to the barons, they replaced him by somebody else. In 1066 church held monopoly for documents. Only church members were literate. Many young men attended to schools within the church. From the 12th cent. also secular groups began to be interested in providing education outside the church. Guilds of teachers were set up. In the 13th cent. two medieval universities were growing up - Cambridge and Oxford. Also, grammar schools were founded in wealthier towns. By 14th cent. Latin was taught. Secular education was later expanded very greatly as industry and trade developed. More young men could read and write. Some boys were sent to the houses of great lords to practise some useful skills. Tutors were employed. William of Wykeham founded Winchester College that provided education for poor people. By the 15th cent. some of the wealthier landowners' sons were sent outside home to schools. In 1440 Eton College was established by Henry VI, and it was modelled on the foundations of Winchester College. Secular education provided the part in new economic situation, e.g. overseas expansion. Inns of Court were legal institutions responsible for the education of lawyers. They were first used as accommodation and were a cross between the college, the club, and the trade union. Up to the 13th cent. law was taught on one of the bishops' court. Around the king's court young men began to live in inns and play certain amount of money to practicing lawyers in order to learn from them. Inns began to form a committee and establishing for how long a young man should stay in these inns. Attending the university was a social purpose and was aimed at making some contacts. The methods of teaching were like impositions from above. Beating pupils was perceived as the only way to make them learn something. Thus, riots were quite frequent. The changes of methods in teaching came with the arrival of printing. Libraries were set up. Most of the books were entertaining ones. Women began to learn in the 15th cent. Church after Norman Conquest had enormous power - most of important officials were also princes of the church. Normans gave a lot of land to the church and it hence became wealthier. Later, this land was taxed. In the 12th cent. constantly large numbers of bishops were kept away, so that the profit from the land was taken. The real conflict, however, began with Thomas Becket. He was the archbishop of Canterbury murdered in his own cathedral and became a saint. Henry II appointed him chancellor. In this office he displayed a wide range of talents, administrative, diplomatic and military. In 1162 Becket was consecrated archbishop. At once he began to oppose the king. He campaigned for the canonization of Anselm, who had defied kings. Henry felt betrayed. King and archbishop were soon at odds over a wide range of issues, among them the question of criminous clerks. If they committed a crime, only church could punish them. The most severe punishment was throwing out from the church. Henry II wanted to punish all men, even church members. He had a whole list of criminals. Becket disagreed. The king called the chancellor of Clarendon who said that such criminals should be first punished by the church and after that held to secular power. In 1164 Henry brought charges against Becket, saying he was a bad chancellor. He lost a war with France. Becket, seeing that the king was determined to break him, fled to France, where he remained in exile until 1170. After years of fruitless negotiations, the coronation of Henry's son (while Henry II was still arrived) in 1170 by the archbishop of York brought matters to a head. In Becket's eyes crowning the king was a Canterbury privilege. He agreed terms with Henry and returned to England with the intention of punishing those who had violated that privilege. He excommunicated the archbishop of York and two other bishops. The pope excommunicated Henry. They complained to the king. Henry sent knights to kill Becket in 1170. That murder shocked Christendom. In 1173 Thomas Becket was canonized. Becket's murder put Henry in the wrong and the church of Canterbury clearly gained. For centuries Becket's tomb in the cathedral was greatest pilgrimage shrine in England. The power of church was growing through the 13th cent. By the 14th cent. the pattern of church organization was beginning to be questioned in England. Lollard movement were a group lacking theological coherence. Lollardy also attracted influential men, close to the court, some driven by genuine Puritanism, some anticlerical, some cynical with eyes on clerical wealth. Chased from university and aristocracy, lollardy embraced local artisans and yeomen farmers, who held negative, often simplistic, views. A lollard was somebody who mumbled prayers. The Lollards began as a result of return to England of soldiers who became from the church after 30 years war. In the 14th cent. technical development and collapse of feudal system made the peasants to go and fight in France. They were given uniforms and weapons. They encountered religious movement. The idea of returning to original poverty was the main idea of religious movements. John Wyclif was a religious reformer and the leading philosopher of his day. As John of Gaunt's protégé, he was a diplomat and government propagandist, persistently attacking clerical wealth and privilege, but when condemned by the pope, he was protected by Gaunt and Oxford University. There was no distinction in the Bible between servants and lords, so this what happened in England was unjust. Wyclif's ideas didn't win at social changes. He died in a small town to which he was later exiled by the University of Oxford. The Peasants' Revolt in 1381 discredited his ideas which became "the touchstone of heresy". Wyclif was also responsible for the first translation of the Bible. This idea was supporting Lollard idea that each individual should have the chance to communicate with the Divine. The Lollards encouraged the movement of Poor Preachers who preached in villages. They were the men who didn't operate within the framework structure of the church. In 1381 Peasants Revolt broke out. This rebellion was the first large-scale popular uprising in England. The spark to the revolt was provided by the third poll tax (a fixed amount of tax per head), which bore particularly hard on the poor. The revolt took a dramatic and strongly political turn in London, where the rebels took and executed the archbishop of Canterbury, the treasurer, and others. Wat Tyler, one of the peasant leaders, made radical demands: serfdom was to be abolished, outlawry was to be abandoned, lordship was to be divided between all men. There should be only one bishop and one prelate. The wealth of the church should be distributed among the people. Wat Tyler was killed at this meeting and the resistance elsewhere in the country was short-lived. In 1395 - Twelve Conclusions of Lollard belief: no celibacy, Eucharist as "feigned miracle", bishops can't be state officials (they cannot serve king and God), no images and statues in church, no confession, priests should only priest, no abortion. In 1410 for the first time, an Act was passed in Parliament that it was possible to burn heretics. In the rural country, in its wealthier parts, Lollards emerged with great intensity. Some of their ideas began to be practiced in church. Later, people to larger extent began to read and write. Church began to put more emphasis on sermons - priests talking rather than reading. It was something new and aimed at people's thinking. The Normans introduced new law ideas, but the moots continued to function. Kings were keen on controlling the whole process. Statue Law was issued by William the Conqueror. "Murdrum fine" was a special law against killing Normans. From that time the court had more to say in the criminal matters. After 1066 manor courts appeared. The lord of the manor alone took decisions and he became the judge. He could punish people who lived on his land. Honour courts were more or less the same as manor court, but here king and royals acted as law courts. As the 12th cent. passed the number of courts extended. There were also ecclesiastical courts that appeared after Norman Conquest. Henry II was interested in imposing royal justice. He wanted to bring clear system of government in order to simplify the existing one. He wanted the king and the royal court to play the most important role. In 1166 there was Assize of Clarendon. Henry II set up an appointment of royal justices - courtiers - sent out all over England to find criminals. When a criminal was executed, the king took all his property. Method of deciding about guild was the trial by ordeal. By the 13th cent. Parliament reinforced the statute of hanging people. It was the elimination of social outcasts. By the end of Middle Ages many regulations were passed, because of the rapid growth of towns. For example, economic matters were regulated - it wasn't allowed to sell unsatisfactory goods. Stocks - kinds of a prison where some offenders were kept. The city council was also a court making people to obey the law. There were also some regulations on women's dress, wandering not allowed after 10 o'clock at night etc. Last two centuries of Middle Ages were the time when many criminal matters were regulated. Legislation was passed against gambling, clothes, letting pigs to be on the streets etc. New problems appeared. New crimes didn't involve death penalty, there were new ways of punishment. Jails were set up particularly in towns by 13th and 14th cent. Galos were small lock ups. Towns appointed bailiffs - men who caught criminals, and villages appointed constables. It was usually a voluntary job. In 14th-15th cent. the age of marriage was postponed in comparison with Anglo-Saxon times; also fewer children were born. The children didn't remain on the land. Children were being sold to different households.
1455-1688 (15th cent.- 17th cent.)
In the Middle Ages dancing and singing on Sundays was very popular. Hunting was common, to some extent archery as well. It stopped being only a military skill. Because of hunting development, many species died out. Deer parks were created and there was a gamekeeper who was responsible for the pheasants. He decided whether the hunters could shoot them. Some landowners breed foxes in order to have hunting animals. Also, the development of sports activities, e.g. tennis. Upper classes began to play indoor tennis. The emergence of football, particularly on Sunday evenings. The emergence of spectators entertainment, such as mystery plays. The idea of travel was a leisure activity. Hence, religious pilgrimages became less popular. In the 16th cent. horse racing, theatres and animal fights became popular. In 16th-17th cent. the authority banned many sports in order to prevent large gatherings. People couldn't gather in crowds and thus discuss political matters. Grand tour was a standard part of the education of the English aristocracy; it could take two or three years and was extremely expensive, so only a few could afford it. It had several objectives - to broaden the mind, to introduce the tourist to classical civilization, to encourage social grace, to improve the command of languages, to establish useful personal and diplomatic links. Yet, later because of the railway the journeys could be made in a few weeks and the tour didn't survive in its traditional form. Nevertheless, the idea of taking holiday became very popular. Seaside was especially attractive, also for health reasons. Spas and watering places emerged. Also, holiday resorts grew (Bath, Chetlenham). Music became more popular, dancings appeared. Piers were fashionable promenades, musical bands performed there. Victorian Music Hall was a place where people sang and comedians told jokes. It was the first popular mass scale medium. Prize fighting - people fighting in order to win a bag of money collected from the spectators. Queensberry had young men willing t fight. He introduced rules, such as the presence of a referee, so it became a professional activity. Many sports practiced in open spaces began to be formalized. A set of rules was introduced. E.g. Football Association appeared. It drew up rules, appointed referees and began to set up competitions. Also, cricket and rugby became more well-known. Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) was formed in 1787 and became a national organization. Professional cricket players were employed. W.G.Grace was a first national sports hero. In the second half of 19th cent. many museums were set up. British Museum was the first attempt to establish an educational institution. It was a private institution. From 1853 it was established by the Parliament as the national organization. Later, National Art Gallery and Madame Tussaud's Museum were also opened. At first, Madame Tussaud made wax figures of people killed in a guillotine. There were also exhibitions of exotic people; animals were shown in the circus. Later, the moving picture arrived in 1909. In 1890 Browning's Box Camera was invented. Although, photography developed, it began to be perceived as amateurs' occupation. From 1880s the opening of Library took place; before only private libraries existed. Also, public houses - pubs - developed in 1880s. People could read there, because there was a very good lighting (usually electric one). Stamp Act imposed tax on goods and services, such as newspapers etc. "Daily Telegraph" was the first newspaper that reduced its price to a penny. From 1860 there was a whole expansion of newspapers that did that. Thus, more people began to read daily press. There also appeared newspapers that began to concentrate on stories designed to attract the readers ("The News of the World"). From 1880s new printing machines arrived, so printing became cheaper and more copies could be made. The daily press could then include some pictures. Also advertising was brought to people's houses. Working men's clubs were places where working men met together for entertainment purpose, but also to discuss some political issues. Such clubs existed in most towns.
By the end of Middle Ages, the agricultural society treated family as a unit -man a woman. There was low number of children. Parents invested in their children - they paid to make them in apprenticeship, to learn a particular job. Parents didn't expect to get the money earned by their children. They were obliged to look after them and they had to allow children to get a job. Children on the other hand had no obligations to their parents. People didn't get married until they had their own houses. They got rid of children as soon as it was possible. Children saved and invested their money in order to buy a household. Within marriage, partnership was based mostly on economic reasons. Yeomen's wives had certain tasks to do, such as making some food and then selling it on the market. Wives of the lord of manor were running agricultural business, producing diary products mostly, but also beer etc. These wives were also often responsible for the house's accounts. Parents didn't really find wives for their sons. Young apprentices had plenty of opportunities of meeting future partners. Marriage meant marrying properties. The 15th cent. was the age of pilgrimage, mostly middle-class people were going on pilgrimages. Many relicts were duplicated. Pilgrimage movement brought a further element of question. Church monopolies were broken. In 1485 the civil war was brought to end by the arrival of Henry Tudor. Richard III fled from the battlefield, he dropped the crown with which the soldiers crowned Henry. 1485-1603 - Henry VII, Henry VIII, Elizabeth I. At the beginning of Henry VIII's reign in 1509, Thomas Wolsey was a major prince of the church, cardinal-minister. He dominated the political and ecclesiastical life of England from 1515 to 1529. He studied at Oxford, served the archbishop of Canterbury, became a royal chaplain from 1507. He took responsibility under the king for nearly all areas of government policy. However, he couldn't grant the annulment of Henry VIII's marriage, so he fell from his offices. Wolsey was the last medieval chancellor. He was a pluralist, which means that he held a lot of different positions. He built the largest palace in England - Hampton Court - in 1514. In 1529 it was confiscated by Henry VIII, who remodeled the palace adding new facilities. During Henry VIII's reign the Catholic Church determined the organization of the state. In 1529-30s the king took some measures that removed Church of England from the Church of Rome. In 1530 he passed Mortuaries Act, Probate Act and Act Against Pluralism and Non-Residence. These were acts against the Pope. The king wanted money, so he attacked the church - the dissolution of English monasteries was a way of acquiring funds. The disappearance of the monasteries reduced the power of the Church. In 1540 Protestant ideas became more popular. First, the Bible was officially imprinted and translated by Coverdale in 1538. Coverdale was supported by Thomas Cromwell. The idea that the individual should have access to the Holy Scripture arrived. The publication of the Bible began the printing tradition. Bibles were expensive, so only wealthier merchant families could afford them. Discussions on the Bible became outside the framework of the church. Male population in larger cities could read. The only thing that changed in the structure during Henry VIII'reign was the cut of the responsibility of the Archbishop of Canterbury. In 1547 Chantries Act was passed. Chantries were founded either by individuals, guilds, or corporations, chantries were endowments for offering masses for the soul's repose in purgatory. The act forbade these practices and it was impossible to buy a way out. In 1549 Act of Uniformity was passed. It stated that all people had to worship according to the Book of Common Prayer. The rest of the books were forbidden. Henry VIII formed National Church. All men were unified in their belief. The National Church reinforced new king of monarchy that intended to control all the country. To do that he set up council so he could have control in the distant places. There were great changes in the government. The majority of population lived in houses that contained one room. Landowning classes lived in halls (large rooms), usually built of wood. Halls could be also parts of castles. It was a place where daily life took place - meeting place. By the end of Middle Ages, there were also some small chambers. The peasantry lived in one, wooden room covered with wattle and daub (mud). Peasants' huts had doorway and a hole from which smoke escaped. Probably, there were no tables, only wooden stools. People slept on straw mattresses. At the end of Middle Ages new kinds of housing were built. Many landowners were rebuilding their halls. Manors houses appeared. In the 15th cent. in richer parts of England halls were changed into manors made of bricks, where separate chambers were built. Different rooms were built for different functions. Members of family began to sleep in different rooms. Chimneys began to be built. Also, windows were being installed, later they were becoming larger. Thanks to glass windows, the interior of the house was lighted. Artificial lightning was still a problem till 17th cent. the furniture also became more complex. Beds were first used by the gentry. Bed linen was also from 15th cent. increasingly a feature, even for wealthier peasants. People began to use spoons. By the 16th cent. also plates and forks were used. People began to acquire more cooking pots made of metal. By 15th cent. there were certain regulations concerning cleaning the town. Municipal Ordinances at Leicester 1466-67: preventing people from throwing rubbish on the streets, not allowed to do washing on the streets. There were financial penalties for that, but also imprisonment was possible. Food was ameliorating with housing conditions. Almost all population produced their own food. The landowners from an early part of Middle Ages ate a lot of meat. They ate also a lot of white bread. Monasteries had fishponds in order to have fish when the diet was required. Up to 14th cent. peasants produced more differentiated food. The poultry, however, was usually for the market. By the 16th cent. black bread was disappearing. So, there were little proteins and fruits in diet. Dairy products were very popular. People of all classes were drinking beer in large quantities. The aristocrats, however, imported wines from France. In late 14th cent. people were complaining about peasantry eating bread. There was law passed attempting to promote more modest diet for the peasants. There were also changes in fashion. Many people made clothes themselves. Hygiene involved in clothing was also an important matter. Certain instructions on how to deal with clothes and what to do after waking up were passed. Lower classes weren't allowed to wear clothes inappropriate for their state (only 12 shilling clothes could be worn by them, not more expensive than that). The English earned their living primarily from the agriculture. The number of people increased - Gregory King was the first English statistitian. By 1688 about 75% of the population lived in the villages and in hamlets. Over half of the people was unable to "live of their income". There were: the labouring poor, the deserving poor, the undeserving poor. Also: temporal lords, gentlemen families, freeholders ("better sort), freeholders ("lesser") and farmers. After the end of feudalism, the main way of getting the land was by purchasing it by money or renting it. The yeomen farmers from 1485 began to grow in consequence, they became the gentry (the lesser landowners). They dressed like gentlemen and became wealthier. There was also a great price rise - the beginning of inflation, the price of commodities and agricultural goods as well rose and it lasted for about a hundred years. People who owned land were able to become rich. In the 16th-17th cent. grammar schools usually were founded by wealthier individuals or companies. Education was being treated as a medium for the transfer of ideology (ideas about society's organization). Many of the grammar schools fell into the hands of Puritan headmasters. They taught pupils particular view of the world. Many religious quarrels were, thus, transferred to schools. Puritans were the first who taught their daughters to read and write. After the Restoration, ideological aims in schools were outside the established framework. Reformation - the division of Christendom into protestant and catholic (16th cent.). Protestanism rejected the catholic belief that salvation comes through grace received in sacraments. It restricted the church's role. The Church of England was protestant and established in 1559. Henry VIII's failure to secure papal annulment of his first marriage led to the break with the papacy during 1532-6. Cold war with Rome began. Henry wanted to divorce his first wife, Catherine of Aragon, because she didn't gave a birth to a male decedent. They had only a daughter - Mary. Thomas Cromwell (new king's royal officer after Wolsey) was a master of the king's jewel house and principal royal secretary. He was also a pluralist. Cromwell was trained in administration in a new way. He had a commercial background. He recruited a number of young humanist writers, whose propaganda pieces criticized both the papacy and some aspects of the old cults, such as papal indulgences. Henry VIII detested Luther, who was German Reformation leader. Henry VIII and Cromwell confiscated the land of English monasteries. The king wanted to make money that way. Henry VII imposed also stamp duty which meant that dangerous "ideas couldn't be published". It was a way of prosecuting people for saying something untrue, especially about politicians or political structures. Thus the state took monopoly on ideas. In 1534 - the Act of Supremancy. This Act, claimed to "confirm and corroborate" the right of the king to be supreme head on earth of the church of England. The title of supreme head was abolished by Mary I in 1554-5, to be replaced under Elizabeth by different title of Supreme Governor. In 1540 the king sold most of the monastic land to anyone who could afford buying it. People did everything they could to buy the king's land, they often borrowed money. The second Henry's wife, Anne Boleyn, also gave birth only to a daughter - Elizabeth. Soon, Anne was accused of witchery and was executed. Then, Henry VIII had another wife - Jane Seymour, who finally had a son. But she died during giving birth to her son - Edward. Cromwell married a Protestant - Anne of Cleves. In 1549 Cranmer's "Book of Common Prayer" was published. Meanwhile royal commissioners stripped churches of most of the ornaments and furniture associated with the old cult. In 1552 a revision of the Prayer Book simplified the apparatus of worship to the barest protestant essentials. 3 field medieval system - the best-known system was the common, or open field, system of farming in which the land of a particular parish was divided into two, three, four or even more fields depending on local conditions. Enclosures - the process of enclosing land into private holdings was a development from the system of open field farming. Enclosure changed agricultural practices which had operated under systems of co-operation in communally administered landholdings. Instead, agricultural landholdings were created which were non-communal, and within man-made boundaries which separated one farm from another. In the 16th cent. landlords tried to enclose their land in order to keep more sheep. This process was condemned by the church and opposed by the government. But government's opposition was breaking down and many enclosures "by agreement" took place. Enclosures were demands of the gentry. There were many people who didn't fit into the society's model. Some of them became beggars, because they couldn't earn their living the other way. They were a social problem. By contrast, many wealthy yeomen emerged. Some people left their villages and moved to towns, but there quite often ended up on the streets as regulations concerning the number of apprentices etc. made it impossible for them to find a job. Vagabonds - people who had no fixed place and no fixed income. They were just wandering in groups begging at the door, often in a threatening way. Several acts of Parliament were passed on how to prevent vagabonds. Leicester's advice to Town Clerk of Warwick was to force the poor to work by setting up the factories and small workshops. In 16th cent. if a man was fit, he was obliged to work and to support his living. Beggars were perceived as idle people and they were often associated with criminal. Beggars' Act was passed by Henry VIII in 1536 and it said that beggars could be imprisoned. Yet, charity to the poor also appeared in the form of alms. Almshouses, also known as bede-houses, were houses to provide accommodation for aged or frail people. The were established at a time when there was no alternative welfare provision. The origin of almhouses lay in medieval monasteries, which built houses from which alms and hospitality were dispensed. The religious link remained, these houses were often intended to contain small communities who had to pray regularly for the benefactor (wealthier men, private companies). Most cities of the 16th cent. built hospitals as well where the poor could be kept. However, the act criticized these private charities. Dole was a handout of money. Common boxes and common gathering were only responsible for giving money, but doles were forbidden. In 1563 Statue of Artificers was set up. All unmarried persons below 30 who'd received craft training couldn't refuse to serve if requested, those between 12 and 60 had to serve in husbandry were defined, and unmarried women between 12 and 40 could also be made to serve. If anyone refused, he/she could be imprisoned. Poor Law - each member of the parish had to pay a tax of 1/10, a tithe, of their income to the church. The parish in which you were born was responsible to maintain you if you were unable yourself (overseer). Parishers were to collect a tax from property owners. The parish had to build a workhouse where the poor worked. If a beggar was found in the town, he could be sent back to the parish where he was born. Workhouses were usually unpleasant places. The food was terrible and the death rate was very high. The 16th cent. brought the amelioration of the agriculture, farming techniques, but also introduced new crops. Civil war also brought some changes - Oliver Cromwell imposed on royalists the fines, so they had to pay for their land. He was general and lord protector. He completely changed the ancient frame of government, reforming Parliament and imposing a written constitution. By conquest he incorporated the separate kingdoms of Scotland and Ireland into single commonwealth with England. On the land there was a greater social differentiation - increased prosperity and consumption in the countryside. By the middle 16th cent. merchants established contact over the world. Cabot John and Sebastian were merchants, who discovered Newfoundland - merchant adventures began. A variety of charters was established - they traded gold and iron in Africa. The North Sea Company traded with the Baltic in timber and commodities to produce ships. East India Company - formed in 1599 to compete with the Dutch for the trade of the spice islands. The company searched mostly for spices, but also for the textiles and other luxury commodities. The company began to acquire a territorial empire in India. These chartered companies made enormous profit. Main purpose of sea expansion was trade. Overseas trade stimulated industry. The East India Company took finally the Indian administration. An act was passed that said the British were responsible for the business in India. All kinds of metalworking industries were set up in old monasteries. Gentlemen farmers became wealthier, people began to use cutlery. Also, luxury items (e.g. silver) were produced, furniture. The number of manufacturers left agriculture. The medieval system of control, of guilds, was under pressure from new manufacturers who wanted to produce new products. Many new professions appeared. There was also a conflict between guild members and new manufacturers, whole society and the government. The centralized system was attacked at the end of the 16th cent. Chartered monopolies appeared during the Elizabethan period. Irritated by the old guild system the country party (gentry and farmers) stood up against the restrictions like enclosures. It was also against the monopoly charters. In 1648 Parliament passed an Act - anyone could settled in any town and begin any kind of manufacture. It was the end of guild system. The emergence of possibilities of lending and borrowing money was seen in the development of banking system. The church was against of usury - lending money for producing more money - but new economy couldn't handle without it. Bess of Hardwick set up a small bank and lend money. Money was also deposed at goldsmiths. Soon, they issued banknotes. In 1688 banking practices emerged. Privy Council replaced too big council, so it was a smaller group of advisers. To a considerable extent this was the work of Thomas Cromwell. It became the work-horse of late Tudor government. In 1649 it was replaced by a Council of State, but it was then restored and was continued by Charles II. Learned Council met separately from the rest of council. They met in Star Chamber - a chamber with a starred ceiling, built in Westminister. Under the Tudors it was a court controlling "over-mighty subjects". The advisors generally dealt with the questions of law, but also economy and other legal matters. They began to keep records. The clerks kept a minute book - reasons and decisions were recorded, references were possible to be made. Thus Privy Council couldn't so easily forget about their previous decisions. William Cecil was a great minister during Elizabeth's reign. He was holding an office of a secretary. Secretaries of State developed from clerks, and they organized business. The Tudors' main problem was who was going to inherit the throne, but also financing the royal court was a very serious problem. Feudal system gave some profit, but there was no regular source of income. Henry VII initiated force laws - tax imposed on all classes. Yet, Henry VIII executed the two main tax collectors (sheriffs) in order to show he was going to be a different kind of king. The institution of a sheriff disappeared. Under Elizabeth I, however, the financial problems reappeared. Privy council, later the Parliament, were mostly concentrating on royal finances. The Tudors were responsible for a great centralization of the government. Morton's fork - Morton said if people had built new houses or showed off with their wealth, they must have had a lot of money. New kind of fork was introduced. Lord Lieutenant was an important royal officer in the country who was to make sure that central policies were put into effect. Council of the North was the chief arm of government in the northern shires. Justices of the peace had a judicial function of the administration and criminal justice, before they were called the conservators of the peace. In addition, they were used to administer the Poor Laws and to oversee the whole of local government. The king began to choose judges. "Book of the Justice of the Peace" was published; if somebody caught criminal, he could send him to courts. Through 16-18th cent. real witnesses were needed. Still, torture was a mean of extracting confession. Also, written records were being collected. Puritans didn't like it, and finally in 1688 tortures were abolished. In 1534 Treason Act was passed. Another in 1571.By the end of 17th cent. when churches took some criminal matters, towns began to elect watch committees. They were supposed to look for the criminals. Thomas More was a lawyer, humanist, and amateur theologian. He was the king's chancellor, who introduced most of legislation t the Parliament. However, his defence of Roman catholic cause brought about his downfall. He wrote "Utopia", which described an imaginary land whose inhabitants shaped their lives by natural reason, and this made his literary reputation. He also tried to persuade Henry to take Catherine back, and to persecute heretics, until failure forced his resignation in 1532. More finally spoke out in defence of the papacy, and was executed in 1535. Act of Annates - 1532-34, "Annates" were taxes levied by the papacy on recently appointed clergy. The act required that these payments be suspended. After the pope had excommunicated Henry, the act abolished annates entirely. So, it was impossible to send money to Rome and appeal to Rome against royal decisions. Mary came to the throne and attempted to restate the Catholic Church. The majority of politicians was ready to come back to catholic church. Committees - members sat privately discussing the bills, suggesting legislations, setting matters they themselves wanted to discuss. In Hall's Chronicle in 1529 appeared the first signs of the committees. Division in the House appeared and the numbers for and against were counted for the first time. The division was conducted by a member of Parliaments - exact voting figures. Voting took place by leaving the chamber by two separate doors. In 1558 Elizabeth came to the throne. She had two important problems - religious question and her own marriage. She returned to the "comprise church". Radical Protestantism in the second half of the 16th cent. began. The largest number of the member of the House of Commons were chartered by the queen. Also, voting system consolidated. People began to be expelled from the Parliament if calling names and using bad language. However, the king or the queen couldn't punish members of the Parliament because of what they said in the House of Commons. Through the 18th cent. the Elizabethan Poor Law was collapsing. Until the time of industrial revolution, this law was no longer adequate. However, a new problem appeared, i.e. cyclical unemployment. As the trade cycle moved, the prices rose etc. In 1844 Poor Law Reform Act was passed forcing the poor to work. Edwin Chadwick was a reformer. In 1832 he was appointed to the Poor Law Commission and the following year to the commission on children in factories. His influence on both reports was great and he was made secretary to the Poor Law Commission in 1834, a post which brought him savage criticism. Unions of parishes were established; each of which was supposed to have a commissioner. From 1844 no outdoor relief in workhouse could be achieved. The workers had to deal with a very boring and tiring job, such as stone breaking or picking oakum (rope from ships). It was believed that if life was less eligible, the poor would be more stimulated. However, as a result of terrible conditions many people were sick and unfit to work, the rest was on the other hand too old to do any kind of work. What's more, single mothers were forced to work more than the others, because they were perceived as a group that needs more stimulation to change their lives. Families were broken in workhouses. Friendly societies (benefit societies) of working men grew rapidly in the 18th cent. In return for a small weekly or monthly contribution paid into common fund, they provided sickness and funeral benefits. Originally, these societies consisted of no more than 100 members, but in the 19th cent. it changed and there were about 4 millions. In 1815 Odd Fellows collected money and paid sick alliances. Their organization tended to unity more. Puritans - during the reign of the catholic Mary Tudor many English Protestants went into exile on the continent, where they experienced forms of worship which were "purer" than those prescribed in the Prayer Book because they contained virtually no trace of Catholicism. Returning to England at the beginning of Elizabeth's reign, they hoped to create an established church closer to continental models, but the queen insisted on a comprehensive settlement. Puritans had developed a new technique of keeping the records. The Puritan committees met in private houses - meeting houses. Puritanism didn't have an organizational structure. Gathered churches - people beginning to build their churches. The reading of the Bible was characteristic of Puritans. They believed in a form of predestination. They believed that they couldn't be part of Heaven by what they did on Earth. They were elected and chosen by God at the very beginning. It was demonstrated by certain processes, e.g lightning, they once woke up and knew they'd been chosen. Also, certain patters of behavior could show whether someone was elected by god or not. The Puritans were convinced that they were absolutely right and that they were able to determine state organization. They believed they were important political force. Crucifixes were removed from the churches. Priests didn't wear different vestments, but simple and black. The Puritan Articles in Convocation in 1563: abolishing saint days, only Sunday and good Friday (no Christmas or Easter to be celebrated as holidays); the religious ceremonies should be led by priests looking towards the people, communicating with them; the ceremony of baptism and making the cross on the child's forehead was to be omitted; symbols abolished; ordinary black underwear of the priests, no elaborate and colored clothes; musical instruments removed, because they removed thoughts from people who rather concentrated on music. Puritanism was a revolutionary movement. They also didn't like idleness, they approved discipline. In the 16th cent. marriage was treated in a new way. Puritan period placed great emphasis on marriage as a spiritual matter. Priests were allowed and even expected to marry. The knights were no longer required for military techniques. Apprenticing for children, however, continued. Domestic union became a place of worship as well as the place of earning the living. The Puritans prayed at home, A father was the head of a family. A lot of Puritan writers praised families. They were very concerned with shaping a child's character - spiritual responsibility. Political ideas split from religion. There was no longer any outside authority. Yet, religious movements were still popular. The movements that led to the revolution in the 17th cent. were apart from the Puritans, Presbyterians, Congregationalists, Baptists, Quakers. These groups after the Restoration were politically disadvantaged. Presbyterians were supporters of Calvinism, preaching the doctrine of the elect and advocating church government by a hierarchy of courts. Ultimate authority was the Bible and services gave great prominence to teaching. Congregationalists were one of the main protestant dissenting sects. Since they believed strongly in the autonomy of each congregation, they were also known as independents or separatists. The first congregations were established in the late 16th cent. and increased during the Civil War period. Baptists formed one of the main protestant groups, holding that baptism should be undertaken by adults who could understand that ceremony, and that it should involve total immersion in water. The first Baptist community was formed in 1612 in London and the movement spread rapidly. The writings of John Bunyan in the Restoration period gained for Baptists widespread respect. Quakers or Society of Friends, originated during the religious tumult of the 1650s , and had no formal ministry or service. They professed the principle of the "inner light", a sense of the direct working of Christ. Their refusal t pay tithes, insistence upon addressing everyone as thou, refusal to doff hats to authority, and the extravagant behavior of some members, shocked a hierarchical society, and they were fiercely persecuted before and after Restoration. Quakers refused military service, but were helpful in medical corps. Dissenters (non-conformists) refused to take 39 articles of church. Later, they were called Old Dissent Movement. Gradually they dropped their revolutionary ideas. Through the 18th cent. members of these groups became rich, e.g many Quaker families were involved in banking (Llyod), Cadbury became known for chocolate production etc. They were also interested in education, setting up Dissenting Academy that were working outside the framework of Oxford or Cambridge University. The Act of Uniformity in 1662 excluded dissenting ministers from their posts. Many, out of necessity, became teachers. These academies were much used by nonconformists who couldn't take the oaths at Oxford or Cambridge. The term dissent is reserved for those who didn't conform to the Church of England and, though this included catholics, it's usually confined to protestant groups. The seed time for nonconformity was the Civil War. The confused situation gave dissenting sects the opportunity to establish themselves. Occasional conformity was when somebody was going to church only ocassionaly, for example, to take communion, in order to take part in public life. So the government passed an act forbidding occasional conformity. Unitarians denied the deity of Christ. They believed that only the Father should be worshipped, but their attitude to Jesus varies, reflecting their application of reasoned individual judgment to the Bible, and their reluctance to formulate creeds. Their views developed with the Reformation. They produced a distinctive social, political, and intellectual culture. The church of England wasn't really interested in these idea, it became church of state. It restored after 1660. Priests had hardly any theological knowledge, but the salary was large. They took a degree at the University of Oxford without attending the lectures. Curate - paying instead of university degree. The Church of England was a rural organization, so the countrymen treated it as a public center. In 1660 Indemnity Act was passed. Restorations after long exiles usually disappoint the loyalists since there are so many claims to be rewarded. In the 17th cent. the attention was shifted from God to man. It was man who was to take decisions. These ideas were the backbone of Puritanism. In 1641 - "If we make a parity in the church, we must at last come to a parity in the commonwealth". The organization in the church was democratic, bishops disappeared. The records from the House of Commons were kept in secret. In the 17th cent. also clear political parties appeared. Elizabeth died in 1603 and she was the last Tudor. She was succeeded by James VI, the king of Scotland. The 17th cent. was the last period when kings and queens actually mattered in terms of the government. After Elizabeth's dead, Parliament was the major institution. Elizabeth ruled the country by Privy Council and her major problem was money gathering. William Cecil and his son helped her a lot in governing England - they were giving jobs, organizing parties to support the Crown. In 1603 James VI arrived from Scotland, which was a very poor country. Scottish economy was very primitive, so James had no experience in running complex government. The Puritans brought him up. He was convinced that the king had divine rights, so he brought these ideas to England and wrote a book "Basilikon Doron" where he described this concept of divinity. James was not very skillful or attractive. He found many difficulties in managing and he loved extravagancy, mostly because in Scotland he didn't have much luxury. He run into huge debts (doubled Elizabeth's debts in two years). Parliament became very critical about the king, more and more demands were made by the members of the House in Commons. Grievances were mainly connected with economic problems. Question of monopolies were discussed. Individual charters paid money to the king in order to have right to produce something individually. 1612-24 - Acts passed against the monopolies. In 1604 a new aristocratic title was introduced - baronet. James was selling these titles in order to have money for the army. Baronets were hereditary knights and remained commoners. Thus they were eligible for membership of the House of Commons. The Puritans wanted James to involve in 30 years war in Europe, but the king refused. Soon he agreed, however, to take part in a Protestant course - he married a Protestant and started the Hanoverian dynasty. By 1620s James's son, Charles, decided to get married to Spanish Princess in order to cope with the financial problems. Yet, it didn't work out. England started to fight with Spain and hoped that this way they would gain money. Charles agreed to abolish monopolies and many other grievances. In 1624 the House of Common understood his influence and the force of pressure they had on the king (thanks to the king's financial problems). In 1625 Charles succeeded to the throne. He couldn't rely on Parliament and the Parliament refused to give the king any money. Poundage was a tax on goods. In 1628-39 Charles ruled without Parliament. He believed that the Parliament was a nuisance and he was also convinced about the divine rights of the king. Archbishop Laud was the high of the Church of England. He opposed the Puritans and believed he could be useful to the king. In 1625 he went over the king's side and became his principal secretary. Charles also sold monopolies, titles, charters etc. Yet, he went too far with these policies and he antagonized even the merchants. West India Company was primarily for the king, but the whole situation with selling charters put them against the Crown. Ship money were money for ships that could be used in war. Yet, Charles had difficulties in collecting the money. John Hanten, for example, refused to pay and he was sent to prison. John Knox was a Scottish protestant preacher. In England, his powerful preaching and extreme reliance on biblical authority established his radical credentials. He was driven into exile Mary Tudor and this contributed to the development of his powerful political edge. He wrote a diatribe against female rule. On Elizabeth's accession, Knox returned to Scotland where he raised a protestant rebellion against the regent, Mary of Guise (queen of James V of Scotland). He also wrote books attacking the Stuarts. In 1639 the English Book of Common Prayer was introduced in Scotland. Covenant - an agreement amongst Calvinist lords. The Scots army began to move South. Charles's army couldn't, however, be sent from England as the king had no money. He called Parliament, but they refused to give him any financial support. The Scots finally occupied a castle and asked 100 pounds in order not to move further. Charles called the Parliament for the second time. Long Parliament - 1640-60. A bill was passed forbidding the dissolution of Parliament without its own consent - Act of Parliament. Act of Parliament was accepted by the House of Commons and the House of Lords. Further Acts, in mid 1641, abolished the instruments of prerogative rule (royal councils), outlawed prerogative taxation, and provided for triennial parliaments (Trennial Act), thereby restoring the traditional constitution. They also questioned the king's right to call the army. In 1640s two parties emerged: Court Party and Country Party - those who opposed the feudal monarchy and demanded limitations on the king. In 1641 there was a revolt on the Island. The king wanted to get the army together and because of that Parliament passed an act that the king cannot call the army. In 1641-42 Parliament needed money for civil war, so they passed an Act and developed ways in which wealth came from, e.g. trade. Tax divisions - new administration. They used people's income and they collected money from all social classes. By 1644 Cromwell reorganized parliamentary army and became its leader. New Model Army was created by the Long Parliament early in 1645 out of three existing armies. The new army represented the Cromwell's triumph in his political struggle against Essex and Manchester and, under the generalship of Sir Thomas Fairfax, vanquished the king's forces at Naseby. New Model Army comprised of people who really wanted to fight and weren't forced to do that. The army had a democratic structure (modern forms of training were employed). After New Model Army's victory, rich merchants and tradesmen chose representatives to the House of Commons. They didn't want to change its nature. Cromwell became the leader because of his involvement in reforming the army. In the past, he was fined for refusing of taking the title of baronet. He was involved in battles against chartering; he had a lot conflict with Stuart monarchy. He was the most responsible for democratization of the army. From 1648 England was governed by the "Rump" of the Long Parliament, which executed the king, abolished the monarchy and House of Lords, and declared a republic. Cromwell called in troops to expel the Rump in 1653. After 1659 the army generals recalled the Rump. In 1660 the Long Parliament voted to dissolve itself. John Pym was a Parliamentarian. One of the few members of the Commons who realized that poverty was driving Charles I into arbitrary rule, Pym consistently argued the case for restoring the crown's finances. He also believed that Charles was opening the door to Catholicism. In 1643 he persuaded members to impose an excise to meet the costs of war and to accept the Solemn League and Covenant as the price of Scottish support. He was also a merchant involved in the West India Company. Levellers was a popular democratic movement emerged in 1647, whose principle was that all men and women are born equal, and are rightfully subject to no authority except by agreement and consent. They were the first to criticize the public attitude towards certain problems. The Levellers claimed that begging and vagabondage was the result of the society. They wanted the state to provide pensions for the poor and for the old. They brought a revolutionary Agreement of the People before army's general council in the Putney debates. The army set itself up at Putney and began to discuss constitutional issues. Implying the abolition of monarchy and the House of Lords, the agreement proposed that popularly elected parliaments should wield supreme authority. They also claimed that Parliament should meet every two years. Also, free education and free social care for everybody. Their views were extremely radical. Diggers were small communistic groups, active in 1649-50, sometimes calling themselves True Levellers. According to them God made the earth to be a common treasury; property and man's subjection to man were results of the Fall. It was a rather primitive communal movement. During the Cromwell's protectorate, he had very similar problems with the Parliament. Cromwell divided the country into 12 military districts - Major General. Each district was under the direct rule of a major-general, and was in a part a consequence of the breakdown of the Instrument of Government. The emergency measure was deeply resented by many of the local gentry, the natural rulers of the shires, and the major-generals were bitterly attacked as men of low birth. By the end of 1650s those who fought against the king were disillusioned by the effect of the revolution. In 1660 Cromwell died and his son didn't succeed him. Charles II came back and ruled England. The Restoration of the monarchy in 1660 was due more to failure of alternative republican regimes than to the efforts of royalists. Restoration meant the return of legality, ending arbitrary or "sword" government and changes enforced by a politicized army. Parliament passed an act, which restored the position of the church. The Puritans removed from the center of power and again began to gather in privacy. They were able to develop educational system of their own. Parliaments were again to be elected on the traditional franchises and by the old constituencies. The Lords returned. Levels of taxation fell sharply as most of the army was disbanded. Religious sects appeared as the religion itself disappeared as a part of political ideas. It was then just a background. After Charles's death, his brother - James - began to rule the country. In 1661 a Corporation Act was passed. Persons holding municipal office were obliged to qualify by taking communion with the Church of England. Thus only members on the Church of England could take part in public life. Members of other religions couldn't be in Parliament, town council etc. In 1661-62 the Parliament established a return t old charters. It was possible to vote for 40-shilling freeholders who owned or rented the land worth 2 pounds per year. Thus landowners could vote, but all election system depended on the property. Burgage - if you owned a particular house, the vote went with that house. Corporation - council voted depending on property. In 1688 he was brought from the country and replaced by Mary and her husband William of Orange. The power of king was restricted; the power of Parliament in financial matters was confined. After 1668 when William of Orange the throne, there was septennial parliament. Exclusion Bill - a period of intense political strife during 1679-81 generated by the attempt to bar Charles II's catholic brother James, from the succession. Charles had no legitimate children. Yet, the government didn't want a Roman Catholic on the throne, so they excluded James.
The 18th and 19th century
In the 18th cent. the role of the universities was reduced. In 1800 the University of Oxford introduced the modern form of examination - written and oral. The Restored Parliament represented men of substantial property. Those who didn't have any property weren't allowed to take part in the government. James II passed an act against petitions, so ordinary people lost their rights. In 1715 a Riot Act was passed. It provided that, if 12 or more persons refused to disperse within one hour of a magistrate reading a proclamation, they would be guilty and could face the death penalty. It was supposed to prevent riots, but actually prevented meetings. Ordinary people couldn't discuss their views and debate on the way the country was governed. House of Commons was more and more chosen through the agency of money. It was easy to control the elections. Elections fell into the hands of wealthy men. Rotten boroughs were towns which existed in the Middle Ages and which ceased to exist by the 18th cent., e.g. Old Swum. In the 18th cent. it was the House of Commons the wealthy men wanted to control, not the House of Lords. Rich landowners, who had profitable estates, were often related to groups of merchants (oligarchy). They had their own concepts of political parties - Court Party and Country Party. During the reign of Charles II the two parties emerged: one which consisted of those who supported the king and the other one which consisted of people supporting the landowners. In 1681 these parties had names and structures. The Tories supported the king during the Exclusion crisis. They believed in king's divine rights and entailed a deep attachment to the Anglican church. James II's Catholicism forced them into choosing between their king and their church, and though most chose the latter. The Tories were more at ease under Queen Anne (1702-14), whom they regarded as a legitimate successor of James II. The Whigs supported the Parliament. They saw authority stemming from the people, a "contract" existing between them and their king, whom they might resist if he overrode their interests. The Whigs supported the Hanoverian succession and they opposed James II and prerogative monarchy as well. These political parties remained until 1840s. James II, however, had a son, which meant catholic succession. The child was known as Warming Pan. After its birth, the opponents of James II invited William of Orange and Mary to take the throne. After 1688 when William came to the throne, he relied on political group that was against monarchy. Queen Anne succeeded him. Later, came the Hanoverian king - George I in 1714. The Tories were pushed to sidelines at that time. In 1715 the Tories supported an uprising made by the Stuarts. However, through the 18th cent. the Whigs were the only existing party in the Parliament. Patronage - the king's ministers offered paid jobs to the members of the House of Commons in order to the loyal behavior to the king. Hence, many jobs became obsolete. Bounties was money paid by the government to exporters of grain. Cabinet Parliament was the executive committee of the government, appointed by the prime minister. It evolved out of Privy council, which had become too large. Robert Walpole was the first prime minister. He was the Whig MP for Castle Rising. His first posts were as secretary at war and treasurer of the navy. In 1710 he was impeached for corruption by the Tories and sent to the Tower. Later expelled from Parliament. At the Hanoverian succession he rejoined the government as paymaster-general, becoming the First Lord of Treasury and the Exchequer in 1715. Walpole's major contribution to politics was his development of the cabinet system (he decided who should be a minister and he advised the king; all ministers had to agree to the policies put forward), of the "party of the crown" (which he based on the work of Haley) through extensive use of patronage, and the Commons as the center of Parliamentary power. Walpole became known as a good orator, he had a talent to persuade people. He invested a lot of money in enterprises and at the end paid the army. This gave him a status of a good manager. He was also given a sit in the House of Lords and became known as the lord of Oxford. Walpole provided jobs to all his friends. He established himself as a successful politician. The production of gin developed in the 18th century. The gin became popular and was very cheap due to the industrial revolution. Britain had undergone changes in social and economic life - the transformation from a predominantly rural society whose major source of livelihood derived from the land, to a rapidly urbanizing country whose wealth came from commerce and manufacturing. Symbolic of the industrial revolution was the use of coal as a source of energy. The conversion of coal to coke made cheaper iron ore smelting possible and simultaneously produced town gas, used from the early 19th cent. Private companies were giving gas. Coal-fuelled boilers provided steam-power (first engines were stationary) for mines, factory machinery, and locomotives (in 1829 Stephenson invented it), making speed and repetitive activities less arduous and greatly augmenting output. Particularly associated with such changes were cotton textiles (climate good for cotton), made cheaply in large quantities. Steam engine was a real innovation. James Wat made scientific instruments and he is supposed to be the inventor of the steam engine. He took patent on it. It also ameliorated heavy industry. Many new jobs were created between 18th and 19th cent. from the ever widening applications of technical innovations such as in gas-making, in the chemical industry, in canal and railway transport, and in textiles. New methods of industrial production also required many people to move to urban locations. Existing towns expanded rapidly, new towns emerged. Also, pottery industry developed and shoe making became mass production. Rapid urban growth posed many unforeseen problems of overcrowded houses, inadequate sanitation, and law and order. In the 1840s committees discussed in the House of Commons on a public health. In 1835 an act was passed that enabled town council to improve public health. Private companies should ask permission to build some drains etc. In 1765 an act for the cleaning and lighting of the streets, lanes and passages was employed. In 1864 a huge drain was along the Thames that took all rubbish and damped it into the river. In 1871-75 local government act stated that city councils were responsible for public health. 1875 - Public Health Act. Now the responsibility of housing and health was in the hands of local council. Back to back houses - rows of small houses along streets in red brick, usually uncomfortable. 1840s-50s - building societies appeared. From 1871 Council Housing was popular. Programme of slum clearance began. Municipal cemeteries began to be set up far from living districts in the 1870s-80s. Also, the water became cleaner - the arrival of the bathroom with piped water. Peabody built flats, which were regarded as temporary measures. In 1741 Bow Street Runners set up. They were constables attached to the Bow street Police Office, established by the magistrate John Fielding in the mid-18th cent. Seven police offices were established in London in 1792 on the Bow Street pattern. Valuable public servants but poorly paid, they were superceded by the Metropolitan Police Act in 1829. It was at first private police force and it didn't operate on impartial base. It was often used by wealthier classes. After Napoleonic wars debates n the status of the police began. People discussed whether it should be professional or not. Metropolitan Police set up in 1823 was the force under the control of home secretary. "Bobbies" were responsible for controlling London's streets and their name came after Robert Peel. In 1835 it was possible for town councils to set up their own police forces, which were responsible to Watch Committees. Criminal Law Reform - abolishing death penalty, introducing imprisonment. The criminals were also transported to Australia, which was far from Britain so they could easily come back home. By 1820s transportation wasn't the only way to deal with criminals. Jeremy Bentham was utilitarian and philosopher. He was highly critical of English law and devoted his life to systematizing it on the basis of utility. Bentham influenced the ideas of punishment with Utilitarianism. Utilitarianism was the moral philosophy which asserted that the maximization of happiness is the ultimate aim of all human conduct. He set up treadmill and believed that forcing people to do boring exercises will be perfect punishment. He also designed a prison in the shape of circle. Every county had to build county jail. After 1823 only murder was punished with death sentence. The support of overseas trade in India and on the African Coast rose increasingly. Also, the production of these colonies developed. The Whigs were interested in protecting the agriculture as well as in foreign policies. These policy issues had to be put in effect by controlling the House of Commons and the king with its court. There was also religious discrimination against nonconformists, many technological innovations in sources of power, and the rise of literacy. In 1701 Scotland and England united and formed the UK, which was the largest free trade area. Large workforce was available without any rise in wages in order to expand the production. The population was rising, although the health condition wasn't very good. After 1688 England became a very prosperous country due to overseas trade. It was no longer restricted to charter companies and it was open to anyone who wanted to do that. Triangula trade - metal products and gin -> West Coast of Africa (ivory, slaves) -> India (gold, ivory) -> exchange for textiles. Some traders also traveled to China. In West Indies, the slaves were exchanged for sugar. The infrastructure was stimulated by this trade voyages in the matter of insurance. Many people became merchants and wanted to travel by ships, because it was very profitable. Thanks to business in India, an interest in Indian culture increased. Also, Christian missionaries wanted to convert people there. The Methodist Missionary Society was set up in 1786 and the Baptist Missionary Society in 1792. The London Missionary Society was established in 1795, the Church Missionary Society in 1799, and the British and Foreign Bible Society (mostly printing bibles) in 1804. Later in the century, there was much missionary interest in Africa. There were voluntary societies, collecting money from their members. In India the impact of these missionary organizations was very strong. They were responsible for producing the tone of superiority and strict discrepancy between native and English administrators in India. The missionaries set up schools and medical centers, but they also demanded the natives to abandon their religious practices, e.g. suttee, which was a funeral ritual, or thuggee - attacking and scarifying travelers on their journeys. In 1857 soldiers of the Bengal army shot their British officers and marched on Delphi to restore the aged Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah, to power. The causes of the Indian mutiny lay in attempts to impose British-style army discipline. Afterwards, the British came to doubt the possibilities of a rapid social transformation and treated their Indian subjects with increasing suspicion. Cape Colony was established by the Dutch in mid 17th cent., but it was also used by the British. After Napoleonic wars, it became British. Up to about mid. 19th cent. the Dutch population of the Cape Colony weren't pleased to be under British control. In 1820s-30s they moved North and set up new settlements - Orange Free State. It was a former British colony in South Africa. It retained its independence until 1900 because of the absence of any resources which might attract the foreigners. Again, the missionaries in Africa began to convert people. In 1850s-60s there was popular interest in finding the river Nile. Many explorers emerged, e.g. Burton, Speke. In 1864 - a debate between Burton and Speke in Bath; Speke died after that. David Livingstone was a Scottish missionary and explorer. He arrived in South Africa to assist in the work of the London Missionary Society. His discoveries brought him fame in Britain and won him the support of the Royal Geographical Society. In 1878 Queen Victoria was declared empress of India. In the mid 18th cent. the British arrived in Canada, where they had conflict with the French. Australia was discovered by the Europeans in 1760s. Captain Cook claimed that Australia should be British colony. Botany Bay on the West Coast was a colony that grew its own food etc. In 1820s many free settlers began to move to Australia. Australia was becoming a sheep farming area. New Zeeland was also colonized in 1820s. However, in mid 19th cent. colonies began to be perceived as too expensive. The Conservative Party was interested in building empire - a colony as a relief for middle classes. Conflict between the Conservatives and the Liberals emerged. Imperial preference - colonies had preferential treatment. In 1870s gold and diamonds were discovered in Africa. Cecil Rhodes was imperialist and capitalist. He was sent out to Africa to help his lungs problems. He made huge fortune in diamonds and gold. He also became prime minister of the Cape. In 1899-1902 Britain fought against the Dutch in Africa. It was the first war in which volunteers fought and ideological framework was given. Many young men treated the war as a crusade defending British values. After 1902 the British won and established South Africa as a colony. There was an idea to build a railway from Cape to Cairo. Also Egypt was expanded as the route to India. Various engineers were thinking of building a canal; later a joined project with the French resulted in the Suez Canal. Charles Gordon was a British and Christian soldier. Seconded to the service in Egypt as governor of equatorial and then as governor-general of the Sudan, he mapped the upper reaches of the Nile. He returned to the Sudan in 1884 to evacuate Egyptian troops threatened by the forces of the Madhi, a Muslim revivalist. A relief force failed to arrive in time and Gordon was killed in 1885. He became a symbol of righteous missionary. A great deal of British people emigrated to Africa, while emigration to India was never encouraged. In 1907 Australia and New Zeeland achieved independence. Yet, there was still dominium, i.e. they were still in a way part of the British empire. Llyod's insurance - from the late 1600s to the late 1700s London coffee-houses were the center of social and business life. Merchants, bankers, and sea-farers met in Edward's Llyod's coffee-house in Lombard Street, where they undertook shipping business. Merchants prepared to take a share of a marine risk would write their names on a policy one beneath the other, becoming "underwriters". It was an informal association. Overseas travels stimulated also banking development. Many banks were opened at that time, issuing their own printing banknotes. The Bank of England was founded by the merchants of West India Company. A lot of private banking appeared. Stock exchange - the London Stock Exchange was founded in 1802, providing a mechanism for the increasing volume and complexity of financial transactions which had developed in the 18th cent. The scale of formal investment increased massively in the second half of the 19th cent., with a marked orientation towards international operations which the city of London retains. People were selling their shares on the streets. Stockbrokers grew in numbers. Transport was getting very difficult because of the climate - rainfalls were turning the roads into mud. However, the transport soon ameliorated and people began to travel by boats. Yet, the transport of goods was still difficult. Daniel Defoe wrote about the English roads in the 1730s. He made tour round Britain and described it in his book "A tour through the whole island of Great Britain". Toll roads were built. Turnpike trusts began to employ experts such as engineers etc. "Turnpikes" were a means of financing road maintenance by tolls charged on users, named from the gate used to restrict access. Also, bridges were built and coaches appeared so it was much easier to travel. Mass public transport developed. The main way of transport was the canals - artificial waterways built to carry mainly heavy goods. In the 1760s many companies joined the canals with rivers. Navigators were employed to construct these canals. Patents office - registering new methods, patents; mechanical innovations were introduced. In 1733 a mechanical way of weaving faster called flying shuttle was invented by James Kay. Cloths were produced faster and more regularly. In 1764 James Harglacley invented spinning jenny. A lot of spinning factories were set up. In 1794 Britain was involved in French Revolution. It stimulated the production market and pushed the manufacture to a very large extent. In most towns two connected processes took place: middle classes (manufacturing classes) began to move out of the center, moving to the West where suburbs and new housing districts were built. There were congregations in towns - the poor were living with their employers on a different floor or in annexes behind the houses. Later the classes separated and the middle classes moved to the West, while the poor were delivering them food and other goods. Middle class people had servants who had to bear specialized tasks within the household. Working classes separated from middle classes. The diet improved among all classes. The price of wheat fell. The arrival of teat and coffee enriched daily meals. Through 18th cent. tea was very expensive, but it was also fashionable. There was also agricultural revolution in the 18th cent. as more food was being produced. The process of enclosures was finally more or less completed. But it brought a lot of changes in organization of housing. Commissioners divided land. Crop rotation - new vegetables introduced, e.g. turnip from Holland. Two fields had crops and one field was left empty in order to recover. Turnip provided natural fertilization. The yields of corn grew. Also, instead of killing animals in the winter, people kept them feeding with turnip. Selective stock breeding meant new breeds of cattle and sheep that appeared on the market. There were also new techniques of breeding. Robert Balkewell raised a new breed of sheep. People began to pay more attention on breeds. In 1720 there was a major government crisis called South Sea Bubble. It was the collapse of the South Sea Company. Founded by Harley in 1711 as a Tory alternative to the Whig financial establishment, the company in 1719 proposed to take over 3/5 of the national debt. A fever of speculation followed and its shares rose from 130 per cent. to over 1000 per cent. in six months. Panic selling ensued and the market collapsed, ruining thousands of investors. When England lost the war with American colonies, the industrial revolution brought a movement for reform. In the Whig Party a reform movement was led by Edmund Burke and Charles Fox. Burke supported "Gradual change", but he was against revolution. Thomas Paine was a revolutionary activist and a radical writer. In 1774 he became involved in the American independence movement. Paine gave support to French revolution. He published "The Rights of Man" that were the opposition to Burke's "Reflections on the Revolution in France". Paine attacked Christianity and argued for the existence of the deity as a first cause. He later escaped to France, and eventually settled down in America. Radical movements became to grow. Corresponding societies consisted of the middle class radicals, who were using new techniques in organization. The most popular was the London Corresponding Society founded by Thomas Hardy in 1792. It was a society of working men. They wanted every man to have a vote. It was similar to Methodist church - branches were formed all over the country. The members met in the evenings and discussed various books, while illiterate people were taught to read. Francis Plate was a president of Corresponding Society. The ideas debated in the society concerned revolution in France. Educated class members supported it. These societies had branches in different towns and wrote to each other. Non-conformist movement began also a Methodist movement. It began as a religious revival in the 18th cent. and grew to become the largest of the nonconformist churches. Under the leadership of John Wesley, societies for cultivating religious fellowship were set up, intended originally as auxiliary to the established church, but soon forced into independence by the hostility of the clergy. The movement grew rapidly from the 1740s and developed distinctive institutions, notably the weekly class meeting of 10-12 members and an itinerant body of lay preachers, who visited the societies, preaching in the homes of members and in the open air. However, the movement didn't have an enormous impact on society, but introduced many practical methods of interaction. John Wesley was a founder of Methodism. He preached his first sermon outside the church. His aim was to convert pagans. For 50 years he traveled all over Britain on horseback preaching thousands of sermons. Wesley wished Methodism to remain within the Church of England, but this was not possible, so he start to break from it. However, the ideas of the church stayed more or less the same. One man at the top appointed superintendence who was in charge of circuit of Methodist churches. The Methodist Church was highly centralized and the ideas of teaching were controlled from the top. They put Christian beliefs into practice. Bible reading groups appeared and they contributed to the development of education. They also sent some leaflets by post. The Methodists published many protests against alcohol. They encouraged people to give up drinking. They had pledge and expected all men to sign it. Men were supposed to pay if they didn't keep their promises not to drink. The Methodists wanted not to be associated with revolutionary ideas. In 1802 there was a law that made all religious beliefs possible in the army. It was a result of the Methodists' influence. In the 18th/19th cent. another movement appeared within a framework of church and it was called Clapham sect. It succeeded in the abolishment of the slave trade in 1807 and of slavery itself in Britain in 1833. William Wilberforce was an evangelical philanthropist and anti-slavery campaigner, connected with the sect. In 1820 Church Building Society was established by the members of the Clapham sect. Also, there was Evangelical movement that appeared in the 1830s and wanted to convert people. In opposition to it, Tractorian movement was founded. Its name came from "Tracts for the Times" of Oxford high churchmen. The movement occupied mostly in publishing various documents. The impact of the churches on social and political life was undermined. In the 19th cent. the ideas of progress of man became more crucial than theology. Secular effort could bring better society. Material things were more important than spiritual ones, mostly because of the Darwin's "Origin of Species" published in 1859. It was a turning point in the ideas of evolution. When he published the book, many radical religious thinkers began to discuss. Society was evolving to some better stage of organization. John Wilkes was the central figure in a number of constitutional disputes which extended the political rights of ordinary citizens. He was arrested after the publication in 1763 a document in which he criticized the king. He was also expelled from the House of Commons. This article appeared in "North Briton" and was burnt in public. During 1763-80s petitions were sent to the Parliament demanding freedom for Wilkes. Until 19th cent. large number of people produced their own food, e.g. merchants kept cows and pigs in the yards by the house. Milkmen were perceived as people who were dishonest, profiting in a not exactly honest way. During the time of industrial revolution, work moved out of home. Factory owners had their offices in factories.
The 19th and 20th century
In 19th cent. women sat at home and had actually nothing to do. Property passed to husband, although there was a movement that tried to allow women to have their own property - Married Women's Property Act. The act in 1882 stated that wives could acquire, hold, use, and dispose of their husbands' property. It also tackled the question of divorce. First divorce was possible for men. In 1923 Divorce Act was passed and made it possible for both sexes to divorce. 19th cent. still saw marriage as a permanent contract. The state began to be interested in who got married. Up to 1836 there was no civil legislation about marriages. Before there was age constraint - a man had to be 14 years old and a woman 12 years old in order to get married. In 1909 state said that there was minimum age for marriage - 16 years old. In industrialized England, there was a need to transfer information more widely - the development of education. The first steps were taken to civilize education. Also, children working in the factories should be civilized and use their time for education. National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children (NSPCC) was set up. The children were taught to write and read and the Bible was used for this purpose. Church organization set up voluntary schools, which were cheap or free for the poor so that they could learn basic skills. The state began to be more concerned with health problems in workhouses. Some infirmaries were also set up. Medical profession succeeded in introducing new ideas - Florence Nightingale decided to be a nurse in a workhouse instead of being a wealthy middle class daughter. She began to be known as Lady with a Lamp. Also, other changes were employed in workhouses, for instance, visits were allowed and families weren't broken anymore. In 1911 National Insurance Act was passé, which introduced sickness and unemployment benefits to be paid for out of employers' and employees' contributions. People were to make contributions, which would make the insured and their families eligible for benefits when they suffered from unemployment, sickness, widowhood, and old age. People who might become poor had to pay contributions to the state. In 1833 the government gave money for these schools. It was in 1870 when the state for the first time assumed the responsibility for education - Foister's Act. Money was collected for building board schools. Children who hadn't been to school for four years couldn't be employed. 4 year elementary education was obligatory. In 1908 education became directly compulsive and the state began to check whether the parents sent their children to school. Grammar schools provided free education. The quality of education also became more important. In 1870 there was a Headmasters' Conference. Thomas Arnold was a headmaster of rugby School. He built a chapel at the school, which was then quite unusual. He was interested in changes in education, in moral approach generally. He reformed the community, put stop to gambling, hunting and drinking. Arnold put a lot of emphasis on playing organized games with certain rules. These games were regarded as educational, e.g. cricket, rugby. In 1840s-90s the children from middle classes were turning into gentlemen. Also, a certain norm for pronunciation was established. From the 1870s education for all was into place and the girls finally began to attend schools. Corn Laws were first passed in 1815. Britain's fast growing population was making the country a food importer rather than exporter as before. The French wars had forced up domestic prices and encouraged agricultural investment, so there was fear of a post-war collapse of prices. Parliament prohibited the importation of wheat until the domestic price reached 80 shillings a quarter. In 1828, a sliding scale was introduced, which meant that duties would reduce as prices rose and vice versa. Robert Peel modified this in 1842 to lower level of duties. Despite this trend to easier importation, the corn Laws came under fierce attack from the Anti Corn Law League (a movement which had a specific target, landowners wanted cheaper food in order to pay their workers less; it operated using the postal service, communication in writing; it organized rather small groups than huge public happenings), which blamed recurrent industrial depressions on agricultural protection. Peel, alarmed by the industrial crisis of 1842 and fearing the conjunction of high food prices with league agitation and mass unemployment, concluded that political stability required a sacrifice of the Corn Laws. Using the Irish potato famine of 1845 as an excuse, he proposed total repeal. There was a revolt of conservative backbenchers and though Peel carried repeal in 1846, he split his party into a free-trading minority. The main effect of repeal was delayed until the 1870s when cheap transatlantic grain flooded in and produced both sharp falls in food prices and acute agricultural depression. Robert Peel was a prime minister. When he was 21, his father bought him a parliamentary seat for the Irish borough. In 1809 he became under-secretary for war and colonies. In 1812 he became chief secretary for Ireland. In 1822 Peel became home secretary in Liverpool's government. He introduced several important measures, including far-reaching reform of the criminal law and the creation of the Metropolitan Police. He also opposed to catholic emancipation, increasing his status with many Tories in and out of Parliament. After the Tory government fell in 1830, Peel increasingly emerged as leader of the opposition to the Whig ministry. The Whig's forced Peel's resignation and returned to office, but the 1837 election brought further Conservative gains. Deepening economic and political troubles brought the Whigs in 1841 to propose a more radical financial policy which involved reductions in tariffs, including the corn Laws that protected agriculture. Luddites were machine-breakers, called after General Ludd. In 1811-16 textile workers met secretly in public houses and smashed the machinery of mill-owners who refused their demands. At a time when trade unions were illegal, Luddism may be interpreted as collective bargaining by riot: frame-breaking was an attempt to force employers to accept the demands rather than hostility to machines as such. Eventually the Luddite bands were tracked down and the reputed leaders executed or transported. In 1890 there was a riot in Manchester, also in Peterloo. Unemployed cotton workers listened to radical orators. In 1860 - Cato Streets conspiracy. It was a plot to murder Lord Liverpool's cabinet at dinner. The plotters were, however, betrayed by a government spy and arrested as they assembled in a stable in Cato Street. Many people died during the riots, so they stopped being so keen on changes. In 1828 there was a repeal of Test and Corporation, so the non-conformists couldn't join the government. In 1829 Roman Catholics were allowed to take part in public life. In 1832 Parliamentary Reform Bill were passed through House of Commons. The intro of the legislation was the result of the death of George IV in 1830. William IV was a Hanoverian king and he was more willing to support the reforms. Lord Grey persuaded the king to blackmail House of Lords. The king announced that if the House of Lords wouldn't pass the reform, he would create enough new Lords (peers) to make sure the bill would be accepted. That blackmail worked. An uniform franchise was introduced. People who lived in houses that were worth 10 pounds could vote, and 10 pounds was a lot of money. In the countryside a 40 shilling landowners could vote, but also those who rented land worth 50 pounds. The Tories didn't want reforms and they were the first to drew the conclusions what might happen if the reforms were accepted. They organized a Conservative Association. Soon, they changed their name from "Tories" to "Conservatives". Reform Club was founded in 1836 and was a radical initiative, drawing in Whig support. It reflected the desire for better organization, particularly of electoral registration, after the Great Reform Act. It was a liberal association. Two new parties formed: Liberals and Conservatives. Peel issued a manifesto and he made promises to the electors. He described what they could have if the voted on the Conservatives. From 1834 political parties began to make promises to the voters, but weren't always able to keep them. William IV tried to choose prime minister who wasn't from the majority party, but he didn't succeed. Conservative Party drew upon older traditions including a church and king Toryism. The Conservatives' main challenge came from the trade union-based Labour Party mobilizing the working class vote. The party defended the constitution and the interests associated with it: if the monarchy and House of Lords, the established churches, the Union with Ireland, landownership, property rights and inheritance, a limited franchise. The main threats identified by the Conservatives were trade unionism, egalitarianism, redistributive welfare, socialism, and Bolshevism. The party became more interested in business and more clearly in middle-class interests. Its leaders now came to be drawn from the business and professional classes rather than the landed and titled. At the same time nearly a third of the working classes has usually supported the Conservatives for reasons of patriotic identity, resentment of immigrant groups, hostility to catholics, or just a sense of economic interest. The Conservative Party has never had a clear ideological identity: its political practice was to win the elections and office-holding. The Conservatives supported the manufacturing interests, which earlier were represented by Liberal Party. Liberal Party expressed the need for peace and reforms. The radical programme called for the disestablishment of the church of England and it sought to limit the power of government demanding that government shouldn't intervene in economic and social affairs. After 1868 there was a gradual but major change in the nature of radicalism. Radicals began to address the problems of industrial society. Also, they demanded a reorientation of party attitudes. The Liberal Party must show that it could be trusted with the administration of a great empire. The Liberals supported free trade without government's interference. Chartist movement was in 1836-46 and it was a continuation of the radical associations such as Corresponding Society. It wanted to build an independent political party representing the interests of the labouring section of the nation. Its programme was a series of political demands. It demanded the right for all men to vote, annual elections and social reforms (free education, free healthcare, free care for the old). The movement also attacked Poor Law. It was an unsuccessful movement. The members began to turn their attention to trade unionism in the 1840s. In 1867 all men who were the heads of households could vote, but it didn't include sons. By 1884 all men were able to vote at the age of 21. In 1921 all women aged 30 got the right to vote. They believed that women in this age were married and that their views were thus influenced by their husbands. Women under 30 gained the vote in 1929. In 1968 the age limit was reduced to 18. John Stuart Mill, an utilitarian and liberal philosopher, was for giving the women the right to vote. In 1870 an Education Act was passed. It established a system of elementary schools. Locally elected school boards were to provide schools for all children. The community paid for it. Women's Suffrage Movement demanded votes for women. Labour Party was founded by the trade union movement (its ideas based on improving the life of workers by economic progress) in 1901. It emerged from Liberals and was supporting Mrxist ideas, but the majority of its members weren't interested in such ideas. The Labour Representation Committee (LRC) was established in 1900 by a conference of trade unionists and socialists. It advocated changes and brought about practical matters that interested workers. Trade Union Congress (TUC) was in 1867. It attracted many members, particularly in the skilled trades. It began to support the elections and wanted to pass a legislation to improve working conditions. Beveridge was a social reformer. In 1944 a document was published that was a combination of Liberal Party's evolution to state contribution to bring progress to society. The book concerned unemployment. Full employment was demanded so that every man could feel a useful part of the society. National Government was led by a Conservative prime minister, Lloyd George. Although it was intended as a temporary measure lasted until the Second World War. After the First World War a Liberal Party split. From 1921 the Labour Party gained a lot of support and became the second party. By the end of the 19th cent. Liberal Party imposed regular tax on the wealthier members. In 1909 Llyod George introduced People's Budget. He imposed a higher tax income on the members of the community and he used it to pay old aged pensions. Death duties - the taxation on property left at death. In 1911 the Liberals introduced a Parliament Act - of a bill passed a House of Commons three times it was a law whether it was or not passed in the House of Lords. So the House of Lords stopped being an equal partner and its role in Parliamentary government was very severely restricted. In 1924 the first Labour Government was formed at Ramsay McDonald, but it lasted only for a year because of the great opposition. In 1945 Labour achieved a majority in the House of Commons. Most of the population lived in towns, where the communication developed. Railway provided cheap transport of goods, the same was with the canals. The roads were disrepaired, no one traveled by roads. Wooden rails were replaced by iron ones and the number of them increased. Soon, commercial train lines appeared. There was a division on classes in trains. By 1870s the railway companies began to think about comfort of their passengers and eating on trains was made possible as well as heating, electric lighting and sleeping. From 1834 the railways were used for post service. Yet, the attraction of the towns was a the cause f the agricultural crisis. About 60% tenant farmers went bankrupt. Also, there was a development of the information transfer - telegraphs, newspaper. The towns grew in size and were connected with various industries. Refrigeration was possible, so the food could be kept for longer periods. Many goods came from Australia, which was an English colony. William Gladstone started as Tory, but ended as a Liberal-radical. He strongly opposed the Whig's proposals for parliamentary reform and was elected to the Commons as a Tory in 1832. He published "The State in its Relations with the church" and "Church Principles" arguing that the Church of England should be the moral conscience of the state. In 1844 he decided that railways should be regulated and he set up a railway board, charging passengers 1 penny a mile. In 1852 he was a chancellor of the Exchequer (chief minister). Gladstonian finance emphasized a balanced budget, minimum government spending, the abolition of protective tariffs for farmers (many farmers turned to diary products and fruit farming), and a fair balance between direct and indirect taxes. From 1844 to 1866 he began to take radical positions, especially on questions like parliamentary reform. However, the modest Reform Bill proposed by Gladstone and Russell led to the temporary disintegration of the Liberal Party and the resignation of the government. Gladstone also wanted the abolition of compulsory church rates and disestablishment of the Irish church. He led the Liberals to win the 1868 election and became prime minister. He managed to disestablish the Irish church, and passed an important Irish Land Bill in 1870, but failed with his Irish University Bill. His government abolished purchase of commissions in the army and religious tests in universities; it established the secret ballot in 1857(people could vote in secret) and for the fist time, a national education system. Gladstone lost the elections in 1874 and then retired. In the 1850s-60s the second industrial revolution took place. Machinery began to be applied to all industrial areas, also there was an ameliorated food processing. Flour milling moved to huge mills that used steam machines. Flour began to be sold in commercial bags with the name of the miller on it. Also, canning took off and fruits in cans traveled all over the world. In the 1850s the rubber industry appeared. In the 1860s the sewing machine arrived and in the 1870s shoe production developed. Bicycle (it was the first form of transport that was socially accepted for two sexes), detergent production appeared along with the development of the commercial activity - department stores. Bicycles enabled people of all classes to move from one place to other. Cars were very rich people. Later, also motorbikes appeared and were very widespread. Civic pride was a demonstration of the importance and significance. Council housing was provided to rent by civic authorities. Public health ameliorated as there were clean water supplies. From 1878 there was increased interest on roads. Electric telegraphic wires appeared and post offices were set up. By the 1880s the telephone arrived. It was organized by individual private companies, occasionally by councils. Another forms of transport included horse omnibus and tram hanson. International transport was possible. The boats used steam engines, so it was also possible to travel across English Channel. Guidebooks were published. Thomas Cooke was organizing journeys. In the 20th cent. a family became a very important social unit. After 1870 when Queen Victoria became empress of India, the Conservatives put a lot of emphasis on Britain's overseas influence. Jingoism - the word comes from a music-hall popular song: "We don't want to fight, but by jingo if we do?". Later it was used to describe other manifestations of popular bellicosity during foreign wars. Imperial preference was a favorite nostrum of late 19th and early 20th cent. when imperialists gave special tariff concessions to imported products. Boy Scout Movement was a youth movement founded by Baden-Powell in 1908. He was inspired to establish the Boy Scouts by the interest shown in his army training manual, "Aids to Scouting", and by the example of the Boys' Brigade. He believed that boys from public schools should influence other people. Baden-Powell was inspector-general of the cavalry in 1903. When he retired from the army, he devoted his energies to the Boy Scout movement. Military interests were very popular at this time. Also praising military solutions to problems was common. Britain didn't have professional army until 1870. Later, press gangs were looking for people for the army. The British crown possessed an ancient right to seize for naval service "seamen, seafaring men, and persons whose occupations or callings are to work upon vessels and boats upon rivers". From 1870 Cardwell introduced reforms in the army, e.g. short service, also an army of voluntary soldiers who signed "contract" was established. Edward Cardwell became a Conservative MP in 1841. He stood out as administrative reformer. Military Schools were set up. Imperial expansion was based on militarism. First World War was mostly fought by young men, not professional soldiers, who didn't join the army voluntarily. The war had great influence on Britain. Up to the war the British economy was expanding. The wealth of the population was increasing. Serious attempts were being made to deal with unemployment. The war brought a turning point. Competition in manufacturing was undermining British position. After war, the economy was damaged. Mining, iron steel and other industries were affected by the competition in Europe in 1920s. Up to the war, political class antagonisms increased. Through 1870s-80s there'd been a great deal of activity by new trade unions. General trend was to accept trade unions' rights. Trade unions were able to strike and picket. From 1902 there was gradual acceptance of label representation in government. From 1911 MPs were paid. The label MPs were partly instrumental within a split of Liberal. After the war a spirit of parties disappeared. During the war period there was strong confrontation in class relations. The war also changed the status of women. At the end of 19th cent. women were better educated, they were more skilled and were working in differentiated professions. During the war period, middle class women began to take part in a variety of public spheres. They could be involved in auxiliary work that attracted a lot publicity, e.g. women drove cars, began to wear uniforms. Many institutions were prepared to treat women with new approach, although they were sometimes suspicious. Women also appeared in Parliament. Changes in fashion emerged, e.g. women began to wear shorter skirts. The war provided a strong impulse on the development of the cinema. Things were filmed for military purpose. In 1920s BBC arrived. First air mail appeared in 1920. Faster means of transport were available; the development of mass information was stimulated by the war. By the First World War the role of church declined considerably from the period of the beginning of the 19th cent. when catholic emancipation took place. The church of England wasn't really important, especially because of Darwinism. Commonwealth of Nations was established in 1919. The term "commonwealth" grew out of the realization that several of Britain's older-established colonies were already self-governing. A new term had to be established: a federation of equal nation states. Enthusiasts for the "commonwealth ideal" had generally envisaged the dominions taking an equal share in the formulation of policies that would then be common to them all: instead it came to mean that they'd have equal rights to separate policies of their own. powrót <anglistyka.php?id=html> góra stronycopyright ZAMCZYSKO 2000 - 2006