&+(0,$63$/$1,$0(&+$1,=0<,.,1(7<.$

&KHPLL VSDODQLD QLH PR QD LGHQW\ILNRZDü ] DGQ\P ] WUDG\F\MQ\FK G]LDáyZ

FKHPLL Z\Uy QLD VL ERZLHP GR ü DUELWUDOQLH FKHPL RUJDQLF]Q QLHRUJDQLF]Q L

IL]\F]Q :QRZRF]HVQHMFKHPLLSRG]LDáWHQVWDMHVL FRUD]PQLHMZ\UD Q\DFKHPLD

VSDODQLD]DKDF]DRZV]\VWNLHWU]\G]LDá\WDNZL FSDOLZD–Z JORZRGRU\Z JLHO–

V RPDZLDQHZFKHPLLRUJDQLF]QHMSURVWH]ZL ]NLSRMDZLDM FHVL SRGF]DVVSDODQLD

MDNRSURGXNW\SR UHGQLHXERF]QHOXENR FRZHQDOH ]Z\F]DMRZRGRFKHPLLQLH

RUJDQLF]QHM D UR]ZD DQLD R UyZQRZDG]H FKHPLF]QHM L V]\ENR FL SURFHVyZ FKH

PLF]Q\FK WR FKHPLD IL]\F]QD 0R QD E\ ZL F SU]\SXV]F]Dü H – DE\ ]UR]XPLHü

VSDODQLH–QDOH \QDSRF] WHNRGE\üVWXGLDFKHPLF]QH7DNMHGQDNQDV]F] FLHQLH

MHVWD]DMPXM FVL VSDODQLHPSU]\SHZQ\PVWRSQLXXSUDV]F]DQLD]DJDGQLH PR QD

QDZHWFKHPLLZ]QDF]Q\PVWRSQLXXQLNQ ü3RGHM FLHWDNLHGDMHMHGQDNMHGQRVWURQ

Q\L]QLHNV]WDáFRQ\REUD]SURFHVXVSDODQLDNWyU\EH]UHDNFMLFKHPLF]Q\FKREHM üVL

QLHPR H

:REHFQ\PRSUDFRZDQLXSRGHMPXMHP\SUyE ZSURZDG]HQLDSHZQ\FKSRGVWDZR

Z\FKSRM üFKHPLF]Q\FKWDNDE\ZVSRVyESURVW\OHF]SRSUDZQ\PR QDE\áRRPó-

ZLü]MDZLVNDFKHPLF]QH]DFKRG] FHSRGF]DVVSDODQLD=DNáDGDP\ H&]\WHOQLN]H

WNQ áVL ]FKHPL ZV]NROH UHGQLHMOXEQDZHWpodczas studiów, lecz niewiele z tego

SDPL WD–PR HV\PEROHFKHPLF]QHLRJyOQHZLDGRPR FLRNODV\ILNDFMLSLHUwiastków.

3RZUyW GR SRGVWDZ MHVW ZL F NRQLHF]Q\ DOH E G RPDZLDQH W\ONR ]MDZLVND LVWRWQH

ZSURFHVDFKVSDODQLD–LQLHFRLQDF]HMQL ZHOHPHQWDUQ\FKSRGU F]QLNDFK

%LEOLRJUDILDREHMPXMHMHG\QLHSR]\FMHQDOH FHMX GRNODV\NLSU]HGPLRWXDQLH

SUDFH UyGáRZHSRQLHZD RPDZLDQHV W\ONR]DJDGQLHQLDQDMEDUG]LHMSRGVWDZRZH

3RM FLDSRGVWDZRZH

$WRPF] VWHF]NDZROQHURGQLNL

$WRP

%LRU FSRGXZDJ SU]HPLDQ\FKHPLF]QHPR HP\SU]\M ü HDWRPVNáDGDVL ]H

]QLNRPRPDáHJRZVWRVXQNXGRUHV]W\DWRPXM GUDZNWyU\P]QDMGXM VL SURWRQ\

LQHXWURQ\RUD]FKPXU\HOHNWURQRZHM/LF]EDSURWRQyZZM GU]HW]ZOLF]EDDWRPRZD

równa liczbie elektronów w neutraln

\P DWRPLH RNUH OD MHGQR]QDF]QLH SLHUZLDVWHN

FKHPLF]Q\$WRP\WHJRVDPHJRSLHUZLDVWNDPRJ VL Uy QLüOLF]E QHXWURQyZZM

GU]H L]RWRS\ 0DVD DWRPRZD SLHUZLDVWND WR UHGQLD ZD RQD PDV ZV]\VWNLFK MHJR
naturalnych izotopów w stosunku do 1/12 masy atomu

&

6

12

QDMSRVSROLWV]HJRL]RWRSX

Z JODNWyUDZ\QRVLÂ

–

NJ:FKHPLLF] VWRX \ZDVL SRM üPROOXEPDVD

PRORZD–MHVWWRPDVD·

!

(liczba Avogadra) atomów danego pierwiastka lub

F] VWHF]HN]ZL ]NX

"$#%'&%'(

)+*,

O elektronach mówimy jako o

FKPXU]H HOHNWURQRZHM 1D SR]LRPLH PLNUR W]Q

DWRPyZLF] VWHNHOHPHQWDUQ\FKUXFKW\FKF] VWHNWU]HEDUR]SDWU\ZDü]]DVWRVRZD

QLHP SUDZ PHFKDQLNL NZDQWRZHM 1D SR]LRPLH PLNUR ]DáDPXM VL ERZLHP SUDZD

PHFKDQLNL NODV\F]QHM ]DáDPXMH VL WH QDV]D Z\REUD QLD GRVWRVRZDQD GR ZLDWD

PDNUR2NUH OHQLHSR]\FMLHOHNWURQyZZDWRPLHQLHW\ONRQLHMHVWZL FPR OLZHDOH

QLHPDVHQVX0R QDMHG\QLHPyZLüRVWDQDFKHQHUJHW\F]Q\FKDWRPXNWyUHV NZDQ

WRZDQH L R J VWR FL HOHNWURQRZHM F]\OL J VWR FL SUDZGRSRGRELH VWZD QDSRWNDQLD

HOHNWURQXZGDQ\PHOHPHQFLHSU]HVWU]HQL=SUDZPHFKDQLNLNZDQWRZHMZ\QLND H

FKPXUDHOHNWURQRZDPDVWUXNWXU GDM F VL RSLVDüPDWHPDW\F]QLH:XSURV]F]HQLX

PR QDSU]\M ü HHOHNWURQ\V UR]PLHV]F]RQHQDSRZáRNDFKSRGSRZáRNDFKLRUELWD

ODFK.D GDSRZáRNDLSRGSRZáRNDPR HSRPLH FLüRNUH ORQ OLF]E HOHNWURQyZDQD

W\PVDP\PRUELWDOXPRJ VL ]QDMGRZDüW\ONRGZDHOHNWURQ\RSU]HFLZQ\FKF]\OL

VSDURZDQ\FKVSLQDFK3RZáRND]HZQ WU]QDWRSRZáRNDZDOHQF\MQD1DW\PSR]LRPLH

]DFKRG] SURFHV\FKHPLF]QH1LHNWyUHNRQILJXUDFMHHOHNWURQRZHSRZáRNLZDOHQF\MQHM

V V]F]HJyOQLHWUZDáHQSRNWHWF]WHU\SDU\WDNMDNZDWRPDFKJD]yZV]ODFKHWQ\FK

]Z\M WNLHPKHOX+H, który ma tylko GZDHOHNWURQ\
&] VWHF]ND

&] VWHF]ND SRZVWDMH JG\ GZD OXE ZL FHM DWRPyZ á F]\ VL ]H VRE ZL ]DQLHP

FKHPLF]Q\P :L ]DQLH SROHJD ]DZV]H QD Z]DMHPQ\P RGG]LDá\ZDQLX HOHNWURQyZ

]SRZáRNZDOHQF\MQ\FKV VLDGXM F\FKDWRPyZ0R HZ\VW SLüQDNáDGDQLHVL RGSR

ZLHGQLFKRUELWDOLZVNXWHNF]HJR]ZL NV]DVL J VWR üHOHNWURQRZDZREV]DU]HZL ]D

QLD:L ]DQLHFKHPLF]QHWRZVSyOQDGODREXDWRPyZSDUDHOHNWURQyZ]HVSDURZDQ\

PLVSLQDPL:L ]DQLDPRJ E\üSRMHG\QF]HSRGZyMQHLSRWUyMQH–LPZ\ V]\U] G

ZL zania, tym jest ono silniejsze i krótsze.

(OHNWURQ\XZVSyOQLRQHPRJ SRFKRG]LüRGREXDWRPyZZL ]DQLHNRZDOHQF\MQH

]ZDQHUyZQLH DWRPRZ\POXEW\ONRRGMHGQHJRZL ]DQLHNRRUG\QDF\MQHDOHVNXWHN

MHVW]DZV]HWDNL HELRU FHXG]LDáZZL ]DQLXDWRP\RVL JDM NRU]\VWQLHMV] NRQILJX

UDFM HOHNWURQRZ QDMF] FLHMRNWHWZNWyUHMZV]\VWNLHHOHNWURQ\V VSDURZDQH'ZD

DWRP\ZRGRUX+PDM FHSRMHGQ\PHOHNWURQLHá F] VL ZL FZL ]DQLHPNRZDOHQW

Q\PZF] VWHF]N +

SU]H]XZVSyOQLHQLHREXHOHNWURQyZG]L NLWHPXND G\]DWR

PyZRVL JDNRQILJXUDFM HOHNWURQRZ KHOX&] VWHF]NLPRJ VL VNáDGDü]ZL FHMQL

dwóch identycznych atomów (O

!

3

-

6

.

&

/10

OXE]Uy Q\FKDWRPyZ–PR OLZR FLV

ZWHG\SUDZLHQLHZ\F]HUSDOQH

:F] VWHF]FHFKORURZRGRUX+&ODWRPZRGRUX+X]\VNXMHNRQILJXUDFM HOHN

WURQRZ DWRPXKHOX+HDDWRPFKORUX&ONRQILJXUDFM DUJRQX$U]SHáQ\PRNWH

WHP3RQLHZD MHGQDNREDDWRP\QLHV LGHQW\F]QHFKPXUDHOHNWURQRZDQLHPR HE\ü

Z SHáQL V\PHWU\F]QD HOHNWURQ\ FL EDUG]LHM Z NLHUXQNX DWRPX FKORUX &O &]

VWHF]NDZNWyUHMQDVW SLáRWDNLHSU]HVXQL FLHáDGXQNXPDELHJXQ\GRGDWQLLXMHPQ\

RNUH ODVL M MDNRVSRODU\]RZDQ :JUDQLF]Q\PSU]\SDGNXQDVW SLáRE\SU]HQLHVLHQLH

HOHNWURQX]SRZVWDQLHPMRQyZDOHZWHG\ZL ]DQLHE\áRE\ZL ]DQLHPMRQRZ\PNWyUH

QLHZ\VW SXMHZID]LHJD]RZHM&] VWHF]NLNRZDOHQWQHPDM ]D]Z\F]DMSDU]\VW OLF]E

HOHNWURQyZLV RQHZV]\VWNLHVSDURZDQH :\M WNLWRF] VWHF]ND 2

, która ma dwa

QLHVSDURZDQH HOHNWURQ\ RUD] 12 L 12

NWyUH PDM QLHSDU]\VW OLF]E HOHNWURQyZ

7OHQWOHQHNLGZXWOHQHND]RWXV ZL FSDUDPDJQHW\F]QH

: ]ZL ]NDFK ]ZL ]DQLHPMRQRZ\PWDNLFKMDNQS1D&OF]\ &D62

-

ZID]LH

VWDáHMQLHPDF] VWHF]HNMDNRWDNLFKDXSRU] GNRZDQHSU]HVWU]HQQHUR]PLHV]F]HQLH

MRQyZ Z NU\V]WDáDFK Z\QLND ] SU]HVáDQHN JHRPHWU\F]Q\FK QLH ] NLHUXQNRZR FL

ZL ]D

3DOLZDWRSU]HZD QLHZ JORZRGRU\,FKF] VWHF]NL]DZLHUDM ZL ]DQLDNRZDOHQWQH

& && && &LVáDERVSRODU\]RZDQHZL ]DQLD& +:F] VWHF]NDFKSURGXNtów

VSDODQLD&2

&2L+

2Z\VW SXM ZL ]DQLDVSRODU\]RZDQH=HZ]JO GXQDNLHUXQ

NRZR üZL ]D SURVWHF] VWHF]NLWDNLHMDN&2

+

2&+

-

&

+

-

F]\&

+

PDM

WH FKDUDNWHU\VW\F]QHNV]WDáW\]NWyU\FKZ\QLNDZLHOHLFKZáD FLZR FLIL]\F]Q\FK

LFKHPLF]Q\FK&] VWHF]NL&2

L&

+

V ZL FOLQLRZHF] VWHF]ND&+

-

MHVWWHWUD

HGU\F]QD+

2–Z\JL WDD&

+

-

–SáDVND]N WDPLSRPL G]\ZL ]DQLDPLRNRáR

°C.
:ROQHURGQLNL

:ROQHURGQLNLOXESRSURVWXURGQLNLZ\VW SXM FHZSURFHVDFKVSDODQLDLZLHOXLQ

Q\FKMDNRSURGXNW\SR UHGQLHWRZROQHDWRP\LIUDJPHQW\F] VWHF]HN:SáRPLHQLDFK

Z JORZRGRUyZV REHFQH+22++2

&+&+

!

&

+&

LZLHOHLQQ\FKEDUG]LHM

]áR RQ\FKURGQLNyZ6 RQHEDUG]RUHDNW\ZQHFKHPLF]QLHLGODWHJRQLHWUZDáH–QLHGD

VL LFKZ\L]RORZDüDEDGDüMHPR QDW\ONRZ URGRZLVNXSáRPLHQLDZIDODFKXGHU]H

QLRZ\FK Z Z\áDGRZDQLDFK HOHNWU\F]Q\FK 5HDNW\ZQR ü URGQLNyZ Z\QLND ] LFK

VWUXNWXU\HOHNWURQRZHM–PDM RQHQLHSDU]\VW OLF]E HOHNWURQyZOXEGZDHOHNWURQ\

QLHVSDURZDQHMDNDWRP2:VSRPQLDQHMX F] VWHF]NL2

12L12

QLHV MHGQDN

]DOLF]DQHGRURGQLNyZPLPR HPDM QLHVSDURZDQHHOHNWURQ\LV VWRVXQNRZRUHDN

W\ZQHERV WRF] VWHF]NLWUZDáHDQLHWUZDá\&

MHVWWUDNWRZDQ\MDNRURGQLNPLPRL

ZV]\VWNLHHOHNWURQ\PDVSDURZDQH

3U]HPLDQ\FKHPLF]QHUyZQDQLDFKHPLF]QH

3URFHV\SRGF]DVNWyU\FKQDVW SXMHUR]NáDGOXESRZVWDQLHQRZ\FK]ZL ]NyZWR

UHDNFMH FKHPLF]QH 3U]HPLDQ\ WDNLH ]DSLVXMH VL ]D SRPRF UyZQD FKHPLF]Q\FK

NWyUH SRGDM Z]RU\ FKHPLF]QH VXEVWUDWyZ L SURGXNWyZ 3RGF]DV UHDNFML OLF]E\ DWR

PyZSRV]F]HJyOQ\FKSLHUZLDVWNyZLVXPDU\F]Q\áDGXQHNHOHNWU\F]Q\PXV] ]RVWDü

]DFKRZDQHUyZQDQLDFKHPLF]QHPXV] ZL F]DZV]HE\ü]ELODQVRZDQH1DSU]\NáDG

SURFHV\SHáQHJRVSDODQLDDFHW\OHQXGRGLWOHQNXZ JODLSDU\ZRGQHMRUD]PHWDOLF]QH

JRJOLQXGRWOHQNXJOLQX]DSLVXMHP\RGSRZLHGQLRMDNR

&

+

2

&2

+

2

$O2

$O

2

!

"$#%'&%'(

)+*,

5yZQRZDJDFKHPLF]QD

:LHOHUHDNFMLFKHPLF]Q\FKSRSHZQ\PF]DVLHSR]RUQLHXVWDMHPLPR HVXEVWUDW\

V QDGDO REHFQH – UHDNFMH WH RVL JDM VWDQ UyZQRZDJL G\QDPLF]QHM .D G\ SURFHV

FKHPLF]Q\]DFKRG]LERZLHPSU]H]FDá\F]DVZREXNLHUXQNDFKLRNUH OHQLDÄVXEVWUD

W\´ÄSURGXNW\´PDM MHG\QLH]QDF]HQLHZ]JO GQH3U]HPLDQ\QHWWR]DFKRG] W\ONRGR

FKZLOLJG\ZMHGQRVWFHF]DVXW\OHVDPRSURGXNWyZSRZVWDMHLXOHJDUR]NáDGRZL

=UR]ZD D WHUPRG\QDPLF]Q\FKZ\QLND HZVWDáHMWHPSHUDWXU]HGODGRZROQHM

UHDNFMLFKHPLF]nej, zapisanej równaniem

α

$

β

%

γ

&

δ

'

w którym:

$%&'–V\PEROHFKHPLF]QH

α

β

γ

δ

–ZVSyáF]\QQLNLVWHFKLRPH

WU\F]QH

MHVW]DFKRZDQD]DOH QR ü

>&@

γ

>'@

δ

>$@

α

>%@

β

.

2

w której:

>V\PERO FKHP@ – VW HQLH GDQHJR VNáDGQLND Z PLHV]DQLQLH UHDNF\MQHM

PROGP

!

.

2

–VWDáDUyZQRZDJL

.

2

]DOH \RGWHPSHUDWXU\LPDZ\PLDU\PROGP

!

∆

ν

JG]LH∆

ν

γ

δ

–

α

–

β

:UyZQDQLXPR QD]DVWRVRZDü]DPLDVWVW H XáDPNLPRORZHOXEGODJD]yZ

FL QLHQLDF] VWNRZHRWU]\PXM FRGSRZLHGQLHVWDáHUyZQRZDJL.

3

L.

4

àDWZRZ\ND

]Dü HGODJD]yZGRVNRQDá\FKSRGFL QLHQLHPFDáNRZLW\P3

0

ZV]\VWNLHWU]\VWDáH

ró

ZQRZDJLV ]HVRE SRZL ]DQH

.

2

.

4

57

5

∆

ν

.

3

3

0

57

∆

ν

:DUWR FL VWDá\FK UyZQRZDJL GOD UHDNFML ]DFKRG] F\FK SRGF]DV VSDODQLD SDOLZ

PR QD]QDOH üZWDEOLFDFKGDQ\FKOXEREOLF]\üMH]GDQ\FKWHUPRG\QDPLF]Q\FK

6]\ENR üSURFHVyZFKHPLF]Q\FKU] GUHDNFML

6]\ENR üUHDNFMLFKHPLF]QHMZ]JO GHPGDQHJRVXEVWUDWX6

6

OXESURGXNWX3

6

PLHU]\

VL XE\WNLHPOLF]E\PROLZ\EUDQHJR VXEVWUDWXOXESU]\URVWHPOLF]E\ PROLSURGXNWX

ZMHGQRVWFHF]DVX–GQ

7+6

GWOXEGQ

86

GW:XNáDGDFKRVWDáHMREM WR FLPR QDVWRVR

ZDü]DPLDVWOLF]E\PROLVW HQLDOXEFL QLHQLDF] VWNRZH

:SU]\SDGNXUHDNFMLSU]HGVWDZLRQHMUyZQDQLHPFKHPLF]Q\PV]\ENR ü]QL

NDQLDVXEVWUDWX$SRZLQQD]DOH Hü]JRGQLH ]SUDZHPG]LDáDQLD PDVRG>$@L>%@

:\UD DWRUyZQDQLHNLQHW\F]QH

±G>$@GW N>$@

9

>%@

:

w którym:

N–VWDáDV]\ENR FLUHDNFML]DOH QDRGWHPSHUDWXU\SDE–U] G

UHDNFMLZ]JO GHPRGSRZLHGQLR>$@L>%@DE–FDáNRZLW\U] GUHDNFML

:DUWR FL Z\NáDGQLNyZ SRW J VW H NWyUH Z\VW SXM Z UyZQDQLX NLQHW\F]Q\P

QLH PR QD DXWRPDW\F]QLH LGHQW\ILNRZDü ]H ZVSyáF]\QQLNDPL VWHFKLRPHWU\F]Q\PL

Zrównaniu chemicznyP3RZVWDZDQLHQSWOHQNXD]RWX12]1

L2

SU]HGVWDZLD

równanie

1

2

12

OHF]U] GUHDNFMLZ]JO GHP>2

@Z\QRVLLUyZQDQLHNLQHW\F]QHPDSRVWDü

G>12@GW N>2

@

;

<

>1

@

5yZQDQLDNLQHW\F]QHPDM F]DVHP]áR RQ IRUP DOJHEUDLF]Q DZWHG\U] GUHDN

FMLVWDMHVL WUXGQ\GRRNUH OHQLD–PR HRQE\üQLHW\ONRXáDPNRZ\DOHLXMHPQ\

DSRQDGWRPR HVL ]PLHQLDü]DOH QLHRGZDUXQNyZZMDNLFK]DFKRG]LUHDNFMD–]D

NUHVXFL QLHQLDWHPSHUDWXU\

5HDNFMHHOHPHQWDUQH

&] VWHF]NRZR üUHDNFMLHOHPHQWDUQ\FK

Reakcja chemiczna zawsze wymaga przegrupowania atomów

F] VWRGR üVNRP

SOLNRZDQHJR SURFHV\ SU]HGVWDZLDQH ]D SRPRF UyZQD FKHPLF]Q\FK PXV] ZL F

]DFKRG]LüHWDSDPL7UXGQRVRELHERZLHPZ\REUD]LüDE\QSVSDODQLHDFHW\OHQX]D

FKRG]LáRZZ\QLNXVSRWNDQLDF] VWHF]HN&

+

LF] VWHF]HN2

F]\OLMHGQRF]HVQH

JRSU]HUZDQLDZL ]D LSRZVWania 12 nowych. Proces przedstawiony równDQLHP

VNáDGDVL ]Z\NOH]FDáHJRV]HUHJXUHDNFMLHOHPHQWDUQ\FKF]\OLWDNLFKNWyUHQDSUDZ

G Z\VW SXM QDSR]LRPLHPLNUR6 WR]D]Z\F]DMUHDNFMHNWyUHZ\PDJDM ]GHU]HQLD

VL W\ONRGZyFKF] VWHF]HN3URFHV\HOHPHQWDUQHMHGQRLWUyMF] VWHF]NRZHZ\VW SXM

U]DG]LHM:RGUy QLHQLXRGU] GXUHDNFMLF] VWHF]NRZR üQLHPR HE\üXáDPNRZDDQL

XMHPQD

: UHDNFMDFK HOHPHQWDUQ\FK QDMF] FLHM ]RVWDMH SU]HUZDQH L OXE SRZVWDMH W\ONR

MHGQRZL ]DQLH:SáRPLHQLDFKZUHDNFMDFKWDNLFKELRU ]Z\NOHXG]LDáZROQHURGQLNL

QDSU]\NáDG

+2

→2+2

2+&+

-

→&+

!

+

2

1DOH \]DXZD \ü HSRGF]DVZL NV]R FLWDNLFKUHDNFMLQLH]PLHQLDVL OLF]EDQLH

sparowanych elektronów (zachowanie spinów).

.RPSOHNVSU]HM FLRZ\HQHUJLDDNW\ZDFML

3RGF]DVND GHMUHDNFMLHOHPHQWDUQHMPXVLZ\VW SLüHWDSNLHG\QLHPDMX F] VWH

F]HNVXEVWUDWyZDF] VWHF]NLSURGXNWyZMHV]F]HQLHSRZVWDá\-H HOL]DFKRG]LUHDNFMD

$%&→$%&

"$#%'&%'(

)+*,

WRPXVLFKZLORZRSRZVWDüNRPSOHNVSU]HM FLRZ\$%&]]DF] WNLHPZL ]DQLD

$% L ZL ]DQLHP %& RVáDELRQ\P DOH MHV]F]H QLHSU]HUZDQ\P R F]DVLH WUZDQLD

podobnym do okresów natura

OQ\FK GUJD WHUPLF]Q\FK Z F] VWHF]NDFK W]Q U] GX

–

;

!

V0R QDVRELHZ\REUD]Lü HSU]HU\ZDQHZL ]DQLHZ\NRQXMHMHGQ W\ONRRVF\

ODFM RQLHVNR F]RQHMDPSOLWXG]LH3RQLHZD NRPSOHNVSU]HM FLRZ\]QDMGXMHVL QD

Z\ V]\P SR]LRPLH HQHUJHW\F]Q\P QL VXEVWUDW\ OXE SURGXNW\ UHDJXM FH F] VWHF]NL

PXV] ZVW SQLH]GRE\üNRQLHF]Q HQHUJL –MHVWWRW]ZHQHUJLDDNW\ZDFML-HVWRQD

]DZV]H Godatnia, zarówno dla endo MDN L HJ]RWHUPLF]Q\FK UHDNFML HOHPHQWDUQ\FK

(QHUJLDDNW\ZDFMLPDGZLHUy QHZDUWR FLRGSRZLHGQLR∆(

=

L∆(

>

GODUHDNFMLGRSUR

GXNWyZLRGSURGXNWyZGRVXEVWUDWyZWDNLHMHGQDN H∆(

?

∆(

=

–∆(

>

JG]LH∆(

?

WR

SU]\URVWHQHUJLL]ZL ]DQ\]UHDNFM GRSURGXNWyZZSU]HOLF]HQLXPRORZ\P

6]\ENR üUHDNFMLHOHPHQWDUQ\FKUyZQDQLH$UUKHQLXVD

6]\ENR üGZXF] VWHF]NRZHMUHDNFMLHOHPHQWDUQHMW\SQDMSRVSROLWV]\MHVW]DZV]H

SURSRUFMRQDOQDGRLORF]\QXVW H UHDJXM F\FKF] VWHNF]\URGQLNów, np. dla reakcji

±G>$@GW –G>%&@GW G>$%@GW G>&@GW N

=

>$@>%&@

5] GUHDNFMLHOHPHQWDUQHMMHVWZL FWDNLVDPMDNMHMF] VWHF]NRZR ü

'ODUHDNFMLZID]LHJD]RZHMVWDáHV]\ENR FLUHDNFMLNPDM SURVW LQWHUSUHWDFM IL

]\F]Q :DUXQNLHPNRQLHF]Q\P UHDNFML SRPL G]\ F] VWHF]NDPL $ L %& MHVW

NRQWDNWSRPL G]\QLPLZWUDNFLH]GHU]HQLD&] VWR ü]GHU]H QDMHGQRVWN REM WR FL

PL G]\GZRPDURG]DMDPLF] VWHF]HN=

@A

BC

Z\QLka z teorii kinetycznej gazów

=

@DA

BC

δ

@DA

BC

>$@>%&@π57

µ

@DA

BC

JG]LH

δ

@A

BC

–VXPDSURPLHQLYDQGHU:DDOVDF] VWHF]HN$L%&5–XQLZHUVDOQDVWDáD

JD]RZD

µ

@DA

BC

–]UHGXNRZDQDPDVDPRORZDF] VWHF]HN$%&

:DUXQNLGRGDWNRZHWRSRVLDGDQLHSU]H]F] VWHF]NLHQHUJLLDNW\ZDFML∆(

=

RUD]RG

SRZLHGQLDRULHQWDFMDSU]HVWU]HQQDGRSRZVWDZDQLDNRPSOHNVXSU]HM FLRZHJR$%&

QLH%&$=SUDZD%ROW]PDQQDXáDPHNF] VWHF]HNPDM F\FKHQHUJL SRZ\ HM∆(

=

WR

H[S±∆(

=

57 -H HOL 3 WR SUDZGRSRGRELH VWZR SRZVWDQLD NRPSOHNVX SU]HM FLRZHJR

33PDQDRJyáQL V]HZDUWR FLJG\F] VWHF]NLV ZL NV]HPR QDQDSLVDü

–

G>$@GW N

E

>$@>%&@ =

@DA

BC

3H[S–∆(

E

57

G

δ

@DA

BC

>$@>%&@π57

µ

@DA

BC

;

<

3H[S–∆(

=

57

=SRGDQ\FK]DOH QR FLZ\QLND H

N

=

δ

@A

BC

π57

µ

@DA

BC

;

<

3H[S–∆(

E

57

N

E

N

0

H[S–∆(

E

57

JG]LHN

0

–F]\QQLNSU]HGZ\NáDGQLF]\ZVSyáF]\QQLNF] VWR FL

=DOH QR üWHPSHUDWXURZDVWDáHMV]\ENR FLMHVWZL FGODZL NV]R FLUHDNFMLHOHPHQ

WDUQ\FK]GHWHUPLQRZDQDSU]H]ZDUWR üHQHUJLLDNW\ZDFML:DUWR üVWRVXQNXN

=

N

>

WR

VWDáDrównowagi dla reakcji elementarnej.

&KRüWHQSURVW\REUD]WUXGQRUR]FL JQ üQDUHDNFMHEDUG]LHM]áR RQH]DFKRG] FH

QSZID]LHVWDáHMSU]HGVWDZLDQLHVWDáHMV]\ENR FLUHDNFMLZSRVWDFLW]QLORF]\

QXF]\QQLNDSU]HGZ\NáDGQLF]HJRLIXQNFMLZ\NáDGQLFzej, jest w chemii ogólnie przyj

WH-HVWWRVá\QQHUyZQDQLH$UUKHQLXVD

: FLVá\P XM FLX UyZQDQLH $UUKHQLXVD SRZLQQR VL RGQRVLü MHG\QLH GR UHDNFML

HOHPHQWDUQ\FK : SUDNW\FH MHGQDN E\ZD RQR F] VWR VWRVRZDQH GR SU]HGVWDZLDQLD

]DOH QR FLWHPSHUDWXU\SR]RUQ\FKVWDá\FKV]\ENR FLUHDNFMLJOREDOQ\FKQDNWyUHPR

HVL VNáDGDüFDá\V]HUHJUHDNFMLHOHPHQWDUQ\FKDQDZHWSURFHVyZIL]\F]Q\FK3R

]RUQDHQHUJLDDNW\ZDFMLUHDNFMLJOREDOQHMQLHPDMHGQDNVHQVXIL]\F]QHJRLQLHPR QD

MHMNRMDU]\ü]SRZVWDZDQLHPNRPSOHNVXSU]HM FLRZHJR'ODUHDNFMLJOREDOQHMWDNMDN

GODND GHMUHDNFMLHOHPHQWDUQHMN

=

N

>

F+G HIGKJ

L+M

.–VWDáDUyZQRZDJL

7\S\UHDNFMLHOHPHQWDUQ\FKZID]LHJD]RZHM

5HDNFMHMHGQRF] VWHF]NRZH

6 WRUHDNFMHZNWyU\FKELHU]HXG]LDáMHGQDW\ONRF] VWHF]ND0R QDGRQLFK]DOL

F]\üQLHNWyUHUHDNFMHUR]NáDGXQSZL NV]\FKZROQ\FKURGQLNyZL]RPHU\]DFMLSU]H

JUXSRZDQLH DWRPyZ ZHZQ WU] F] VWHF]NL D WDN H UR]NáDG UDGLRDNW\ZQ\ L HPLVM

NZDQWyZSURPLHQLRZDQLDSU]H]F] VWHF]NLOXEDWRP\Z]EXG]RQHQS

&

!

+

→&

+

-

&+

!

+&1→+1&

14

6

&→

14

7

1SURPLHQLRZDQLHβ

–

H

–

1D

∗

→1DK

ν

5HDNFMHGZXF] VWHF]NRZH

5HDNFMHWHPR QDGRGDWNRZRSRG]LHOLüQDGZLHNDWHJRULH

5HDNFMHSURVWHMZ\PLDQ\%LHU]HZQLFKXG]LDá]D]Z\F]DMZROQ\DWRPOXEURG

QLNSU]HELHJDM RQHEH]]PLDQ\OLF]E\QLHVSDURZDQ\FKHOHNWURQyZQS

21

→121

+2

→2+2

:UHDNFMLSRZL NV]DVL OLF]EDZROQ\FKURGQLNyZDOHQLHOLF]EDQLHVSDUR

wanych elektronów, p

RQLHZD ]DUyZQRDWRP2MDNLF] VWHF]ND2

PDM LFKSRGZD

5HDNFMHWHJRW\SXPRJ PLHüEDUG]R]Uy QLFRZDQHHQHUJLHDNW\ZDFMLQSGODUHDNFML

L RGSRZLHGQLR L N- -H HOL UHDNFMD MHVW HQGRWHUPLF]QD HQHUJLD

DNW\ZDFMLPXVLE\üFRQDMPQLHMUyZQDHQGRWHUPLF]QR FL

"$#%'&%'(

)+*,

5HDNFMHG\VRFMDFML6 WRSURFHV\ZNWyU\FKF] VWHF]NDOXEURGQLNZZ\QLNX

]GHU]HQLD]LQQ F] VWHF]N XOHJDUR]ELFLXQDGZDDWRP\OXEURGQLNL]SRZL NV]H

QLHPVL OLF]E\QLHVSDURZDQ\FKHOHNWURQyZQS

2

0→220

&

+

/

0→&+

!

&+

!

0

0R]QDF]DMDN NROZLHNWUZDá F] VWHF]N NWyUDVSHáQLDURO QR QLNDHQHUJLL5HDNFMH

WHJRW\SXV VLOQLHHQGRWHUPLF]QHDLFKHQHUJLDDNW\ZDFMLPXVLE\üFRQDMPQLHMUyZQD

HQHUJLLZL ]DQLDNWyUHXOHJDSU]HUZDQLX'RWHMJUXS\PR QDUyZQLH ]DOLF]\üSURFH

V\Z]EXG]HQLDLMRQL]DFMLWHUPLF]QHMWDNLHMDN

1D0→1D

∗

0

1D0→1D

+

H

–

0

5HDNFMHWUyMF] VWHF]NRZH

Oprócz

NLONXUHDNFML]XG]LDáHP12V WRSUDZLHZ\á F]QLHVLOQLHHJ]RWHUPLF]QHUH

DNFMH UHNRPELQDFML DWRPyZ OXE URGQLNyZ NWyUH V RGZURWQR FL UHDNFML WDNLFK MDN

L8G]LDáWDN]ZDQHMWU]HFLHMF] VWHF]NL0MHVWNRQLHF]Q\SRQLHZD

LQDF]HMQRZRSRZVWDáDF] VWHF]NDQLHPRJáDE\VL SR]E\üZ\]ZRORQHMZUHDNFMLHQHUJLL

:\M WHNPRJ VWDQRZLüUHDNFMHUHNRPELQDFMLGX \FKZROQ\FKURGQLNyZSRQLHZD Z\

G]LHORQDHQHUJLDPR HVL ZWHG\UR]áR \üQDOLF]QHRVF\ODFMHZHZQ WU]F] VWHF]NRZH

1DOH \]DXZD \ü HZRGUy QLHQLXRGZV]\VWNLFKLQQ\FKUHDNFMLUHDNFMHUHNRP

ELQDFMLSU]HELHJDM ZROQLHMZZ\ V]\FKWHPSHUDWXUDFK3RF] WNRZRSU]\SLV\ZDQRLP

SR]RUQ XMHPQ HQHUJL DNW\ZDFMLDOHREHFQLHUDF]HM]DSLVXMHVL UyZQDQLH$UUKHQLX

VDZIRUPLH

N

E

$7

N

H[S–∆(

E

57

F]\OL$ N

0

7

N

:DUWR FLQOH ]D]Z\F]DMZJUDQLFDFKRGGR

3URFHV\]áR RQH

5HDNFMDJOREDOQDPHFKDQL]PUHDNFML

=UR]ZD D WHUPRG\QDPLF]Q\FKUyZQRZDJRZ\FKZ\QLND HZZ\VRNLFKWHPSH

UDWXUDFKZVNXWHNUHDNFMLSRZLQQDSRZVWDZDüPLHV]DQLQDSURGXNWyZDVXEVWUDW\QLH

PRJ QLJG\UHDJRZDüGRNR FD3URFHVXVSDODQLDQDZHWMHGQHJR]SURVWV]\FKZ JOR

ZRGRUyZQLHPR QDZL F]DSLVDüMHGQ\PUyZQDQLHPSRQLHZD

3DOLZR2

→&2

&2&V+

2+

ZROQHURGQLNLHWF

-DNSRGNUH ORQRZSQDZHWSR]RUQLHSURVWHSU]HPLDQ\FKHPLF]QHVNáDGDM VL

z wielu aktów eleme

QWDUQ\FK3RQDGWRPHFKDQL]P ]áR RQ\FKSURFHVyZWDNLFKMDN

VSDODQLHPR QDSU]HGVWDZLü]Uy Q\PVWRSQLHPGRNáDGQR FL=DVDGQLF]\PHFKDQL]P

PXVLWáXPDF]\üSRZVWDZDQLHZV]\VWNLFKZD QLHMV]\FKSURGXNWyZUHDNFMLDOHZ\MD

QLHQLHSRMDZLHQLDVL SURGXNWyZ ODGRZ\FKPR HZ\PDJDüUR]EXGRZDQLDPHFKDQL

]PXRGDOV]HUHDNFMHHOHPHQWDUQHDUyZQLH SURFHV\IL]\F]QHWDNLHMDN]PLDQDVWDQX

F]\Z]EXG]HQLHHOHNWURQRZHF] VWHF]HN

-DNR EDUG]R SURVW\ SU]\NáDG PR H WX SRVáX \ü W]Z PHFKDQL]P =HOGRZLF]D SR

wstawania tlenków az

RWXZPLHV]DQLQDFK1

L2

ZZ\VRNLFKWHPSHUDWXUDFK3U]\M

PXM FUHDNFM ]JRGQ ]UyZQDQLHPFKHPLF]Q\PQDOH \Z\WáXPDF]\üGODF]HJR

UyZQDQLHNLQHW\F]QHPDSRVWDüS=HOGRZLF]]DSURSRQRZDáQDVW SXM FH

UHDNFMHHOHPHQWDUQH

2

0⇔220

21

⇒121

12

⇒122

=DNáDGDP\ HSRZVWDQLH12PXVLSRSU]HG]LüG\VRFMDFMDF] VWHF]NL2

1

WUXG

QLHMG\VRFMXMH]HZ]JO GXQD]QDF]QLHZL NV] HQHUJL ZL ]DQLDL HUHDNFMD

]QDMGXMH VL Z VWDQLH UyZQRZDJL 5ównanie kinetyczne powstawania NO powinno

ZL FPLHüSRVWDü

G>12@GW N

!

0

>2@>1

@N

!

;

>1@>2

@

5HDNFMD MHVW VLOQLH HQGRWHUPLF]QD L SRZROQD D HJ]RWHUPLF]QD

LV]\END >1@ ]D EDUG]R QLVNLH 'ODWHJR SUDNW\F]QLH ZV]\VWNLH SRZVWDáH Z UHDNFML

DWRP\1JLQ ZUHDNFML3RXZ]JO GQLHQLXW\FKIDNWyZPR QDQDSLVDü

G>12@GW N

!

0

>2@>1

@ N

!

0

.

O

>2

@

;

<

>1

@

co odpowiada postaci równania kinetycznego (1.8), podanego w

S JG]LH

N N

!

0

.

+O

;

<

*G\E\UR]ZD DQRXNáDG]HVWRVXQNRZRGX \PVW HQLHPZROQ\FKURG

ników, nal

H DáRE\XZ]JO GQLüMHV]F]HUHDNFM

2+1→12+

D JG\E\ WH EUDQR SRG XZDJ SRZVWDZDQLH 12

QDOH DáRE\ PHFKDQL]P SRV]HU]\ü

RUHDNFMHXWOHQLDQLD12

6WDQVWDFMRQDUQ\

-HVWWRSU]\EOL HQLHNWyUHVWUDFLáREDUG]RQD]QDF]HQLXJG\G]L NLPHWRGRPNRP

SXWHURZ\P VWDáR VL PR OLZH REOLF]DQLH VW H VNáDGQLNyZ Z ]áR RQ\FK XNáDGDFK

FKHPLF]Q\FKZIXQNFMLF]DVX-HVWRQRMHGQDNQDGDOSU]\GDWQHJG\FKRG]LRSU]HG

VWDZLHQLHZSURVWHMIRUPLHSU]\EOL RQ\FK]DOH QR FLQSSRPL G]\VW HQLDPLZRO

Q\FKURGQLNyZZGDQ\PXNáDG]LH=DNáDGDVL HMH HOLUHDNFMDSU]HELHJD]XG]LDáHP

SURGXNWyZSR UHGQLFKWDNLFKMDNZROQHDWRP\URGQLNLOXEF] VWHF]NLZ]EXG]RQH;

WRSRGF]DVUHDNFMLLFKVW HQLHPXVLSU]HM üSU]H]PDNVLPXPJG\G>;@GW 'OD

"$#%'&%'(

)+*,

RPDZLDQHJRSURFHVXSRZVWDZDQLD12SURGXNWHPSR UHGQLPV DWRP\1=DáR RQR

H1

QLHG\VRFMXMHD>1@MHVW]E\WQLVNLHQDUHNRPELQDFM WUyMF] VWHF]NRZ ZL F

G>1@GW N

!

0

>2@>1

@–N

!

;

>1@>2

@

:IRUPLHSR UHGQLHMIDNWWHQMX XZ]JO GQLRQRSRSU]HGQLR

5HDNFMHáD FXFKRZH

3RGF]DVVSDODQLDSáRPLHQLRZHJRUHDNFMHáD FXFKRZHVWDQRZL JáyZQ\WU]RQPH

FKDQL]PXUHDNFML1DMZD QLHMV]HUHDNFMHHOHPHQWDUQHVNáDGDM VL ]DZV]H]SURFHVX

powstawania wolnych rodników R (inicjacji) i

HWDSyZSU]HGáX HQLDáD FXFKD]RGWZR

U]HQLHPZND G\PNROHMQ\PF\NOXMHGQHJROXEZL FHMSLHUZRWQHJRURGQLNDZUHDN

FMDFKW\SX

3DOLZR5

9

→3URGXNW5

:

8WOHQLDF]5

:

→3URGXNW

α

5

9

JG]LH

α

WRZVSyáF]\QQLNUR]JDá ]LHQLDáD FXFKD*G\

α

–áD FXFKMHVWSURVW\

MH OL

α

!–UR]JDá ]LRQ\

1DMSURVWV]\PSU]\NáDGHPáD FXFKDSURVWHJRMHVWUHDNFMD+

L&O

0LHV]DQLQDW\FK

JD]yZZ\EXFKDSRGZSá\ZHP ZLDWáDQLHELHVNLHJRDEVRUERZDQHJRSU]H]F] VWHF]NL

&O

NWyUHXOHJDM IRWRG\VRFMDFML

LQLFMDFMD

&O

K

ν

→&O&O

SU]HGáX HQLH

&O+

→+&O+

áD FXFKD

+&O

→+&O&O

5HDNFMHWHWU]HEDMHV]F]HX]XSHáQLüRUHDNFMHREHUZDQLDáD FXFKDF]\OLUHNRPEL

QDFM ZROQ\FKURGQLNyZ

++0→+

0

+&O0→+&O0

&O&O0→&O

0

-H HOLUHDNFMD]DFKRG]LZQDF]\QLXWU]HEDWH XZ]JO GQLüUHNRPELQDFM URGQLNyZ

QDMHJR FLDQDFK

.DWDOL]DLQKLELFMD

:QDMV]HUV]\P]QDF]HQLXNDWDOL]DWRUMHVWWRVXEVWDQFMDNWyUHMREHFQR üZPLHV]D

QLQLH UHDNF\MQHM ZSá\ZD QD V]\ENR ü UHDNFML L F]DV SRWU]HEQ\ QD RVL JQL FLH VWDQX

UyZQRZDJL$QLVWDáDUyZQRZDJLRGNWyUHM]DOH \PDNV\PDOQ\VWRSLH SU]HUHDJRZD

QLDDQLHQWDOSLDUHDNFMLQLHXOHJDM ]PLDQLH.DWDOL]DWRU]PLHQLDV]\ENR üUHDNFMLJOR

EDOQHMZREXNLHUXQNDFKSRQLHZD ]PLHQLDPHFKDQL]PUHDNFMLDOHQLHMHVWZVWDQLH

ZSá\Q üQDUHDNFM ZVWDQLHUyZQRZDJL%LHU]HRQXG]LDáZUHDNFMDFKHOHPHQWDUQ\FK

DOHSR]RVWDMHSR]RUQLHQLH]PLHQLRQ\']LHMHVL WDNGODWHJRL ZREHFQR FLNDWDOL]DWR

UDWZRU]\VL LQQ\NRPSOHNVSU]HM FLRZ\NWyUHJRSRZVWDQLHZ\PDJDPQLHMV]HMHQHU

JLLDNW\ZDFML∆(

P

, dla obu kierunków reakcji, tzn.

∆

(

=

A

P

∆(

=

L∆(

>

A

P

∆(

>

-H HOL6

.L3R]QDF]DM RGSRZLHGQLRVXEVWUDWNDWDOL]DWRULSURGXNWWRUHDNFM EH]LZREHFQR

FLNDWDOL]DWRUDPR QD]DSLVDü

6→6

∗

→3

6.→6.→3.

JG]LH6

∗

–

NRPSOHNVSU]HM FLRZ\EH]XG]LDáXNDWDOL]DWRUDD6.–]NDWDOL]DWRUHP

5HDNFMDNDWDOL]RZDQDSU]HELHJDQRZ HQHUJHW\F]QLHáDWZLHMV] GURJ =PLDQ\HQHU

JHW\F]QH]DFKRG] FHSRGF]DVUHDNFMLSU]HGVWDZLRQRVFKHPDW\F]QLHQDU\VXQNX

"RQST,T

,'TUWVX+YKZ(

)[) \]

Q^)_

` (Y1X)+\_

`+(Xa

X+bcXV]

)+YIVQ_+d

,QKLELFMDE\ZDRNUH ODQDMDNRQHJDW\ZQDNDWDOL]DERLQKLELWRU]DPLDVWSU]\VSLH

V]DüUHDNFM RSy QLDRVL JQL FLHVWDQXUyZQRZDJL7DNLHRNUH OHQLHQLFMHGQDNQLH

PyZL R PHFKDQL]PLH HIHNWX *G\E\ LQKLELWRU G]LDáDá MDNR DQW\NDWDOL]DWRU UHDNFMD

ZREHFQR FLLQKLELWRUDPXVLDáDE\SU]HELHJDüVSRQWDQLF]QLHGURJ WUXGQLHMV] FRMHVW

VSU]HF]QH]GR ZLDGF]HQLHP–ND G\XNáDGG \GRVWDQXUyZQRZDJLGURJ QDMEDU

G]LHMSUDZGRSRGREQ ,QKLELWRUPXVLZL FG]LDáDüLQDF]HMQL NDWDOL]DWRU–SRZRGXMH

]DEORNRZDQLH]Z\NáHMGURJLUHDNFMLWDNL UHDNFMD]RVWDMH]DWU]\PDQDOXESU]HELHJD

ZROQLHM0R HWH NDWDOL]RZDüUHDNFM NRQNXUHQF\MQ

:SURFHVDFKVSDODQLDZ\VW SXMHZLHOHUHDNFMLNDWDOLW\F]Q\FK–MHGQ\P]QDMOHS

V]\FKSU]\NáDGyZMHVWZSá\Z ZLOJRFLQDVSDODQLHWOHQNXZ JOD&2&] VWHF]N 0

Z\VW SXM F Z ZLHOX UHDNFMDFK HOHPHQWDUQ\FK V]F]HJyOQLH UHDNFMDFK UHNRPELQDFML

WH PR QDX]QDü]DNDWDOL]DWRUFKRüMDNRQR QLNHQHUJLLG]LDáDM F\UDF]HMIL]\F]QLH

QL FKHPLF]QLH

"$#%'&%'(

)+*,

5HDNFMH]XG]LDáHPFLDáDVWDáHJR

5HDNFMLW\FKMHVWZLHOHLRGJU\ZDM RQHZFKHPLLRJURPQ URO OHF]]HZ]JO GXQD

SURFHV\VSDODQLDZ\VWDUF]\Z\PLHQLüGZLH
5R]NáDGFLDáDVWDáHJR]SRZVWDQLHPSURGXNWyZJD]RZ\FK

3U]\NáDGDPL WDNLFK UHDNFML PRJ E\ü WHUPLF]Q\ UR]NáDG Z JODQyZ NDOF\QDFMD

RUD]Z\G]LHODQLHVL VXEVWDQFMLORWQ\FK]]LDUQDZ JODZSURFHVLHRGJD]RZDQLD6]\E

NR üWDNLFKSURFHVyZPR HE\üRJUDQLF]RQDWUDQVSRUWHPFLHSáDGRSRZLHU]FKQLDOH

UyZQLH PR H]DOH HüRG]PLDQVWUXNWXUDOQ\FKZFLHOHVWDá\P
5HDNFMDFLDáRVWDáH±JD]]SRZVWDQLHPSURGXNWyZJD]RZ\FK

7HQ W\SUHDNFML Z\VW SXMH SRGF]DV VSDODQLDSDOLZ SR]EDZLRQ\FK F] FL ORWQ\FK

W]QNRNVXOXEJUDILWX0R QDWXZ\Uy QLüVWDGLDWUDQVSRUW2

GRSRZLHU]FKQLRGG]LD

á\ZDQLH2

]SRZLHU]FKQL DGVRUSFMDIL]\F]QDOXEFKHPLVRUSFMDUHDNFMDFKHPLF]QD

]SRZVWDZDQLHPSURGXNWXGHVRUSFMDSURGXNWX]SRZLHU]FKQLRUD]G\IX]MDSURGXNWX

RGSRZLHU]FKQL:SU]\SDGNXPDWHULDáówSRURZDW\FKPRJ Z\VW SLüMHV]F]HHIHNW\

GRGDWNRZH]ZL ]DQH]G\IX]M ZSRUDFK2V]\ENR FLFDáHJRSURFHVXF]\OLNLQHW\FH

UHDNFML JOREDOQHM E G]LH ]DZV]H GHF\GRZDá HWDS QDMSRZROQLHMV]\ – Z ZDUXQNDFK

SUDNW\F]Q\FKMHVWWRF] VWRSRSURVWXG\IX]MD2

GRSRZLHU]FKQL3RGF]DVQDSU]\NáDG

VSDODQLD]LDUHQZ JODSURFHV\FKHPLF]QHVWDM VL F]\QQLNLHPRJUDQLF]DM F\PMHG\QLH

GOD ]LDUHQ EDUG]R GUREQ\FK 5ROD ZVW SQHM DGVRUSFML VWDMH VL QDWRPLDVW ZLGRF]QD

SRGF]DVXWOHQLDQLDQLVNRWHPSHUDWXURZHJRSRQL HMRN.QSVDG]\JG\ RGJU\

ZDWXURO UR]ZLQL FLHSRZLHU]FKQL

:\EXFK\

:\EXFK\WHUPLF]QHLáD FXFKRZH

*G\ VXEVWUDW\ ]QDMGXM FH VL Z RJUDQLF]RQHM REM WR FL UHDJXM HJ]RWHUPLF]QLH

LV]\ENR]SRZVWDZDQLHPSURGXNWyZJD]RZ\FKZXNáDG]LHZ\VW SLQDJá\VNRNFL

QLHQLD – Z\EXFK =MDZLVNR WR PR HP\ UR]SDWU\ZDü ]DNáDGDM F W]Z PHFKDQL]P

WHUPLF]Q\OXEXRJyOQLRQ UHDNFM áD FXFKRZ

:QDMSURVWV]\PXM FLXZ\EXFKWHUPLF]Q\SRZLQLHQQDVW SLüJG\LOR üFLHSáDZ\

ZL ]\ZDQHJR Z XNáDG]LH Z Z\QLNX UHDNFML FKHPLF]QHM SU]HNUDF]D VWUDW\ FLHSOQH

7HPSHUDWXUDXNáDGXPXVLZWHG\Z]URVQ üFRZSRá F]HQLX]G]LDáDQLHPSUDZD$UU

KHQLXVDSURZDG]LQLHXFKURQQLHGRGDOV]HJR]ZL NV]HQLDV]\ENR FLUHDNFML:\VW SXMH

ZL FGRGDWQLHVSU] HQLH]ZURWQH–UHDNFMDPXVLVWDOHSU]\VSLHV]DüD GRF]DVXJG\

VXEVWUDW\]DF]Q VL Z\F]HUS\ZDü:SU]\SDGNXUHDNFMLZID]LHJD]RZHMSRZRGXMHWR

Z\VW SLHQLHGROQHMJUDQLF\Z\EXFKXWRMHVWFL QLHQLDSRF] WNRZHJRPLHV]DQLQ\SDO

QHMSRQL HMNWyUHJRUHDNFMDSU]HELHJD]V]\ENR FL XVWDORQ :SUDNW\FH]DFKRZDQLH

WDNLHGRPLQXMHW\ONRZSU]\SDGNDFKGR üQLHW\SRwych, np. podczas wybuchów azR

tanu metylu, niektórych nadtlenków i azydków. Pospolite mieszaniny palne, zawier

D

M FHZRGyUF]\Z JORZRGRU\DWDN HSDU\IRVIRUXVLDUNLF]\GLVLDUF]HNZ JODLSR

ZLHWU]HOXEWOHQ]DFKRZXM VL LQDF]HM=ZL NV]HQLHV]\ENR FLUHDNFML]HZ]URVWHP

WHPSHUDWXU\RF]\ZL FLHZ\VW SXMHOHF]R]DFKRZDQLXVL XNáDGXGHF\GXM Z]QDF]

Q\PVWRSQLXUHDNFMHZROQRURGQLNRZH

*UDQLFHZ\EXFKXGODUHDNFMLáD FXFKRZ\FK]DSáRQL]RWHUPLF]Q\

-H HOLPLHV]DQLQ SDOQ RJU]HZDVL ZQDF]\QLX]DPNQL W\PZ\EXFKQDVW SXMH

JG\ ]RVWDQLH RVL JQL WD W]Z WHPSHUDWXUD VDPR]DSáRQX 7HPSHUDWXUD WD E G]LH QDM

QL V]D7

efAg

GODPLHV]DQLQ\SRGFL QLHQLHPS

g

:WHPSHUDWXU]H7

e

!7

g

LVWQLHM GROQD

'DOV]HLVWRWQHFHFK\Z\EXFKyZáD FXFKRZ\FK]REUD]RZDQRQDU\VXQNX:IRU

PLH V]NLFX SU]HGVWDZLRQR Z]JO GQ V]\ENR ü UHDNFML ]DOH Q RG VW HQLD ZROQ\FK

URGQLNyZZIXQNFMLFL QLHQLDPLHV]DQLQ\SZVWDáHMWHPSHUDWXU]H7

e

JG]LH7

efA

g

7

e

7

eIA

0

-H HOLGRPLHV]DQLQ\]RVWDQLHZSURZDG]RQ\JD]RERM WQ\JUDQLFHS

;

LS

SU]H

VXQ VL GR

*

1

S

L

*

2

S

:REHFQR FLJD]XRERM WQHJRPLHV]DQLQDVWDMHVL EDUG]LHMZ\

EXFKRZDZRNROLF\S

;

DOHPQLHMZ\EXFKRZDZSREOL XS

QDWRPLDVWSRGF]DVZ\EX

FKX WHUPLF]QHJR GRGDWHN JD]X RERM WQHJR SRZLQLHQ ]DZV]H ]PQLHMV]Dü Z\EXFKR

ZR ü =MDZLVND WH PR QD Z\WáXPDF]\ü ]D SRPRF XRJyOQLRQHJR PHFKDQL]PX GOD

UR]JDá ]LRQ\FKUHDNFMLáD FXFKRZ\FK

L JyUQD FL QLHQLRZD JUDQLFD ]DSáRQX S

;

L S

, poza którymi mieszanina przest

DMH

E\üZ\EXFKRZD'ODQLHNWyU\FKXNáDdów

PR HZ\VW SLüMHV]F]HWU]HFLDJUDQLFDS

!

SRZ\ HM NWyUHM Z\EXFK VWDMH VL ]QyZ

PR OLZ\ 3RZ\ HM WHPSHUDWXU\ 7

eIA

0

MHVW

MX W\ONRMHGQD–GROQD–JUDQLFDZ\EX

chu, jak podczas wybuchów te

UPLF]Q\FK

6\WXDFM W SU]HGVWDZLRQRVFKHPDW\F]QLH

QDU\VXQNX

"RQST,T

hTi$Y1)+V(

_XR^jQ'kl_+dl

&a

)mSI]

X_+d(

#bnX+]

YfQ_%VX

`bn(

XSK%)+V(

VQompWqr$pKs

^tV)_+%QV(

lu\la

(

Sf]

Qbv#jwY1#bn(

XV(

lyxs

z_+bys

%[w#'^u(

X YK%'_+dV(

w#\YfQ]

^) YKSK]

^

{u|}a

~

^ZX+^u(

S1)[(€#VUa

kX

‚ƒI„

"$#%'&%'(

)+*,

3URVWDWHRULDUHDNFMLáD FXFKRZ\FK]RVWDáDRSUDFRZDQDMHV]F]HZODWDFK-H HOL

5WRURGQLNDNW\ZQ\SHáHQF\NOUHDNFMLáD FXFKRZHMPR QDSU]HGVWDZLüVXPDU\F]QLH

MDNR

5 6XEVWUDW\ → 3URGXNW\

α

5

JG]LH

α

–ZVSyáF]\QQLNUR]JDá ]LHQLDáD FXFKD

α

!

=DNáDGDP\ HV]\ENR üLQLFMDFML

ρ

6

MHVWVWDáD5RGQLNPR HEUDüXG]LDáZUHDNFML

UR]JDá ]LHQLDáD FXFKDDJLQ üZSURFHVLHU] GXG\IXQGXM FGR FLDQ\QDF]\QLDOXE

UHDJXM F]MHGQ\P]VXEVWUDWyZZREHFQR FLWU]HFLHMF] VWHF]NL0]Z\WZRU]HQLHP

QLHUHDNW\ZQHJRSURGXNWXPR HUyZQLH á F]\üVL ]LQQ\PURGQLNLHPWH ]XG]LDáHP

0-H HOLSR]RUQHVWDáHV]\ENR FLGODW\FKSURFHVyZWRRGSRZLHGQLRIJ

…

J

?

LKVW

HQLH5E G]LHVL ]PLHQLDáRQDSRF] WNXUHDNFML]JRGQLH]UyZQDQLHPNLQHW\F]Q\P

G>5@GW

ρ

6

I>6@>5@–J

…

J

?

>6@>0@>5@–K>0@>5@

3U]HG ]DSáRQHP UHNRPELQDFM GUXJLHJR U] GX Z]JO GHP >5@ PR QD SRPLQ ü ]H

Z]JO GXQDEDUG]RQLHZLHONLHVW HQLHURGQLNyZ5QDW\PHWDSLHUHDNFML3RSRGVWD

ZLHQLXI I>6@LJ J

…

J

?

>6@>0@RWU]\PXMHP\

G>5@GW

ρ

6

I–J>5@

=DFKRZDQLHVL XNáDGXE G]LH]DOH DáRRGZDUWR FLI–J-H OLSU]\MPLHP\ H

>5@ JG\W UR]ZL ]DQLHPUyZQDQLDMHVW

>5@

ρ

6

I–J^H[SI–JW–`

-H OLIJJG\ZDUWR FLWV GX HUHDNFMDRVL JDRVWDWHF]QLHVNR F]RQ XVWDOR

Q V]\ENR üSU]\>5@ UJ–I-H HOLMHGQDNI!JZDUWR ü>5@Z]UDVWDZ\NáDG

niczo w czasie i jest to równ

R]QDF]QH]Z\VW SLHQLHPZ\EXFKX

"RQST,T

†T‡_+dXbn)+]

Q_%V(

XRwYI%'X&Sf]

) ^u(

#V)

%)a

X

V#

ˆ[SK%Qk\#

_(Y1X)+\_

` (*

)

_+l_+d#'^X

`

#&_(

V(

X+V(

)Rbn(

XSK%')+V(

VQYKX)+\_+Q1`KVX

`s

^‰Sf]

)+*

X

`]

X+buwX+Y1)+]

lYf%'XŠ

~

^uZ‹Œla

_)

hy’ego [6]):

bn(

XS1%') V(

V)Rw)a

V)s

bn(

XS1%')+V(

V)

%j&#&)+]

\(

X+bZ)%lc#k#K`

]

VXZ#

Ž‘’

“”

•“–

“—’

“˜‘™“—’

š‘›’œ’

—

›œ“

žyŸ ¡¢

£ u¤¢

¥Ÿ ¦u§K¨ R©}ª$«

¬­^) YIlV\)_+d®Z'Y )+V(

_+%VQ_+d¯°±³²R°

s$)´^u(

_µZ&Q®&#bc(

Vl1`+X´Y1X+\#bck

inacja wolnych rodników na p

#¶

^u(

X+Yf%'_+dV(

s

¯nI‡ƒD±c²·

~

,'T

‚¸'„

¹+X

Xa

(ºw#'^u(

X+Yf%'_+dV(

)R` XSf]})+\]

Q^jV)c(W\)+]

)a

(

%l `+XuY1X)+\_

`

YKX+\#'buk(

V)_

` (

sºX+]

) wX+b»#ZY )+V(

_+%')

`

_+Qb¼Sf]

)

` XnS1(

&Q½

l%I`)$"¾&#jw#^u(

X+Yf%'_+dV(

T¨Q\)+%)+V#s

X

²

·

±

Γ

π

¿ÀÁ

Λ

¿

~

,'T

‚D, „

Z&%'(

XÂ

Γ

–

^SIwÃ*

_+%QVV(

\ykX%^jQbn(

)+YK#'^QcYf%

&'lm` X&'V#

_(

~

,s

¸n&a

)mV)_+%Q'V(

)j\la

(

Sf]

XZ#sD¸s

‚Än&a

)_+Qa

(

V&'YfQ_+%¶

VXZ#„Ks

À

–

^uSfwÃ*

_+%QVV(

\n&'Q½

l%I`+(

Å

Λ

–

_+d) YK) \]

X YIQSf]

Q_%VQj^Qbn(

)+YWV)_%QV(

)

~

wY1#'bc(

X

\la

(

„1T

Æa

)jbn(

XSK%')+V(

VQÇ#´Sf]

)+*

QbÈSK\*

)&%'(

Xj^) YI]

#

ˆ

À

`+XSf]#&'^jYK#']

V(

Xsº)j^u) YI]

#

ˆy

‡ƒ^jwY1#Sf]ºwYK#'w#'YK_

`+#'V)a

V)&#

_(

V(

X+V(

)s_%Qa

(

¯nI‡ƒD±

œ

α

•

sSK\

&m^QV(

\)s

X[Z&'Q&#a

VQ(

V&X+\SÉ%'X+Y1#j#%V)_+%')R^u) YIlV\(#&'V(

XS1(

X+V(

)

•[Ê

Λ

±

~

Γ

π

¿

ÀcË

•

Ë

Á

œ

α

„º±´_#'VSK]

)+VS

~

,'T

‚h„

ÌW(

X+YI^uSf%)uZY1)+V(

_)%')a

X

Qc^u(

_#&cY1#%bc(

) YKÃ^V)_+%QV(

)s)u#kX_+V#

ˆZ)%l´#k#K`

]

VXZ#y_%QV(Dbn(

XSK%)+V(

V

k) Y1&'%(

X

`^mQkl_+d#^

s#'kV(

)

`

_

À

Ë

T

¬t) YI]

#Í%)+l^u)

Qˆs$(

%')a

X

V#

ˆ´]

XbwX+Y1)+]

lYK#'^)

•

Êj^jQV(

\)%µwYK#'w#Y _

`+#V)a

V#

_(

•

Êu&#

~

À

Ë

Á

œ

α

„

Ê

Î

¿

s}_#

^³wYI%Q'ka

(

X V(

l

~

w#'bc(

` )

`

_}%)a

X

V#

ˆ]

X buwX Y1) ]

lYf#^

À

„DSIwYK#^u)&'%')RSK(

&#

•

∼

XÏw

~

∆

Ð

α

Á

hÑjŠºÒ

Ó Ô'Õ

Ö×'Ò

•

ÊØnÙÚ

Û

Ü+ÛÝuÞ

ßcà'ÛcÝjàá1âãfä

Û+Øåä

ÛØnæÛ+á1Ù+ä

ç'áfèà´ã1àè'éêâ

ßÞ

à'ëÛ+ä

Û+áfØcÞ

ìâ'ÝÙ+ì

æáfà'Û+àÇÛ+ìÛ+áKíÞ

Ù+êä

èÝuÙß

Ü+ÞÉáKÛÙ+êß

Ü+Þ

á1âà'íÙ î

à'Þ

Û+ìÞ

Ù}î

Ù

ß+çß+ïÙ

∆

Ð

Õ

žyŸ ¡¢

£ uðDŸñò $©ªó

ôÙ+êyæâæáfà'ÛëìÞ

âõØçã ÞDéèöcãIæÛ+î

ìÞ

â'ìènÝÙ+áIçìÛ+ê¯n°+÷´²}°

õDÙÚ

ÛuëÚ

Ùuíá Ù+ìÞ

ß+è´ëáfçíÞ

Û

ÜmØnâ

ìÙæâØnÞ

ì

öjáKÛÙ êß

Ü Û

æâ'ÝuÞ

Û+áKà'ß+ïìÞ

â'ÝuÛõÝuÞ

ß

¯t÷²øù

úŒû

Ó Ô'Õ

ÖüÒ

ù

úŒûÜ+ÛãfäæáKâ'æâ'áKß

Ü+âìÙÚ

ìÛmëâcßÞ

ìÞ

Û+ìÞ

ÙõÝÙ áfä

â

ö

•

¿

ÝjèìÞ

êÙ$ÝuÞ

ßRàß+ïÙ á1Ù êä

Û áIçmúýÞãfä

âãfçìêçyãfä

Ù+î

èß+ïyãfàèéêâ

ßÞ

á1âà'íÙ î

à'Þ

Û+ìÞ

Ù}î

Ù

ß+çß+ïÙ[ÞáKÛ+êâ'ØuéÞ

ìÙß

Ü+Þ

•

¿

∼

¯mþ

²

ø

Ó Ô'Õ

ÖÖ'Ò

ÿ

Û+êäjíÙ+àç®â'éâKÜ

ä

ìÛíâcÜ ÛãKä$ÝuÞ

ßyä

èØ

ÝuÞ

êãKàèõ}Þ

Ø

Ú

Û+æãKàÙmÜ+ÛãfämÛ

Û+êä

èÝjìâ

öëÙ+ìÛíâŒä

èæç³ß+à

ãKä

ÛßàêÞ

ÝtáKÛÙ+êß

Ü+ÞáKÛ êâ'ØuéÞ

ìÙß

Ü+Þ

Õ

}ÙÚ

Û

ìâ

öRä

Û+ØuæÛ+á1Ù+ä

çáKâ'ÝÙ[ëáfçíÞ

Û

ÜRí'á1Ù+ìÞ

ß+èÜ+Ûãfäà'ëÛ+ä

Û+áfØcÞ

ìâ'ÝuÙ+ìÙRæáIàÛà[á

ìÞ

ß

Û+ìÛ+á1íÞ

ÞÙ+êä

èÝÙß

Ü+Þá1ÛÙ+êß

Ü+Þ

á1âà'íÙ î

à'Þ

Û+ìÞ

Ù$î

Ù

ß+çß+ïÙmÞá1Û+êâØéÞ

ìÙß

Ü+ÞÝfÙ+àÞ

ÛmíÙà'â'ÝÛ

Üõæâ'ìÞ

Û+ÝÙ

Ü+Ûë'ìÙ+êá1ÛÙ êß

ÜÙRáKÛ+êâ'ØuéÞ

ìÙß

Ü ÞØnÙ$éÙ áKëà'â

ìÞ

Û+ÝuÞ

ÛÚ

ê

õ'æâ'à'â'áIìÞ

ÛRç1Ü+Û+Øcì

õÛ+ìÛ+áKíÞ

Ù+êä

èÝÙß

Ü+Þ

õØnâ

ìÙRæáIàè1Ü

öõ

Û

•

¿

∼

Û'æ$Ó

–

Ð

α

þ

RÒ

Ó Ô'Õ

Ö'Ò

tÙ áfä

â

ö

•

¿

àÝuÞ

êãfàÙ[ã1Þ

ÝÞ

ßRà'Û}ÝàáKâãfä

Û+Ø

ä

ÛØæÛ+á Ù+ä

çáfèã1àè'éßÞ

Û

ÜìÞ

ØnÙÚ

Û

Ü+Û

•

ÊIÕ

žyŸ ¡¢

£ 1Ÿ ¨'¥£¢

 R©}ª

á1Ù+ìÞ

ßÙ[ä

ÙºÜ+Ûãfää

áIçë'ìÞ

Û

ÜãKàÙmëâÝèàìÙßà'Û+ìÞ

Ù$ìÞ

ë'ÝÞ

Û$æâæáKà'ÛëìÞ

ÛÕáfàèKÜ Øç1ÜÛã1Þ

ßà

ãfä

âõ

Û[Ýmèãfä

æâ'ÝuÙ

ìÞ

ÛDÜ Û

ÜÜ+ÛãfäºãfæâÝuâëâÝÙ+ìÛ$ÝàáKâãfä

Û ØàìÙß+à'Û+ìÞ

Ù[ÛIÛ êä

Ýtä

Û áfØcÞ

ßàìèß+ïÕÍâ

ìÙ}ä

Û

æáIàè1Ü

öõ

ÛRæáKàèjÝèã1â'êÞ

ß+ï

ßÞ

ìÞ

Û+ìÞ

Ùß+ï´ë'è

çàIÜ+ÙjØnÙ+î

âyÙ+êä

èÝjìèß+ïná1âë'ìÞ

ê'Ý

ëâ

ßÞ

Ù+ìnìÙß+àèìÞ

ÙÜ+Ûãfäºçä

áIçë'ìÞ

â'ìÙÞWÞ

ß+ï´â'éÛß+ìâ

öãIä

Ù

Ü Ûã1Þ

æáKàèßàèì

áKâà'íÙ+î

à'Þ

Û+ìÞ

Ù}î

Ù

ß+çß+ïÙ'Õ

0HFKDQL]P\VSDODQLDSDOLZZID]LHJD]RZHM

0HFKDQL]P\VSDODQLDSDOLZPDM FKDUDNWHUKLHUDUFKLF]Q\–V]F]HJyáRZ\PHFKD

QL]PVSDODQLDND GHJR]Z JORZRGRUyZ]DZLHUDZVRELHUHDNFMHHOHPHQWDUQHZV]\VW

$âà'ëà'Þ

Ù+îÔ

NLFKZ JORZRGRUyZQL V]\FKWOHQNXZ JODLZRGRUX5HDNFMH]DFKRG] FHZXNáDG]LH

+

2

PR QDX]QDü]DQDMEDUG]LHMSRGVWDZRZHRPyZLRQRMHZL FQDMGRNáDGQLHM

8NáDG+

2

0HFKDQL]PUHDNFML

-DNMX VWZLHUG]RQRND G\]áR RQ\SURFHVFKHPLF]Q\PR QDSU]HGVWDZLDüQDUy

Q\FK SR]LRPDFK GRNáDGQR FL =DF]QLHP\ RG UHDNFML HOHPHQWDUQ\FK XZD DQ\FK ]D

SLHUZV]RSODQRZH ]DNáDGDM F LQLFMDFM SURFHVX SU]H] G\VRFMDFM F] VWHF]NL +

SR

NWyUHMQDVW SL UHDNFMH

+2

→22+

2+

→+2+

2++

→+

2+

5HDNFMHLGDM UR]JDá ]LHQLHáD FXFKDDOHHQHUJLDDNW\ZDFMLUHDNFML

MHVWVWRVXQNRZRGX DRNN--DNRSRZROQLHMV]DUHDNFMDWDVWDMHVL ZL F

HWDSHPRJUDQLF]DM F\PLGHF\GXMHZ ]QDF]QHMPLHU]HR V]\ENR FLZ]URVWXVW HQLD

URGQLNyZZXNáDG]LH5HDNFMDVWDQRZLSU]HGáX HQLHáD FXFKD]SRZVWDZDQLHP

SURGXNWX:ROQHURGQLNL+2+L2PRJ ]QLNQ ü]XNáDGXG\IXQGXM FGR FLDQQD

F]\QLD OXE – MDN WR VL G]LHMH Z SáRPLHQLDFK – UHNRPELQRZDü Z ID]LH JD]RZHM

ZUHDNFMDFKWUyMF] VWHF]NRZ\FK

++0→+

0

+2+0→+

20

+2

0→+2

0

5HDNFMH]XG]LDáHPDWRPRZHJRWOHQXSRPLQL WRSRQLHZD VWDáHV]\ENR FLUHDNFML

– V SRGREQHJR U] GX ZLHONR FL D ]Z\NOH >2@ >+@ >2+@ 5HDNFMD

GRPLQXMHZSáRPLHQLDFK]QDGPLDUHPWOHQXRUD]SU]HG]DSáRQHPJG\ ZV]\VW

NLHUHDNFMHU] GX,,Z]JO GHPZROQ\FKURGQLNyZNWyU\FKVW HQLDV MHV]F]HEDUG]R

QLHZLHONLHVWDM VL ZWHG\SRPLMDOQH

3RVáXJXM F VL W\ONR W\PL UHDNFMDPL HOHPHQWDUQ\PL PR QD VWZRU]\ü Z]JO GQLH

SRSUDZQ\REUD]]MDZLVN]DFKRG] F\FKSRGF]DVZ\EXFKyZZPLHV]DQLQDFK+

2

LZNLQHW\F]Q\FKSáRPLHQLDFKZRGRURZ\FK3U]\EDUG]LHMZQLNOLZ\FKUR]ZD DQLDFK

]ZáDV]F]DGODQL V]\FKWHPSHUDWXUWU]HEDXZ]JO GQLDüGRGDWNRZHSURGXNW\SR UHGQLH

RUD]GRGDWNRZHUHDNFMHV]F]HJyOQLHWH]XG]LDáHPURGQLNDK\GURSHURNV\ORZHJR+2

LQDGWOHQNXZRGRUX+

2

WDNLHMDN

+2

+

→+

2

+

+2

+→2+2+

+

2

0→2+2+

Ž‘’

“”

•“–

“—’

“˜‘™“—’

š‘›’œ’

—

›œ“

+2

+2

→+

2

2

++

2

→+

22+

++

2

→+

+2

2++

2

→+

2+2

6FKHPDW WHQ PR QD GDOHM UR]V]HU]Dü SU]H] Zá F]HQLH UHDNFML ] XG]LDáHP D]RWX

LXZ]JO GQienie powstawania tlenków azotu12

. Jest to szczególnie wskazane dla

WHPSHUDWXUSRQDG.
:ROQHURGQLNLUyZQRZDJDSR]RUQD

5HDNFMHLRUD]SRGZRMRQDUHDNFMDWZRU] UD]HPMHGQRRJQLZR

áD FXFKDUHDNFMLVXPDU\F]QLH

2

+

→+

2+

7DNDUHDNFMDJOREDOQDPDMHGQDNQLHZLHON HJ]RWHUPLF]QR üLEH]UHNRPELQDFMLZRO

nych rodników w bogatej mieszaninie H

SRZLHWU]HPRJáDE\GRSURZDG]LüGRZ\WZR

U]HQLDVL GRREMDWRPRZHJR+FRRF]\ZL FLHQLHPR HZ\VW SLü3RQLHZD MHGQDN

UHDNFMH SU]HGáX HQLD L UR]JDá ]LHQLD áD FXFKD V WR V]\ENLH FKDUDNWHU\VW\F]QH F]DV\

UHDNFMLRNPVSURFHV\GZXF] VWHF]NRZHUHDNFMHUHNRPELQDFMLV ZSáRPLHQLDFK

WUyMF] VWHF]NRZHLVWRVXQNRZRSRZROQHF]DV\U] GXPLOLVHNXQGZ\WZDU]DQHZVWUHILH

UHDNFMLZROQHURGQLNLXWU]\PXM VL ZVW HQLDFKSRQDGUyZQRZDJRZ\FKMHV]F]HZVWUH

ILHSRSáRPLHQQHM3RQDGWRUHDNFMHGZXF] VWHF]NRZHRVL JDM ZVWUHILHUHDNFMLVWDQSR

zornej równowagi,

W]QLFKV]\ENR FLZREXNLHUXQNDFK]UyZQXM VL ]HVRE SRPLPR H

XNáDGMDNRFDáR üPR HE\üGDOHNLRGSHáQHMUyZQRZDJLWHUPRG\QDPLF]QHM3URZDG]LWR

GRXVWDOHQLDVL MHV]F]HZREU ELHVWUHI\UHDNFML]DOH QR FLSRPL G]\VW HQLDPLURGQL

ków H, OH i O

RUD] VNáDGQLNyZ XERF]Q\FK +

OXE 2

]DOH QLH GR VWHFKLRPHWULL

DVW HQLDPLVNáDGQLNyZJáyZQ\FKJD]yZSRSáRPLHQQ\FK]SRPLQL FLHPD]RWX=DOH

QR FLWHV WDNLHVDPHMDNLHZ\VW SLá\E\SRRVL JQL FLXVWDQXSHáQHMUyZQRZDJLZGDQHM

WHPSHUDWXU]H6W HQLDVNáDGQLNyZJáyZQ\FKPRJ RF]\ZL FLHW\ONREDUG]RQLH]QDF]QLH

RGELHJDüRGUyZQRZDJRZ\FK0R QDZ\Uy QLüGZDSU]\SDGNL

–

+

2

≥VNáDGQLNLJáyZQH+

2+

SU]\MPXMHP\

β

>+

2@.

>+

@

>2+@ >+@

β

>2@ >+@

β

.

>+

@

>2

@ >+@

β

.

!

.

"

>+

@

–

+

2

VNáDGQLNLJáyZQH+

22

>+@ >2+@

#

.

.

!

.

>+

2@>2

@

>2@ >2+@

.

.

>+

2@

>+

@ >2+@

.

!

.

>2

@

$âà'ëà'Þ

Ù+îÔ

=H Z]JO GX QD Z\VW SRZDQLH W\FK ]DOH QR FL Z\VWDUF]\ ]PLHU]\ü OXE REOLF]\ü

VW HQLH MHGQHJR VNáDGQLND ODGRZHJR QS >+@ DE\ X]\VNDü SU]\EOL RQH VW HQLD

ZV]\VWNLFKVNáDGQLNyZJD]yZSRSáRPLHQQ\FK

1DOH \SRGNUH OLü HOLF]EDZROQ\FKURGQLNyZSRZVWDM F\FKZVWUHILHUHDNFMLMHVW

VLOQLH]ZL ]DQD]LOR FL SU]HUHDJRZDQHJRWOHQXDVáDER]WHPSHUDWXU JD]yZSRSáR

miennych, od której ba

UG]RPRFQR]DOH UyZQRZDJRZHVW HQLDURGQLNyZ6NXWNLHP

WHJRRGFK\OHQLDRGVWDQXUyZQRZDJLPDOHM ]HZ]URVWHPWHPSHUDWXU\DGLDEDW\F]QHM

SáRPLHQLDLQDRJyá]QLNDM JG\SU]HZ\ V]DRQDRNRáR.=HZ]URVWHPFL QLHQLD

JUDQLFDWDSU]HVXZDVL ZNLHUXQNXQL V]\FKWHPSHUDWXUSRQLHZD PDOHMHZWHG\VWR

SLH G\VRFMDFMLWHUPLF]QHMF] VWHF]HNDV]\ENR üUHDNFMLUHNRPELQDFMLVL ]ZL NV]D
.LQHW\NDUHNRPELQDFMLZROQ\FKURGQLNyZ

=HZ]JO GXQDSRZL ]DQLH]HVRE VW H ZV]\VWNLFKZROQ\FKURGQLNyZREHFQ\FK

Z SáRPLHQLX LFK UHNRPELQDFM QDOH \ UR]SDWU\ZDü á F]QLH MDNR ]PQLHMV]DQLH VL

SHZQHM ÄSXOL´ 5HJXá\ NWyUH Z\QLNDM ]H VWHFKLRPHWULL EDGDQ\FK XNáDGyZ SDOLZR–

XWOHQLDF]VIRUPXáRZDQRSRGNRQLHFODWXELHJáHJRZLHNXLV RQHQDGDOSU]\GDWQH

ZREOLF]HQLDFKV]DFXQNRZ\FK

:SáRPLHQLDFK]QDGPLDUHP+

OXEEOLVNLFKVWHFKLRPHWULL+L2+JLQ ]D]Z\F]DM

ZUHDNFMDFKLJG\ >2@>2

] << [H], [OH]. Równanie kinetyczne ma

ZWHG\SRVWDü

–

G^>+@>2+@`GW >0@^N

$"%

>+@

N

$&

>+@>2+@`

FRSRHOLPLQDFML>2+@GDMH

–

G>+@GW >0@>+@

N

$ %

β

N

$&

β

-H HOL>+@ >+@

%

JG\W DUELWUDOQLHUR]ZL ]DQLHPDSRVWDü

>+@ >+@

%

N

'

W

3R]RUQDVWDáDV]\ENR FLUHNRPELQDFMLN

'

>0@N

$ %

β

N

$&

β

VLOQLH]DOH \

RGVNáDGXJD]yZSáRPLHQLD(IHNW\ZQR üUy Q\FKF] VWHF]HN0ZUHDNFMDFKUHNRP

ELQDFMLXNáDGDVL ZSRU] GNX

DWRP\F] VWHF]NLGZXDWRPRZHF] VWHF]NLZLHORDWRPRZH

: SáRPLHQLDFK ] QDGPLDUHP WOHQX SRGVWDZRZ\P UyZQDQLHP NLQHW\F]Q\P GOD

SURFHVXUHNRPELQDFMLMHVW

–

G^>+@>2+@>2@>+

@`GW

>0@^N

$ %

>+

@

N

$&

>+@>2+@N

$

>+@>2

@`

=HZ]JO GXQDFKDUDNWHU]DOH QR FLLSUREOHP\]XRJyOQLHQLHPXSURV]F]H

QLH PR QD WHJR UyZQDQLD VSURZDG]Lü GR SRVWDFL WDN SURVWHM MDN UyZQDQLH

]Z\M WNLHPSU]\SDGNów szczegóOQ\FK

Ž‘’

“”

•“–

“—’

“˜‘™“—’

š‘›’œ’

—

›œ“

5HNRPELQDFMDNDWDOLW\F]QD

-DNZVSRPQLDQRURO F] VWHF]NL0ZUHDNFMDFKUHNRPELQDFMLPR QDX]QDü]DRG

PLDQ NDWDOL]\5HNRPELQDFMDE\ZDMHGQDNNDWDOL]RZDQDZVHQVLHEDUG]LHMÄFKHPLF]

Q\P´QSSU]\VSLHV]DM M WOHQHND]RWXLGZXWOHQHNVLDUNLZZ\QLNXUHDNFML

12+0⇔+120

62

+0⇔+62

0

$

+12+⇒+

12

%

+62

+⇒62

+

+122+⇒+

212

+62

2+⇒+

262

5HDNFMH$L%–VWDQRZL NODV\F]QHF\NOHNDWDOLW\F]QH]SRZVWDZD

QLHPSURGXNWyZSR UHGQLFK+12L+62

NWyU\FKREHFQR üSRWZLHUG]DHPLVMDFKD

UDNWHU\VW\F]QHJRSURPLHQLRZDQLD:\VWDUF]DREM12OXE62

ZERJDW\PZ+

SáRPLHQLX ] SRZLHWU]HP DE\ REQL HQLH VW H URGQLNyZ Z JD]DFK SRSáRPLHQQ\FK

E\áR ZLGRF]QH 5HNRPEinacja rodników jest jeszcze efektywniej katalizowana

ZREHFQR FLQLHNWyU\FKPHWDOLQSFKURPX&UF\Q\6QZDSQLD&DVWURQWX6U

EDUX%DNWyUHGDM ]DXZD DOQHHIHNW\MX QDSR]LRPLHSSP1LHNWyUHNDWDOL]DWRU\

1262

&U6QZSáRPLHQLDFKERJDW\FKZSDOLZRQLH]PLHQLDM U] GXUHDNFMLUH

NRPELQDFMLZ]JO GHP>5@W\ONRN

'

VWDMHVL GRGDWNRZRIXQNFM VW HQLDNDWDOL]DWRUD

SU]\LQQ\FKQS&D6U%DNLQHW\NDUHNRPELQDFMLVWDMHVL EDUG]LHMVNRPSOLNRZDQD

Katalizatorami rekombinacji rodników

V UyZQLH SRWDV. i sód 1DDZL FLQ

KLELWRUDPLVSDODQLDSáRPLHQLRZHJR,FKHIHNW\ZQR üMHVWZSUDZG]LHQL V]DQL &UOXE

6QDOH.+&2

#

L1D+&2

#

V F] VWRVWRVRZDQHZFKHPLF]Q\FK URGNDFKJD QLF]\FK

]HZ]JO GXQDQLHWRNV\F]QR üLVWRVXQNRZRQLVN FHQ

8WOHQLDQLHWOHQNXZ JOD

:LDGRPRRGGDZQD HVSDODQLHEDUG]RF]\VWHJRWOHQNXZ JODSR]EDZLRQHJRZLO

JRFL ZRGRUX L Z JORZRGRUyZ SU]HELHJD EDUG]R ZROQR – QLH ZLDGRPR QDZHW F]\

DEVROXWQLHF]\VW\WOHQHNZ JOD&2PyJáE\VL SDOLü8VLáRZDQRZSUDZG]LH]DSUR

SRQRZDüUHDNFM áD FXFKRZ RSDUW W\ONRQD&2L2

]XG]LDáHPF] VWHF]HNZ]EX

G]RQ\FK DOH QLH ]RVWDáD RQD QLJG\ XGRZRGQLRQD 5HDNFMD XWOHQLDQLD WOHQNX Z JOD

&2MHVWNDWDOL]RZDQDSU]H]QDZHW ODG\QDSR]LRPLHSSPZRGRUXOXEMHJR]ZL ]

ków. Mechanizm

UHDNFMLVNáDGDVL ]UHDNFML–FKDUDNWHU\VW\F]Q\FKGOD

XNáDGX+

2

DXWOHQLDQLH&2]DFKRG]LSUDZLHZ\á F]QLHZUHDNFML

&22+→&2

+

5RGQLN2+MHVWRGWZDU]DQ\DUHDNFMH–VWDQRZL NODV\F]Q\

F\NONDWDOLW\F]Q\5HDNFMDMHVWMHGQ ]QDMZD QLHMV]\FKQLHW\ONRZSURFHVDFK

VSDODQLDDOHWDN HZFKHPLLDWPRVIHU\:REHFQR FL&2ZSáRPLHQLDFKSRMDZLDVL

WH GRGDWNRZDUHDNFMDUHNRPELQDFML

&220→&2

0

$âà'ëà'Þ

Ù+îÔ

1DOH \]DXZD \ü HVSRW\NDQHZOLWHUDturze skomplikowane równania kinetyczne,

V]F]HJyOQLHF\WRZDQDF] VWR]DOH QR üV]\ENR FLXWOHQLDQLD&2RGVW H SDU\ZRG

QHMLWOHQX

–

G>&2@GW N

(

>+

2@

&

)

*

>2

@

&

)

JG]LHN

(

–VWDáDV]\ENR FLUHDNFMLJOREDOQHM

Z\QLNDM ]UHDNFMLZSRá F]HQLX]SRGDQ\PLSRZ\ HM]DOH QR FLDPLL

6SDODQLHZ JORZRGRUyZ

'ODZ JORZRGRUyZLVWQLHM GZDZDULDQW\PHFKDQL]PXXWOHQLDQLDQLVNRLZ\VRNR

WHPSHUDWXURZ\ G]LDáDM F\ SRZ\ HM RNRáR –. ZLDGF] R W\P QDVW SXM FH

IDNW\

Dla alkanów V]\ENR ü XWOHQLDQLD QLVNRWHPSHUDWXURZHJR JZDáWRZQLH UR QLH

]GáXJR FL áD FXFKDOHF]HIHNWWHQ]QLNDZZ\ V]\FKWHPSHUDWXUDFKLV]\ENR FLVSD

ODQLDZ JORZRGRUyZQDV\FRQ\FKNRUHOXM FH]V]\ENR FL UHDNFMLJOREDOQHMV GR ü

GRVLHELHSRGREQH

: UHDNFMDFK QLVNRWHPSHUDWXURZ\FK RGJU\ZDM ]QDF]Q URO ZROQH URGQLNL

] ZL ]DQLHP QDGWOHQNRZ\P 22 FKDUDNWHU\VW\F]QH MHVW WH SRZVWDZDQLH

SURGXNWyZ SR UHGQLFK ]DZLHUDM F\FK WOHQ WDNLFK MDN DONRKROH L DOGHK\G\ 3RGF]DV

UR]SDWU\ZDQLD VSDODQLD SáRPLHQLRZHJR SURGXNW\ WH oprócz DOGHK\GX mrówkowHJR

+&+2PR QDSRPLQ ü

'ODSRV]F]HJyOQ\FKZ JORZRGRUyZUHDNFMHJOREDOQHQLVNRLZ\VRNRWHPSHUDWX

URZD PDM Uy QH SR]RUQH HQHUJLH DNW\ZDFML D Z REV]DU]H SR UHGQLP PR H QDZHW

Z\VW SLüSU]HM FLRZH]ZROQLHQLHUHDNFML]HZ]URVWHPWHPSHUDWXU\

=MDZLVND ]ZL ]DQH ] UHDNFM QLVNRWHPSHUDWXURZ QS FKáRGQH SáRPLHQLH PRJ

PLHüEDUG]R]áR RQ\FKDUDNWHU1LHE G RQHWXRPDZLDQHJG\ Z]Z\Ná\FKSáRPLH

QLDFK]DFKRG] Z\á F]QLHUHDNFMH]ZL ]DQH]XWOHQLDQLHPZ\VRNRWHPSHUDWXURZ\P

0HFKDQL]PVSDODQLDSDOLZZ JORZRGRURZ\FKPR QDE\]DF] üRGPHWDQXLSU]H

FKRG]LüNROHMQRSU]H]ZV]\VWNLHPR OLZHDONDQ\DONHQ\HWFOHF]DE\]UR]XPLHüQD

F]\PWHSURFHV\SROHJDM OHSLHMMHVWXZ\SXNOLüSHZQHSUDZLGáRZR FL]DF]\QDM FRG

SRGVWDZRZHJRIDNWX HZSáRPLHQLDFKF] VWHF]NLZ JORZRGRUyZ5+SUDNW\F]QLH

QLHUHDJXM ]F] VWHF]NRZ\PWOHQHPDV DWDNRZDQHSU]H]DNW\ZQHURGQLNL+2+

L2ZUHDNFMDFK

5++→5+

5+2+→5+

2

5+2→52+

7OHQMHVW]X \ZDQ\ZSLHUZV]\PU] G]LHZUHDNFMLFKDUDNWHU\VW\F]QHMGOD

XNáDGX+

2

LGHF\GXM FHMRUR]JDá ]LHQLXáD FXFKDDZPQLHMV]\PVWRSQLXZUH

DNFMDFK]URGQLNDPLZ JORZRGRURZ\PL5&2

SRZVWDMH JáyZQLHZUHDNFML

1DOH \ ZL F UR]SDWU]\ü URG]DMH UHDNFML MDNLP XOHJDM URGQLNL Z JORZRGRURZH 5

Ž‘’

“”

•“–

“—’

“˜‘™“—’

š‘›’œ’

—

›œ“

–

UHDNFMHWH]DOH RGZLHONR FLLVWUXNWXU\URGQLNyZ–RUD]RVWDWHF]Q NRQZHUVM W\FK

URGników do CO i H

20R OLZHV WXSHZQHXRJyOQLHQLD

-H HOLSDOLZHPMHVW&+

*

5 &+

#

LXWOHQLDQLHWHJRURGQLNDPR HSU]HELHJDüZUH

DNFMDFK

&+

#

2

→+&+22+

+&+22+→+

2&+2

&+22+→+

2&2

+&+2MHVWSURGXNWHPSR UHGQLP–MHJRREHFQR üSRGF]DVVSDODQLDZ JORZRGR

rów wykryto jes

]F]HZODWDFKXELHJáHJRZLHNX

3RGF]DVXWOHQLDQLDZ JORZRGRUyZFL V]\FKPXVLZ\VW SLüSU]HU\ZDQLHNROHMQ\FK

ZL ]D &&0R HWRQDVW SRZDüZNLONXUy Q\FKUHDNFMDFK5RGQLNLW\SX&

+

+

+",

&

PRJ UHDJRZDü]Z\HOLPLQRZDQLHPURGQLND&+

#

PRJ WH GDZDüURGQLN]DZLHUDM F\

ZL FHMQL MHGHQDWRP&:REXSU]\SDGNDFKGUXJLPSURGXNWHPMHVWQL V]\DONHQ

&

+

+

+",

&

→&

+

–

&

+

.-

+

–

&

/

&+

#

&

+

+

+",

&

→&

'

+

'

&

0

+

0

,

&

JG]LHST Q

1L V]\URGQLNE G]LHGDOHMXOHJDáSU]HPLDQRPSRGREQHJRW\SXDDONHQ\E G EUD

á\ XG]LDá Z UHDNFMDFK XWOHQLHQLD WDN MDN Z SáRPLHQLDFK Z JORwodorów nienasycR

Q\FK=UHJXá\DONHQ\V EDUG]LHMUHDNW\ZQHRGDONDQyZLLFKUHDNFMH]DWRPRZ\P

WOHQHPE\ZDM V]\ENLH:SáRPLHQLDFKERJDW\FKZSDOLZR]DFKRG] WH UHDNFMHFKD

UDNWHU\VW\F]QHGODSLUROL]\RUD]PRJ SRZVWDZDüF] VWHF]NLZ JORZRGRUyZFL V]\FK

RGF] VWHF]NLSDOLZDZZ\QLNXUHNRPELQDFMLURGQLNyZZ JORZRGRURZ\FKQS

&

+

+

+",

&

&

0

+

0

,

&

0→&

+",

0

+

.-

+",

0./

,

0

-H HOLREDURGQLNLV ZLHORDWRPRZHXG]LDá0ZWDNLFKUHDNFMDFKPR HQDZHWQLH

E\üNRQLHF]Q\]HZ]JO GXQDáDWZLHMV] UHG\VWU\EXFM Z\]ZRORQHMHQHUJLLZGX HM

F] VWHF]FH

:LGDüZL FL VWRVXQNRZRáDWZRPR QDZ\WáXPDF]\üMDNR FLRZRGODF]HJRSRG

F]DVVSDODQLDZ JORZRGRUyZPRJ SRZVWDZDüOLF]QHLEDUG]RUy QHSURGXNW\SR UHG

QLHLXERF]QH7UXGQLHMMHVWMHGQDNSU]HGVWDZLüMHGQR]QDF]Q\LSHáQ\PHFKDQL]PUH

DNFML–GODWHJRZPRGHORZDQLXPDWHPDW\F]Q\PVSDODQLDQDZHWSURVW\FKZ JORZRGR

UyZE\ZDM XZ]JO GQLDQHZV]\VWNLHPR OLZHUHDNFMHHOHPHQWDUQHNWyU\FKPR HE\ü

QDZHWNLONDVHW1DOH \MHGQDN]DXZD \ü H]DáR HQLDRLFK]DFKRG]HQLXPRJ PLHü

W\ONRFKDUDNWHUKLSRWH]MH OLQLHV SRSDUWHQLH]DOH Q\PLGDQ\PL]LQQ\FK UyGHá

=MDZLVNDWRZDU]\V] FHSURFHVRPVSDODQLD

*D]yZ SáRPLHQL QLH PR QD QD RJyá WUDNWRZDü WDN VDPR MDN JRU F\FK JD]yZ

RSRGREQHM]DZDUWR FLVNáDGQLNyZJáyZQ\FKSáRPLH WR URGowisko, w którym za

$âà'ëà'Þ

Ù+îÔ

FKRG] LQWHQV\ZQHUHDNFMHFKHPLF]QH]XG]LDáHPZROQ\FKURGQLNyZ:ROQHURGQLNL

V HIHNW\ZQ\PL QR QLNDPL ]QDF]Q\FK ÄSDNLHWyZ´ HQHUJLL FKHPLF]QHM -HGHQ ZROQ\

URGQLNQLHVLHZSU]\EOL HQLXSRáRZ HQHUJLLUHNRPELQDFML–MHVWWRSUDZLHRU] GZLHO

NR FLZL FHMQL UHGQLDHQHUJLDNLQHW\F]QDF] VWHF]HNZWHPSHUDWXU]H.*D]\

SáRPLHQLV ZL F URGRZLVNLHPDJUHV\ZQ\PFKHPLF]QLHL]DFKRG] ZQLFK]MDZLVND

NWyUHQLHPRJá\E\Z\VW SLüZJRU F\FKJD]DFK2PyZLRQRWXWDMW\ONRQLHNWóUH]QLFK

–

WHNWyUHV EH]SR UHGQLR]ZL ]DQH]SURFHVDPLFKHPLF]Q\PL

&KHPLOXPLQHVFHQFMD

3U]HZD DM FDF] üHPLVMLSáRPLHQLZ]DNUHVLHRGQDGILROHWXGREOLVNLHMSRGF]HUZLH

QLopróczZLGPDFL JáHJRHPLWRZDQHJRSU]H]F] VWNLVDG]\MH OLV RQHREHFQHWR

VNXWHNSR UHGQLOXEEH]SR UHGQLUHDNFMLFKHPLF]Q\FK6WZLHUG]HQLHSáRPLH QLH ZLHFL

GODWHJR HMHVWJRU F\DOHGODWHJR H]DFKRG] ZQLPUHDNFMHFKHPLF]QHMHVWZL FW\O

NRSR]RUQ\PSDUDGRNVHP3RQDGWRFKHPLOXPLQHVFHQFM ZROQ\FKURGQLNyZOXEFHORZR

ZSURZDG]DQ\FKDGG\W\ZyZPR QDZ\NRU]\VWDüGREDGDQLD]DUyZQRVDP\FKSáRPLHQL

jak i bardziej ogólnie, reakcji wysokotemperaturowych w fazie g

D]RZHM

:LGPDOLQLRZHLSDVPRZH

$EVRUSFMDHPLVMDSURPLHQLRZDQLDHOHNWURPDJQHW\F]QHJRSU]H]ZROQHDWRP\LF] V

teczki gazów jest

NZDQWRZDQD.ZDQW\SURPLHQLRZDQLDHPLWXM OXEDEVRUEXM LQG\ZL

GXDOQHDWRP\OXEF] VWHF]NLSU]HFKRG] FW\PVDP\PGRLQQHJRVWDQXQSGODDWRPX$

DEVRUSFMD

$K

ν

→$

∗

HPLVMD

$

∗

→

$K

ν

Górny indeks

∗

R]QDF]DDWRPOXEF] VWHF]N ZVWDQLHHOHNWURQRZRZ]EXG]RQ\P

&] VWHF]NL RSUyF] SR]LRPyZ HOHNWURQRZ\FK PDM SRGSR]LRP\ HQHUJHW\F]QH

RVF\ODF\MQHLURWDF\MQH–GODWHJRDWRP\GDM ZLGPDOLQLRZHDF] VWHF]NLZLGPDSDV

PRZHREDUG]RQLHUD]]áR RQHMVWUXNWXU]H:]EXG]HQLHOXEGHDNW\ZDFMDPR HQDVW

SLüQLHW\ONRZZ\QLNXDEVRUSFMLOXEHPLVMLNZDQWyZSURPLHQLRZDQLDK

ν

, ale ró

ZQLH

ZZ\QLNX]GHU]H ]LQQ\PLDWRPDPLLF] VWHF]NDPL0NWyUHPRJ E\üQR QLNDPL

RGSRZLHGQLHMLOR FLHQHUJLLZ]EXG]HQLHLZ\JDV]DQLH]GHU]HQLRZHOXEWHUPLF]QH

$0 $

∗

0

:JRU F\FKSáRPLHQLDFKGODQSDWRPyZVRGX1DWHQZáD QLHSURFHVGRPLQXMH

1DW HQLHHPLVML,]DOH \RGVW HQLDDWRPyZZ]EXG]RQ\FKNWyUHMHVWZ\QLNLHPXVWD

OHQLDVL UyZQRZDJLSRPL G]\Z]EXG]HQLHPDZ\JDV]HQLHP

,∼N

*

>0@>$@N

#

N

–

*

>0@

N

#

τ

JG]LH

τ

MHVWF]DVHP \FLD$

∗

ZZDUXQNDFKEH]NROL]\MQ\FKGODSU]HM üGR

]ZRORQ\FKV WRF]DV\U] GX

–

÷

–

$

V

Ž‘’

“”

•“–

“—’

“˜‘™“—’

š‘›’œ’

—

›œ“

=Z\M WNLHPZDUXQNyZEDUG]RQLVNLFKFL QLH ]Z\NOHN

#

N

–

*

>0@ZSU]\EOL

HQLXZL FJG\GHDNW\ZDFMDNROL]\MQDGRPLQXMHPR QDSU]\M ü H

,∼.

*

>$@

JG]LH.

"*

N

*

N

–

*

=DOH QR ü WHPSHUDWXURZ QDW HQLD HPLVML GHWHUPLQXMH HQHUJLD DNW\ZDFML UHDNFML

–HQHUJLDZ]EXG]HQLD∆(

1

JG\ UHDNFMDRGZURWQD–Z\JDV]DQLD–SUDNW\F]QLH

QLH]DOH \RGWHPSHUDWXU\

,∼>$@H[S –∆(

1

57

:SáRPLHQLDFKZ]EXG]HQLHHOHNWURQRZHMHVWMHGQDNF] VWREH]SR UHGQLPVNXWNLHP

UHDNFMLFKHPLF]Q\FK0R HRQRQDVW SLüJG\

,'DQ\DWRPF]\F] VWHF]NDRGJU\ZDURO 0ZUHDNFMLUHNRPELQDFMLZROQ\FKURG

ników i

–SU]HMPXM FHQHUJL –VDPDXOHJDZ]EXG]HQLX

,,&] VWHF]NDOXEURGQLNSRZVWDMHZVWDQLHHOHNWURQRZRZ]EXG]RQ\PZZ\QLNX

VLOQLH HJ]RWHUPLF]QHM UHDNFML : QLHNWyU\FK SU]\SDGNDFK HQHUJLD Z]EXG]HQLD PR H

WH E\üSU]HND]DQDLQQHMF] VWHF]FHF]\DWRPRZL

&KHPLOXPLQHVFHQFMDW\SX,PR HZ\VW SLüZWHG\JG\ZSáRPLHQLX]DZLHUDM F\P

SRQDGUyZQRZDJRZHVW HQLDURGQLNyZ]QDMGXM VL DWRP\PHWDOX$áDWZRXOHJDM FH

Z]EXG]HQLXQSDWRP\VRGX

++$→+

$

∗

+2+$→+

2$

∗

3URFHV\RGZURWQHPR QDZWHG\SRPLQ ü

-H HOLXNáDGMHVWERJDW\ZSDOLZRUyZQDQLHSU]\ELHU]HSRVWDü

,∼>$@^N

*

>0@N

"

β

N

>+@

`N

#

N

–

*

>0@

&KHPLOXPLQHVFHQFMDE G]LHZ\UD QLHZLGRF]QDMH HOL]RVWDQLHVSHáQLRQ\ZDUXQHN

N

*

>0@N

"

β

N

>+@

–W]QMH HOLZ]EXG]HQLH$ZZ\QLNXUHDNFMLL

E G]LHZVWDQLH]DPDVNRZDüZ]EXG]HQLHWHUPLF]QH3RQLHZD VWDáHV]\ENR FLUHDNFML

N

.

N

VáDER]DOH RGWHPSHUDWXU\DZLHONR FL>+@L>2+@RGELHJDM EDUG]LHMRGZDU

WR FLUyZQRZDJRZ\FKZQL V]\FKWHPSHUDWXUDFKLEOL HMVWUHI\UHDNFMLFKHPLOXPLQH

VFHQFMDW\SX,MHVWQDMEDUG]LHMZLGRF]QDEH]SR UHGQLRQDGVWUHI UHDNFMLLVSU]\MDM MHM

QLVND WHPSHUDWXUD SáRPLHQLD L Z\ V]H ZDUWR FL ∆(

1

DOH QLHSU]HNUDF]DM FH ]E\WQLR

HJ]RWHUPLF]QR FLUHDNFMLLZ\QRV] FHMRNRáRN-=MDZLVNRWRPR H

E\üZD QHSRGF]DVPLHU]HQLDWHPSHUDWXU\SáRPLHQLDPHWRG RGwróconych linii sodu

1DLZHZV]HONLFKSRPLDUDFKIRWRPHWU\F]Q\FK

:DUWRWH ZVSRPQLHü HZROQHURGQLNLUHNRPELQXM FQDEDUG]RPDá\FKF] VWNDFK

FLDáDVWDáHJRREHFQ\FKZSáRPLHQLXPRJ VSRZRGRZDüRJU]DQLHW\FKF] VWHNSRQDG

WHPSHUDWXU DGLDEDW\F]Q SáRPLHQLD QLHUHDNW\ZQH F] VWNL WUXGQRWRSOLZ\FK WOHQNyZ

PHWDOLOXESU]\VSLHV]\üLFKUR]NáDGZLHOHVROLQLHRUJDQLF]Q\FK

$âà'ëà'Þ

Ù+îÔ

&KHPLOXPLQHVFHQFMDW\SX ,,MHVWRGSRZLHG]LDOQD ]D SUDNW\F]QLHFDá HPLVM SáR

PLHQL Z JORZRGRURZ\FK ] Z\M WNLHP ZLGPD FL JáHJR F] VWHN VDG]\ Z ]DNUHVLH

ZLG]LDOQ\PLQDGILROHFLH'RW\F]\WRZV]\VWNLFKWU]HFKSU]HM üURGQLND&+]HVWDQyZ

HOHNWURQRZRZ]EXG]RQ\FKGRSRGVWDZRZHJRF]RáDQDMVLOQLHMV]\FKSDVPRGSRZLHG

QLRRNLQPLEDUG]RZ\UD QDVWUXNWXUDOLQLLURWDF\MQ\FKSDVP6ZDQD

URGQLND&

Z]LHORQHMF] FLZLGPDFDá\V]HUHJSDVPQDMVLOQLHMV]HRNQPEDU

G]LHMVLOQHMHPLVMLZROQHJRK\GURNV\OX]F]RáHPSDVPDQPDQDZHWSDVP&2

Z QDGILROHFLH SUy QLRZ\P SRQL HM QP (PLVMD Z]EXG]RQD Z Z\QLNX UHDNFML

FKHPLF]Q\FKMHVWVáDER]DOH QDRGWHPSHUDWXU\DUR]NáDGQDW HQLDZREU ELHSDVP

RVF\ODF\MQRURWDF\MQ\FK E\ZD F] VWR DQRPDOQ\ RGSRZLDGDM F QS WHPSHUDWXURP

]QDF]QLH SU]HZ\ V]DM F\P DGLDEDW\F]Q WHPSHUDWXU SáRPLHQLD 3DVPD &+ L &

V

szczególnie silne w samej strefie reakcji. Promieniowanie CH okolicy 430 nm nadaje

MHMVLOQHQLHELHVNLH]DEDUZLHQLHNWyUHSRGF]DVZ]ERJDFDQLDSáRPLHQLDZSDOLZRSU]H

FKRG]LVWRSQLRZRZ]LHORQDZHFKDUDNWHU\VW\F]QHGODGRPLQDFML&

-HG\QHVLOQHSURPLHQLRZDQLHHPLWRZDQHSU]H]SáRPLHQLHZRGRURZHWRSDVPD2+

– i jest to ró

ZQLH Z]QDF]Q\PVWRSQLXFKHPLOXPLQHVFHQFMD

23

¦¢

 4

5

à'Ù+êá1Ûã1Þ

ÛcÝuÞ

ëà'Þ

ÙÚ

ìèØyõ

oprócz

ã1Þ

Ú

ìÛ

ÜnÛ+ØcÞ

ã

Ü+Þ

rodników CH i C

¿

õDæî

â'ØnÞ

ÛìÞ

ÛcÝ

íÚ

â'Ýâëâ'á 'ÝÈÛ+ØnÞ

ä

ç1Ü

æâ

ÝuÞ

Ù+ä

èõêä

'áIèß+ïyÝuÞ

ëØnÙcã

æá Ù ÝÞ

ÛcßÙ+î

êâ'ÝuÞ

ßÞ

Ûjæâ'àéÙ+ÝuÞ

âìÛcãfä

áIçêä

çáfèÕô+ÛãfäÉä

âcáÝjìÞ

Û

âë'ØnÞ

Ù+ìÙcß+ïÛØcÞ

Ú

ç

ØnÞ

ìÛã+ßÛ+ìß

Ü+ÞÓ

àéÚ

Þ

â'ìÙ[ëâmä

èæç7686

Ò Õ

$âëìÞ

êÞ9:

Þ9

¿

õWÛ+ØnÞ

ä

ç Ü

ßÛÝ

ìÞ

Û+éÞ

ÛãIêÞ

Û

ÜÞÉà'Þ

ÛÚ

â'ìÛ

Ücßà

ßÞWÝuÞ

ë'ØÇÙõDàìÞ

êÙ

Ü

à'Ù á1ÙàcìÙëµãfä

áKÛ

á1ÛÙ êß

Ü1Þ

õ

Ú

ÛßàÇãfä

áKÛIÙuæâæî

â'ØcÞ

Û+ììÙuìÞ

ÛcØnÙyßÞ

íî

ÛíâyæáKâ'ØnÞ

Û+ìÞ

âÝuÙ+ìÞ

Ùnß+à

ãfä

Û+êŒã Ùë'àèõDØyÙuä

Û

à'Ù+éÙ áfÝuÞ

Û+ìÞ

ÛuìÞ

Û+éÞ

ÛãKêÞ

ÛÕ

ÿÉØcÞ

ã

ÜÙmä

ÙmáKâ'àßÞ

íÙã1Þ

ìÙßÙ î

èÇâ'éãfàÙ á}ÝuÞ

ë'àÞ

ÙÚ

ìèõàuØnÙ+êã1Þ

ØuçØ

ÝvìÞ

Û+éÞ

Û'ãIêÞ

Û

Üß+à

ßÞÝuÞ

ëØyÙ

–

Ü+Ûãfäºä

âuæá Ù ê

ä

èßàìÞ

ÛRêâ'ìä

Þ

ìççØ´ÕáKâ'ØnÞ

ÛìÞ

âÝÙ+ìÞ

ÛRÝuÞ

Û[ã1Þ

à$áKÛÙ êß

Ü

áKÛ+êâ'ØuéÞ

ìÙß

Ü Þ

9<;>=?;@=uú

→

9<;

¿

=uúA=



ν

Ó+ÔÕ

ÔBºÔ+Ò

ô+ÛãKä[ä

âŒá1ÛÙ êß

Ü+Ùµãfä

âãfçìêâÝuâŒæâ'ÝuâÚ

ìÙõ}âŒéÙ+á1ëà'âŒØyÙ+î

Û

ÜcÝèëÙ

ÜKìâ

ßÞ}êÝÙ ìä

â'ÝuÛ

ÜÇÓIÚ

Þ

ßàéÙÛ+ØnÞ

ä

âÝÙ+ìèßï

kwantów na zderzenie << 10

–

C

Ò1Õ"DcÙ+ä

Û+ìÞ

Û$Û+ØnÞ

ã

Ü+ÞEFGWÜ+ÛãfäDëÙ+ìÛ}Ýàâ'áKÛ+Ø

E.FGm÷

œ

FG4H

I®ù

;[û ù

9<;[û

Ó+ÔÕ

ÔBJÒ

w którym st

Ù+î

Ùjæá1â'æâ'á1ß

Ü â'ìÙÚ

ìâ

ßÞ

œ

FGH

I

à'ÙÚ

Û

è´âë´ß+ïÙ+áKÙ+êä

ÛáIçõÙÚ

ÛjìÞ

Ûâë´ãfä

Û+ìÞ

Ù$ú

ÞDæáKÙ+ÝuÞ

ÛjìÞ

Ûuà'ÙÚ

Û

è

âëjä

Û+ØæÛ+á1Ù+ä

çáIèÕ

ô+Û

ÛÚ

ÞD݉æî

â'ØnÞ

Û+ìÞ

çÇàìÙ

Ü+ëà'Þ

Ûã1Þ

ä

Ú

Û+ìÛ+êÙà'â'ä

çõÝjæá1â'ÝuÙëà'â'ìèyÚ

çéyæâ'Ýãfä

Ù+î

ècÝ

ã Ù+ØèØ

æî

â'ØnÞ

ÛìÞ

çõæâKÜÙ

ÝuÞ

Ùuã Þ

ë'áIçíÙmæâ

ÝuÞ

Ù+ä

ÙõDâcà'Ù+éÙ áIÝÞ

Û+ìÞ

ç

'î

ä

âà'Þ

ÛÚ

â'ìêÙ+ÝjèØyõà[ØnÙ+êãKÞ

ØcçØ

ìÙ+ä

Û+ìÞ

ÙÝvà'Þ

ÛÚ

â'ìÛ

Üuß+à

ßÞÝuÞ

ë

ØyÙõá1âà'ßÞ

íÙ

Ü

ßÙjã1Þ

Ù

ëâuæâëßàÛ+áIÝuÞ

Û+ìÞ

Õ4

æî

â'ØcÞ

ÛìÞ

Ùß+ïcÝ

íÚ

â'Ýuâëâ'áݍÛ+ØcÞ

ã

ÜÙ[ä

ÙWÜ+ÛãfäDàÝmèêÚ

Û[ØyÙãIêâ'ÝuÙ

ìÙ´æáfà'Û+àÍã1Þ

Ú

ìÞ

Û

Ü+ãKà

àìÙß+àìÞ

ÛµÛØnÞ

ã

Ü

ìÞ

Û+éÞ

Ûãfê

õ$ÙÚ

ÛÜ+Ûãfäâ'ìÙµëâ'éáfàÛ´ÝuÞ

ëâß+àìٴݼæî

âØnÞ

Û+ìÞ

Ùß+ï@:

¿

=K;

¿

õ

ÙRéÙ áKëà'âÍã1Þ

Ú

ìÙÇÝÈæî

â'ØcÞ

ÛìÞ

Ùß+ïL:

¿

àMDN;

–

æî

â'ØcÞ

Û+ìÞ

ÛÇä

Ù+êÞ

ÛÇØyÙ

Ü

Þ

ìä

Û+ìãKèÝmìÛ´àÙ+éÙ áIÝuÞ

Û+ìÞ

Û?O'íá1âãKàêâÝuÛPÕ

ÿÉØcÞ

ã

ÜÙRØnÙmãfÝuâKÜ+Û

áëî

âjÝ

áKÛÙ+êß

Ü Þ

DN;>=?;@=ú

→

DQ;

¿

=uúR=



ν

Ó+ÔÕ

ÔB×Ò

®èëÙ

ÜKìâ

ö[êÝÙ+ìä

âÝÙ$áKÛÙ êß

Ü+ÞÜ+ÛãIäÝuÞ

êãKà'Ù[ìÞ

á1ÛÙ+êß

Ü ÞDÓ Ô'Õ

ÔBºÔ Òfõáfà

ë'çŒÔB

–

C

õÙRìÙ+ä

Û+ìÞ

ÛjÛØcÞ

ã

Ü+Þ4ESGuëÙ+ìÛ

Ü+ÛãfäÝjè'á Ù

Û+ìÞ

Û+Ø

Ù+ìÙÚ

âíÞ

ßàìèØvëâcÓ Ô'Õ

ÔBJÒKõ

ESGm÷

œ

SG4H

I¾ù

;[û1ù

DQ;[û

Ó+ÔÕ

ÔBüÒ

ô+Û

ÛÚ

Þºä

Ú

Û+ìÛ+êµÙà'â'ä

çQDN;

Ü+ÛãfäWÝmæáKâ'ÝÙëàÙ+ìè´ëânæî

âØnÞ

Û+ìÞ

ÙõÚ

Þ

ìÞ

â'ÝÙà'ÙÚ

Û

ìâ

öjæâ'ØcÞ

ëàèTE SUGÇÙnù

DN;$û}à'Ù

àÝjèßàÙ

Üãfàèéêâ´ã1Þ

à'Ù+î

Ù+Øç1Ü+Ûõºíëè

–

Ü+Ù+êÜ1ç

Ýuãfæâ'ØìÞ

Ù+ìâ

–

DN;ÍÜÛãfäÉêÙ+ä

ÙÚ

Þ

àÙ ä

â'áKÛ+ØåáKÛÙ+êß

Ü ÞºáKÛ êâ'ØuéÞ

ìÙß

Ü+Þ

wolnych rodników.

VXWUYZ7[

\^]

_\`

\ab[

\cbZ^YdWU\a[

eZXf?[4g4[

aYh

fg\

&KHPLMRQL]DFMD

1LHMHVWQLF]\PG]LZQ\P HZSáRPLHQLDFK]DZLHUDM F\FKQSDWRP\VRGXF]\LQ

Q\FKPHWDOLRQLHZLHONLHMHQHUJLLMRQL]DFMLSRMDZLDM VL ZZ\QLNXMRQL]DFMLWHUPLF]

QHM F] VWNL QDáDGRZDQH – NDWLRQ\ L ZROQH HOHNWURQ\ 5HDNFMD MHVW DQDORJLF]QD GR

Z]EXG]HQLDWHUPLF]QHJR

$0→$

i

H

j

0

,FKVW HQLDPR QDáDWZRREOLF]\üJG\ VWDáHUyZQRZDJLUHDNFMLMRQL]DFML.

k

GDQH

V UyZQDQLHP6DKD

.

k

PROP

#

J

lb,

J

l

1

%

πN7P

m

K

#

)

H[S–(

k

57

JG]LHJ

l

J

lb,

–RGSRZLHGQLRZDJDVWDW\VW\F]QDDWRPX$LMRQX$

i

1

%

–

OLF]ED$YR

JDGUDN–VWDáD%ROW]PDQQDK–VWDáD3ODQFNDP

m

–PDVDHOHNWURQX(

k

–HQHUJLD

MRQLzacji 1 mola atomów A.

:LDGRPRMHGQDNRGFRQDMPQLHMVWXODW HÄF]\VWH´QLH]DZLHUDM FHDWomów metali

DQLF] VWHNVDG]\SáRPLHQLHZ JORZRGRURZHV SU]HZRGQLNDPLV ZL FZQLFKREHFQH

F] VWNLQDáDGRZDQHV]F]HJyOQLHZVWUHILHUHDNFMLLEH]SR UHGQLRQDGQL 2GNU\WRQD

VW SQLH HQR QLNDPLáDGXQNXV JáyZQLHZROQHHOHNWURQ\DOHSU]\F]\Q\LFKREHFQR FL

]RVWDá\Z\MD QLRQHGRSLHURQDSU]HáRPLHODWXELHJáHJRZLHNXGRF]HJRSU]\F]\QLá

VL UR]wój spektrometrii masowej oraz zastosowanie techniki mikrofalowej do badania

VáDER]MRQL]RZDQHMSOD]P\MDN VWDQRZL JD]\SáRPLHQL:VWUHILHUHDNFMLSáRPLHQLD

&

+

2

PDNV\PDOQHVW HQLHZROQ\FKHOHNWURQyZRVL JDZLHONR FLU] GX

&

MR

nów/cm

#

ZLQQ\FKSáRPLHQLDFKVW HQLDWHV PQLHMV]H:LDGRPRMX RGODW H

MRQHP SLHUZRWQ\P MHVW &+2

,

SRZVWDM F\ Z UHDNFML &DOFRWH¶D ]DSURSRQRZDQHM

ZU

&+2→&+2

,

H

j

∆+≈N-

:\GDMQR üSURFHVXFKHPLMRQL]DFMLMHVWQLHZLHOND]DOHGZLHMHGHQDWRPQDRNRáR

$

DWRPyZ&PR HPLHüV]DQV Z]L FLDXG]LDáXZW\PSURFHVLH–MHVWWRSURFHV

XERF]Q\ZVWRVXQNXGRJáyZQHJRQXUWXUHDNFML-RQ&+2

,

V]\ENRSU]HND]XMHSUR

WRQF] VWHF]FH+

2WDNL QDMSRVSROLWV]\PMRQHPVWDMHVL MHV]F]HZVWUHILHUHDN

FMLMRQK\GURQLRZ\+

#

2

,

WHQVDPNWyU\Z\VW SXMHZZRGQ\FKUR]WZRUDFKNZD

sów!)

&+2

,

+

2→+

#

2

,

&2∆+≈–N-

:SáRPLHQLDFKEDUG]RERJDW\FKZSDOLZRZ\VW SXM WH ZVáDEV]\FKVW HQLDFK

OLF]QHMRQ\W\SX&

+

+

n

,

, szczególnie gdy

Q PQLHSDU]\VWH3LHUZV]\PLQDMSRVSROLW

V]\P MRQHP ] WHM VHULL MHVW &

#

+

#

,

, który w warunkach bardzo znacznego nadmiaru

SDOLZD PR H QDZHW E\ü MRQHP SLHUZRWQ\P SRZVWDM F\P Z UHDNFML ]Z]EXG]RQ\P

HOHNWURQRZRURGQLNLHP&+

&+

∗

&

+

→&

#

+

#

$âà'ëà'Þ

Ù+îÔ

5HDNFMDRGSRZLHG]LDOQD]DREHFQR üZL NV]R FLMRQyZSUDNW\F]QLHXVWDMH

SR]DVWUHI UHDNFML]HZ]JO GXQD]DQLNURGQLND&+D+

#

2

,

JLQLHVWRVXQNRZRV]\ENR

ZGZXF] VWHF]NRZHMUHDNFMLSRá F]RQHM]G\VRFMDFM

+

#

2

,

H

j

→+

2+∆+≈–N-

-H HOLMHGQDNZSáRPLHQLX]QDMGXM VL DWRP\PHWDOXRHQHUJLLMRQL]DFMLGRRNRáR

N-PROPHWDOLWDNLFKMHVWZLHOHPR OLZ\VWDMHVL SURFHVSU]HQLHVLHQLDáDGXQNX

$+

#

2

,

→$

i

+

2+

]QDF]QLHV]\EV]\RGMRQL]DFMLWHUPLF]QHMNWyUDPD]DZV]HZ\VRN HQHUJL DNW\ZDFML

UyZQ HQHUJLLMRQL]DFML3RQDGWRPR OLZDVWDMHVL MRQL]DFMDDWRPyZNWyU\FKVWR

SLH MRQL]DFMLWHUPLF]QHME\áE\]QLNRP\–W]QMRQL]DFMDDWRPyZPHWDOLPR HRVL JDü

poziom ponadrównowagowy, np.

&U+

#

2

,

→&U

,

+

2+∆+≈N-

1DVW SXMHWH ÄXWUZDOHQLH´REHFQR FLMRQyZSRQLHZD SRSU]HQLHVLHQLXáDGXQNX

QDDWRP\PHWDOX]DQLNMRQyZZ\PDJDMX ]GHU]HQLDWUyMF] VWHF]NRZHJRRGZUyFHQLH

UHDNFML

$

i

H

j

0→$0

LMHVWWRSURFHVVWRVXQNRZRSRZROQ\SRGREQLHMDNZV]\VWNLHUHDNFMHWUyMF] VWHF]NRZH

=MDZLVND]ZL ]DQH]MRQL]DFM ZSáRPLHQLDFKV VWRVRZDQHZSUDNW\FHZGHWHNWR

UDFKMRQL]DF\MQ\FKZFKURPDWRJUDILLJD]RZHMGRZ\NU\ZDQLDZ JORZRGRrów (FID)

oraz akceptorów elektronów, takich jak atomy chloru

&OIRVIRUX3VLDUNL6HWF

$),'LZQLHNWyU\FKF]XMNDFKSU]HFLZSR DURZ\FK

2EHFQR ü MRQyZ Z SáRPLHQLDFK RGJU\ZD UyZQLH LVWRWQ URO Z ]DURGNRZDQLX

LZ]UR FLHF] VWHNVDG]\ZSáRPLHQLDFKERJDW\FKZSDOLZR

/LWHUDWXUD

ù1Ô ûpouÚ

êÛ+ØnÙëÛ79[Õ

qWïDÕ

ôÕ

õb:jâÚ

Ú

Ù+ìëÛ+árqºïDÕ

õts'ìÛÚ

Ú

ÛØyÙìM

Õ

õÛÛíÛ+á ã<Õ

ôÕ

qºïDÕ

õu

Yh

\`wv\_<xUyz ]7[

aN{w`

\ZY.]

õºÛ á1íÙ

Øyâ'ìTDáKÛã1ã+õ;r

âá1ëÇÔ|}JÕ

ù

Jû^~áfÞ

ãIä

áKâØmÕ

®Õ

õ³ÛãIä

Û ìéÛ áfírocÕ

oÕ

õ

{<`

\ZY€h

zydh

yz Y

õ

ß

áKÙ ÝT

:jÞ

Ú

Ú

õ.DuÛ Ý>uâá

êÔ.|4ÖÕ

ù

×û

Ù èëâìpoÕ

Õ

õ‚

WYX€_XYdh

z"x]"dx

_Uf7x

ƒ{`

\4ZpY"]

õÿWëÕ.Jõ9WïÙ1æØÙ ìÙ1ìër:jÙ+Ú

Ú

õ„Wâìë'âìyÔ.|4…'üÕ

ù

üû

Ù+èëâìTonÕ

Õ

õ4

âÚ

ïÙ á1ëocÕ

Õ

õ

{r`

\Z^Y.]

õ'ÿëÕ×õ9ïÙ+æØnÙ+ìnÙ+ìë:uÙÚ

Ú

õ„âìëâ'ìÔ|U…üÕ

ù

Ö'û„}Ù Ýjä

â'ìuô'Õ

õ

ÛÞ

ìéÛ+á1í~ÉÕ

ôÕ

õ†

`

Ydh

z[

d\`.‡<]

_Ydh

]<x

ƒTVxZTˆy]h

[

xa

õ9}Ú

Ù áKÛ+ìëâ'ìTáKÛã ã õU;wUIâá1ëÇÔ|U|Õ

ù

'û„Û+ÝÞ

ã‰Õ

õºÿÚ

éÛ

Պâ'ìõ

Vx4ZTˆUy]h

[

xa‹Œ{w`

\UZ^Y.]T\Ua

†ŒŽ

_w`

x][

x4a4]7x

ƒ<\].Y.]

õºÿëÕº×õŒ~Ú

ÙõŒoußÙëÛØcÞ

ßQá1Ûã1ã1õ

;$áKÚ

Ù+ìëâÇÔ|}…Õ

ù

…'ûŒçÚ

ßÙ+ïèT³Õ

~ÉÕ

jÕ

õ

w\4]t‘7[

aUYh

[

d.]

õDÛÚ

ã1â'ìõ4„â'ìëâ'ìµÔ|U…×Õ

ù

}ûQsä

áKÛ+ïÚ

âÝjÕ

onÕ

õ

VxZTˆ4y]h

[

x4ap{wya\UZYah

\`

]

õÍß

á Ù ÝT

:jÞ

Ú

Ú

õDcÛ+ݒuâáIêµÔ|}'üÕ