41. Properties of vit H (biotin): Biotin is chemically made ​​up of two rings - thiophenoland imidazole and the side chainacid valeraldehyde. Free biotin is a white crystalline substance, soluble in water andalcohol, and sparingly soluble in chloroform, ethyl ether and petroleum ether. Crystallizes inthe form of large needles melting at 230 ° C.
Biotin is very resistant to heat and the action of acids and bases, hence the culinary treatment has a negligible impact on the content of this vitamin. Oxidizing agents inactivatebiotin.
In nature, meets biotin derivatives: oxybiotin (sulfur atom is here replaced by an oxygen atom) and destiobiotin (sulfur atom is replaced with two hydrogen atoms), which have weaker biological properties.

Participance in metabolism wit H is integral part of several enzymes from the group ofcarboxylase, which are important for the Krebs cycle and the biosynthesis of amino acids, sugars,proteins and fatty acids, supporting thyroid function, is involved in the conversion of carbon dioxide, contributes to the proper functioning of the skin and hair, is involvedwith vitamin K in the synthesis of prothrombin (responsiblefor blood clotting).

Sources: Liver, walnuts and peanuts, soy flour, egg yolks, crab, almonds, sardines, mushrooms, brown rice (natural),wholewheat flour, spinach, carrots, tomatoes, yeast, mushrooms, carrots 

Requirement: 200 micrograms per day.

Properties of pantothenic acid (wit B5): molecular formula-C9H17NO5, molar mass-219.23 g mol-1, density-1.266g/cm3, melting point-183.83C, boiling point-551.5C

In the human body is transformed into the active form -acetyl coenzyme A (CoA-SH). This substance is activelyinvolved in the reactions of the Krebs cycle.

Role in the body - essential for the proper metabolism ofproteins, sugars and fats and the synthesis of certain hormones, accelerates wound healing, a prerequisite forthe proper conduct of the release of energy, preventsfatigue and improves cardiovascular, nervous anddigestive, participates in the production of fats, cholesterol , hormones and neurotransmitters, is involvedin tissue regeneration, improves pigmentation andcondition hair.

Sources of vitamin - liver, wheat bran, fish (eg herring,mackerel, trout), mushrooms, whole milk, chicken meat, royal jelly, sunflower seeds, cheese, nuts, eggs,avocados, oranges, potatoes, broccoli, dark rice ,melons, whole grain bread, soy, peanut butter, bananas,Yerba mate.

Requirement:  about 7 mg per day.

Metabolic signifaicence of CoA: Since coenzyme A is, in chemical terms, a thiol, it can react with carboxylic acids to form thioesters, thus functioning as an acyl group carrier. It assists in transferring fatty acids from the cytoplasm to mitochondria. A molecule of coenzyme A carrying an acetyl group is also referred to as acetyl-CoA. When it is not attached to an acyl group, it is usually referred to as 'CoASH' or 'HSCoA'.

Coenzyme A is also the source of the phosphopantetheine group that is added as a prosthetic group to proteins such as acyl carrier protein and formyltetrahydrofolate dehydrogenase.

42. Vitamin B12 (cobalamin) function: Mainly hematopoetic processes, key role in the normal functioning of the brain and nervous system, It is needed for building proteins in the body, red blood cells, and normal function of nervous tissue.

Sources: liver, kidney, yogurt, dairy products, fish, clams, oysters, nonfat dry milk, salmon, sardines. Requirement: adults -about 1-2 mgper day. Symptoms of hypovitaminosis: anemia

Folic acid (witB9, wit M, wit B11,Folate) functions:Folate promotes normal digestion; essential for development of red blood cells. Folic acid regulates growth and functioning of cells,positive influence on the nervous system and brain,determines the mental well-being, so to prevent damage.neural tube defects in a developing unborn child has a positive impact on the weight and development of infants;takes part in the preservation of genetic material, intransmitting hereditary characteristics of cells, regulatetheir distribution, improves the digestive system,contributing to the development of gastric juice, ensure the smooth operation liver, stomach and intestines,stimulates hematopoietic processes, namely the formation of red blood cells, protects the body against cancer (particularly cancer of the uterus). sources: liver, yeast, dark green leafy vegetables, legumes, grains, tomatoes,soybeans, beets, nuts, sunflower seeds, brewer's yeast, egg yolk, bananas, oranges, avocados.
Requirement supplementation at a dose of 0.4 mg. Symptoms of hypovitaminosis: growth inhibition and rebuild of cells in the body, a small amount of red blood cells, neural tube defects in the fetus.

43. Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine ) function: Amino acid metabolism, blood-forming processes, the proper functioning of the nervous system, increases immunity, reduces the side effects of drugs, supports the treatment of kidney, prevents the formation of kidney stones, helps to kill pain and stiffness of wrist and hand,decrease symptoms.of PMS (depression, irritability, breasttenderness, headaches), supports the treatment ofseborrheic dermatitis, hair loss, inflammation of the lips and tongue. Sources: liver, meat, poultry, mackerel, eggs, milk, yeast,vegetables (cabbage, green peas, cauliflower, carrots,spinach, potatoes, beans), cereals (wheat germ),soybeans, peanuts, walnuts, pumpkin seeds, bananas ,and avocado. Requirement: adults - about 2 mg per day. The maximumsafe daily dose: adults - 100 mg. Symptomes of hypovitaminosis: Changes in the bone marrow abnormalities in the nervous system (convulsions), depression, apathy, insomnia, general malaise, reducing the efficiency of mental processes, nerve inflammation, reduced resistance toinfections, skin inflammation, anemia, kidney stones,fatigue, nausea, retching emetic disturbances in the functioning of the heart muscle, increasing the risk of cancer in children - a delayed retardation, bone abnormalities, and epileptic symptoms, irritability

Vitamin B3 (PP, riboflavin) function: The transformation of proteins and carbohydrates, is involved in biochemical changes in the retina

Sources:Eggs, liver, cheese, lean, almonds, mushrooms, game,green parts of vegetables, salmon, trout, mackerel, whole wheat bread, mussels, beans, peas, soybeans, milk,yogurt, kefir, buttermilk, yeast, and walnuts. Requirement: approximately 1.5 mg / day. Symptomes of hypovitaminosis: Changes in skin (seborrhea), changes in the cornea, photophobia, blurred vision, tearing, growth retardation, hair loss, difficulty concentrating, dizziness, insomnia, respiratory disorders, malfunction of the nervous system and mucous membranes, muscular dystrophy

44. Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) function: acts as an antioxidant by protecting the body against oxidative stress. It is also a cofactor in at least eight enzymatic reactions including several collagensynthesis reactions that cause the most severe symptoms of scurvy when they are dysfunctiona. Correct state of the connective tissue, improves immunityand accelerates wound healing. Sources: Potatoes, sauerkraut, wild rose hips, blueberries, raspberries, blackberries, citrus fruits, peppers, brussels sprouts, cabbage, onions, spinach, broccoli, kohlrabi,apples, soybeans, tomatoes, artichokes. Requirement: approximately 60 mg / day. hypovitaminosis: scurvy.

Vitamin P (rutin) function: reduces the permeability of blood vessels, action antioedematous, antioxidant effect. Seals the capillary system of capillaries. Sources: Barberry, elderberry, blackcurrant, red wine, heartsease, capers thorny, peppermint, japanese ginkgo, citrus fruits, coltsfoot, sedum, sorrel, buckwheat, paprika, milk Bactria, tomatoes. requirement: idefinite. Symptoms of hypovitaminosis: tendency to blood extravasations(bruise). Functional interrelations between vitamin C and P. In many cases of skin diseases helps vitamin C (200 to1000 mg) with vitamin P (100 to 500 mg). Treated in this way, such as erythroderma (because the exfoliating theepidermis is eliminated a lot of vitamin C), Addison's disease, bacterial diseases of the skin lesions after-ray,as well as various kinds of hemorrhagic, associated withincreased vascular permeability.

45. Vitamin D (kalcyferol) function: calcium absorption, bone metabolism . vitamin D2 (ergocalciferol) and vitamin D3(cholecalciferol) may be taken in the diet, or can be synthesized from the corresponding provitamin the presence of sunlight. It must be noted, that theD2 vit formed only in plants, a vit D3 - only in animal organisms.
With both compounds the body is able to produce active metabolites (calcitriol), which play an important role in the metabolism of calcium and phosphate. The main effect of vitamin D is its impact on the regulation of calcium and phosphate homeostasis. Two major effector organs associated with this function, which operate on the active metabolites of vitamin D is primarily the intestine and bone, and less kidneys.In the intestine is increase calcium absorption, from bone calcium and phosphate are released (hypocalcaemia)in the kidney interact with teriparatide in reabsorbtion of calcium.

Bone: Vitamin D has a significant impact on bone metabolism -increases the expression of RANKL osteoblast, and this activates RANK on osteoclast precursor, which leads to the formation of mature osteoclast, which by the action of resorption causes the release of calcium from thebones. The developmental period is important in the formation of bones and teeth

Nerves and muscles: regenerates neurons, increases muscle mass and muscle strength.

Immune system: It has immunomodulatory effects and indirect antibacterial properties. Vitamin D activates genes encoding antimicrobial peptides (with the characteristics of naturalantibiotics),β-defensins and katelicydyn . Katelicydyn exhibits biological activity against many bacteria,including tuberculosis bacteria. Katelicydn is produced by immune cells in contact with the cell walls of bacteria, in the presence of 25D form of vitamin D. Anti-inflammatory effects by inhibiting cytokine production. Sources: liver, butter, eggs, milk, meat.
Requirement: Proper level of 20-60 ng / ml (50-150 nM / l),hypervitaminosis: above 150 ng / ml, hypovitaminosis: 8-20 ng / ml deficiency: less than 8 ng / ml. Hypovitaminosis: Rickets in children, osteoporosis inadults. Hypervitaminosis: Demineralization, nausea and vomiting, anorexia,constipation, weakness and fatigability, excessive thirst,increased urination, itching, headaches, mental retardation. Avitaminosis is any disease caused by chronic or long-term vitamin deficiency or caused by a defect in metabolic conversion, such as tryptophan to niacin. They are designated by the same letter as the vitamin.

Conversely hypervitaminosis is the syndrome of symptoms caused by over-retention of fat-soluble vitamins in the body. Avitaminoses include a) vitamin A deficiency causes xerophthalmia or night blindness b) thiamine deficiency causes beriberi, c) niacin deficiency causes pellagra d) B12 deficiency leads to megaloblastic anemia, e) C deficiency leads to scurvy, f) D deficiency causes rickets, g) K deficiency causes impaired coagulation.

46. Vitamin A (retinol) function: Responsible for the proper vision, reduce actinic skin,improves skin tone and protects skin from UV rays, increasing the levels of collagen in the dermis.

Important role in receiving visual stimuli in the retina. The derivative of vitamin A, 11-cis retinal in the rods connects with protein opsyn and form rhodopsin (visualpurple). It is responsible for the integrity of cell membranes, proper functioning of the epithelial tissue cells, such as covering, secretory and sensory, growth regulation of epithelial tissue and other body cells, maintains the correct state of the skin, hair and nails, ensure the normal growth of bones and teeth by regulating the activity of bone tissue, protects epithelium of respiratory against microbes.

Sources: eggs, liver, milk, butter, cheese, blueberries, spinach, fish, dairy products, fatty meat, and, as a provitamin A:carotene, carrots, tomatoes, lettuce, green peas andfruit of wild rose

Requirement: 1000mg per day

Hypovitaminosis: drying of the conjunctiva and corneas, fragile, slow growing nails
dry skin, lack of appetite, night blindness (so-called "night blindness"), blurred vision, growth inhibition, disappearance of epithelia, psoriasis, chert hands and feet, acne, lopecia areata, tendency to diarrhea, malaise

Hypervitaminosis: birth defects in children of mothers with hypervitaminosis during pregnancy, reduced calcification of bones that can lead to osteoporosis,liver enlargement, joint pain, headache.

47. Vitamin E (tokoferol) function: exists in several versions (alpha, beta, gamma, delta),from which the highest activity has alpha-tocopherol. The main antioxidant that protects cells against oxidants, protects red blood cells from premature decomposition, the treatment of male infertility, muscle disorder and ejaculation disorders, atherosclerosis and heart disease. Participates in the delivery ofnutrients to the cells. Strengthens blood vessel walls sources: Almonds, margarine, eggs, walnuts and peanuts,wheat germ, whole wheat flour, milk, sprouts and othergreen leafy vegetables, fruits of wild rose, hazelnut,linden flowers, algae, vegetable oils (soybean, corn, sunflower). requirement is 8-13 mg per day.

Hypovitaminosis: Irritability, impaired concentration, impaired functionand skeletal muscle weakness, keratosis and earlyaging of the skin, poorer wound healing, visual impairment, anemia, infertility, increased risk of cardiovascular disease

The mechanism of action of vitamin E: Assists the immune system, prolongs the life of sperm, lowers cholesterol, taken for a week eliminates night cramps calf, it neutralizes free radicals, which make havoc in the skin (it loses flexibility, elasticity and moisture.)

Application in medicine: inhibits premature aging of skin, improves its elasticity and softness. Over the years more and more skin is dry. This is due to less water-binding capacity. Vitamin E increases the ability to maintain proper skin moisture. Improves blood circulation in the skin, reduces the sensitivity to UV radiation. Anti-inflammatory and anti-acne. Accelerates wound healing and reduces scarring. It is often recommended for postmenopaus.

Vitamin F: Exogenous fatty acids (EFAs - essential unsaturated fatty acids, called EFAs – Essential Fatty Acid), a group of fatty acids that can not be synthesized in the animal organism and must be supplied in the diet, in contrast to endogenous fatty acids. Among the unsaturated fatty acid is distinguished by a group of polyunsaturated fatty acids, which contain more than one double bond carbon-carbon in the hydrocarbon chain acid residues. They are an essential element of human diet (called a group.vitamin F), as they are needed to build important compounds , such as prostaglandins. Important essential fatty acids in humans are: linoleic acid, linolenic acid, arachidonic acid

Sources: occur in fats of aquatic animal and vegetable oils. Polyunsaturated fats:
Linoleic-safflower oil, corn oil, sunflower oil, soybean oil, peanut oil, rapeseed oil, olive oil
linolenic-linseed oil, rapeseed oil, soybean oil
Arachidonic-products of animal origin, meat
eicosapentaenoic-algae, salmon, fish oil (cod)
docosahexaenoic acid-oil, mackerel, some algae,flax seeds

Hypovitaminosis: may cause diseases of the skin (dandruff), increases loss of body water,
during pregnancy can lead to underdevelopment of the fetus

Application in medicin: Vitamin F acts immunostimulating for the human body. It lowers cholesterol and blood pressure, a beneficial effect on the absorption of vitamins E, A and D, accelerates regeneration of skin tissue. EFA and phospholipids form the structure of the cell membrane,regulating its fluidity and enzyme activity. It is also known that the components of vitamin F, and especially the most active of them, linoleic acid play an important role in the metabolism of the skin. The skin forms a barrier protecting the body constantly renewsits structure, whose main components are theunsaturated fatty acids. Vitamin F is a team of highlydigestible fats recovering the lipid of the epidermis and the normalization of the physiological protective properties.

48. Vitamin K2 (menachinon) and K3(manadiol) function: K2 is produced by intestinal bacteria, and vitamin K3 is synthesized. It is essential factor for proper blood clotting factor prothrombin, vitamin antihemorrhagical. The main importance of vitamin K is to participate in the processes of post-translational γ-carboxylation of proteins Pivka, and more specifically the glutamic acid residues in these proteins in the γ position. Vitamin Kparticipates in this reaction as a cofactor forγ-carboxylase. Determines that:
maintain normal levels of clotting factors: II, VII, IX, X,and also: osteocalcin, osteopontin, osteonektyna.
synthesis and maintenance of normal levels of naturalcoagulation factors, and calcium-binding proteins inthe kidney, placenta and lungs.
In addition, these vitamins are involved in the process of glycosylation.

Functions in the body: regulate the production of prothrombin, provide blood clotting and bleeding will stop, reduce excessive menstrual bleeding, play a role in the mineralization of calcium and tissue, inhibit the growth of breast, ovarian, colon, stomach,gallbladder, liver and kidney

sources: broccoli, turnip, spinach, cucumber, lettuce, cabbage,alfalfa, kelp, avocado, potatoes, eggs, yogurt, cheese,liver, soybean oil and safflower. Requirement: 2 mg per day Hypovitaminosis: poor blood clotting, ease of formation of internal and external bleeding, problems with wound healing, difficulties in bone mineralization, increased risk of developing cancer, colitis, diarrhea. Mechanism of action: It is generally accepted that the naphthoquinone is the functional group, so that the mechanism of action is similar for all K-vitamins. Substantial differences may be expected, however, with respect to intestinal absorption, transport, tissue distribution, and bio-availability. These differences are caused by the different lipophilicity of the various side chains, and by the different food matrices in which they occur. Application in medicin: generally: condition of bones, osteoporosis, excessive bleeding due to a weaker formation of clots, excessive menstrual bleeding

other application: Vitamin K plays a role in preventing cancer and helping patients who have undergone radiotherapy. Vitamin K may protect the heart, because the delayed deposition
of plaque in the arteries and reduces the concentration of "bad " cholesterol (LDL) levels.

49. Homeostasis coagulation. The principle function of blood is to keep the internal environment of the body tissues constant and in this way to maintain homeostasis. Homeostasis is a term used to describe normal body functions, which include blood pressure, heart rate, body temperature, respiration and blood composition. In order to perform the processes involved in homeostasis, blood must be fluid. A mechanism known as hemostasis keeps the body fluid within the confines of the circulatory system. Normal Hemostasis
Blood normally is a fluid tissue as it circulates through out the body via the blood vessels. When vessels are injured, blood escapes and bleeding continues for a period of time but then slowly subsides. Several biologic systems play a role in stopping the flow of blood from an injured vessel. In addition to the vessels themselves, platelets and clotting factors interact to form a haemostatic clot. The formation of a haemostatic clot is a temporary measure and as the wound heals the clot slowly dissolves.

Mechanism Involved In Hemostasis:
In the case of healthy subjects there exists a equilibrium between the coagulation potential on the one side and fibrinolytic potential + coagulation inhibitors on the other. In the fibrinolytic potential outweighs the coagulation potential or the coagulation factors are diminished then there is a risk of hemorrhage. If the coagulation potential outweighs the fibrinolytic potential or the inhibitors are diminished, there is a risk of thrombosis.
A delicate balance of components on both sides of the scale is required to maintain hemostasis.
1. Blood vessels:
The vascular system is composed of arteries, veins and the microcirculatory system. The blood vessels provide a non-thrombogenic surface allowing the blood to circulate in a closed vascular system. The nonthrombogenic surface is attributed to properties of the vessel walls and activities of platelets.
2. Platelets:
Platelets or thrombocytes are produced in the bone marrow by large cells called megakarycocytes. The normal numbers of platelets circulating are 150,000 to 450,ooo per cubic millimeter blood. To aid in hemostasis, platelets must be present in adequate number and must be functioning normally. 
Platelets have Three major Functions:
a. Support Vascular integrity
Platelets support vascular integrity in two ways,
i. They help the blood vessels to maintain vascular integrity by donating membrane materials to the endothelial cells lining the vessel walls.
ii. Platelets also fill gaps that may occur between endothelial cells because of minimal damage or vasodilatation. By filling the gap a non trombogenic surface is maintained.
If a gap were allowed to remain and became larger, sub endothelial structures which are foreign to platelets and clotting factors would initiate fibrin formation.
b. Adhesion/Aggregation:
Platelets are considered to be first kind of defense in a haemostatic response to an injury. Following injury to a vessel wall, platelets adhere to the injured surface and quickly form a platelet plug. This activity keeps the blood within a closed vascular system. In the formation of the plug, platelets change as they aggregate irreversibly.
Irreversible aggregation causes platelet constituent to be released. Many of the constituent have an immediate effect upon the haemostatic response. One platelet constituent, known as platelet factor 3, becomes available on the surface of the platelets. Platelet factor 3 is a phospholipid and participates with certain clotting factors to produce thrombin with the ultimate formation of fibrin.

50. Blood coagulation cascade mechanism:

The basic mechanisms of coagulation is a proteolitic process extending chained and cascades. These processes occur out and intrinsic. Intrinsic extends inside in the blood not hurted vessels and is slowly, made up after 7minutes.Outrinsic extends in the damaged tissue from the vascular endothelium, and make up quickly after about 7 seconds. In the intrinsic condition to start the process of coagulation is inactive superficial component of blood factor and factor XII

Various substances are required for the proper functioning of the coagulation cascade:

• Calcium and phospholipid (a platelet membrane constituent) are required for the tenase and prothrombinase complexes to function. Calcium mediates the binding of the complexes via the terminal gamma-carboxy residues on FXa and FIXa to the phospholipid surfaces expressed by platelets, as well as procoagulant microparticles or microvesicles shed from them. Calcium is also required at other points in the coagulation cascade.

• Vitamin K is an essential factor to a hepatic gamma-glutamyl carboxylase that adds a carboxylgroup to glutamic acid residues on factors II, VII, IX and X, as well as Protein S, Protein C andProtein Z. In adding the gamma-carboxyl group to glutamate residues on the immature clotting factors Vitamin K is itself oxidized. Another enzyme, Vitamin K epoxide reductase, (VKORC) reduces vitamin K back to its active form. Vitamin K epoxide reductase is pharmacologically important as a target for anticoagulant drugs warfarin and related coumarins such as acenocoumarol,phenprocoumon, and dicumarol. These drugs create a deficiency of reduced vitamin K by blocking VKORC, thereby inhibiting maturation of clotting factors. Other deficiencies of vitamin K (e.g., inmalabsorption), or disease (hepatocellular carcinoma) impairs the function of the enzyme and leads to the formation of PIVKAs (proteins formed in vitamin K absence); this causes partial or non-gamma carboxylation, and affects the coagulation factors' ability to bind to expressed phospholipid.

Vitamin K antagonists (VKA) are a class of anticoagulants. They reduce blood clotting by inhibiting the action of vitamin K. They can cause birth defects (teratogens). All VKAs can be neutralized in action by administration of vitamin K, although for the second generation "super warfarins" intended to kill warfarin resistant rodents, the time of vitamin K administration may need to be prolonged to months in order to combat the long residence time of the poison

Coagulation process consists of three stages: primary hemostasis (platelet plug creation), coagulation (clot formation) and fibrinolysis (clot dissolution). 

Coagulation factors:

I (fibrinogen) Forms clot (fibrin)
II (prothrombin) Its active form (IIa) activates I, V, VII,VIII, XI, XIII, protein C, platelets
Tissue Factor Co-factor of VIIa (formerly known asfactor III)
Calcium Required for coagulation factors to bind toPhospholipid (formerly known as factor IV)
V (proaccelerin, labile factor) Co-factor of X withWhich it forms the prothrombinase complex
VI Unassigned - old name of Factor Va
VII (stable factor, proconvertin) Activates IX, X
VIII (Antihemophilic Factor A) Co-factor of IX withWhich it forms the complex Tenas
IX (Antihemophilic Factor B or Christmas factor)Activates X: Tenas forms complex with factor VIII
X (Stuart-Prower factor) Activates II: formsprothrombinase complex with factor V
XI (plasma thromboplastin antecedent) Activates IX
XII (Hageman factor) Activates Factor XI, VII andprekallikrein
XIII (fibrin-Stabilizing Factor) crosslinks fibrin