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Joseph R. Perno, MD, PhD, and
Neil Roach, MD

OsteOarthritis and inflammatOry
arthritis

1. What imaging modality is best for diagnosis and follow-up of arthritic diseases?

Plain films are the mainstay for arthritis imaging. They are easy to obtain and give high-resolution information

about cortical bone changes such as erosions, joint space narrowing, and osteophytes. The sensitivity of plain

radiographs to detect early changes of rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is limited, however. Magnetic resonance

imaging (MRI) has been shown to be sensitive to early changes, such as marrow edema, erosions, and synovial

inflammation.

2. What is the difference between an inflammatory arthritis and a degenerative

arthritis?

Inflammatory arthritides are diseases of the synovium, which subsequently produce erosive changes of the adjacent

bones. Examples of inflammatory arthritis include RA and psoriatic arthritis. Degenerative arthritis/osteoarthritis is

secondary to articular cartilage damage from repetitive microtrauma that occurs throughout life, although multiple other

factors, such as heredity, nutrition, metabolic factors, preexisting articular disease, and body habitus, may contribute to

development of the radiographic features of osteoarthritis, which include osseous proliferation, joint space narrowing,

and subchondral sclerosis.

3. Which joints are most often affected

in RA?

RA has a predilection for the carpal/

tarsal, carpometacarpal/tarsometatarsal,

metacarpophalangeal/metatarsophalangeal,

and proximal interphalangeal joints (

Fig. 40-1

).

In adults, the distal interphalangeal joints rarely

are affected. Joint involvement tends to be

bilateral, but not always symmetric. Generally, the

metacarpophalangeal and the metatarsophalangeal

joints are affected first.

4. What portion of the spine does RA

most commonly affect?

In the cervical spine, RA commonly causes

atlantoaxial (C1 to C2) subluxation because of

laxity of the transverse ligament and pannus

formation. Other disease entities may affect this

region of the cervical spine, including gout, calcium

pyrophosphate dihydrate (CPPD) crystal deposition

disease, and hydroxyapatite deposition disease.

Some of these other disease processes may cause

erosions of the dens, atlantoaxial subluxation, and

radiopaque calcifications.

5. Can RA affect nonarticular structures?

Yes. Retrocalcaneal bursitis is common and is detected when the retrocalcaneal fat at the posterior-superior aspect of

the calcaneus is obscured by edema. It is often accompanied by bone erosion.

6. How do inflammatory arthritides affect cartilage?

Inflammatory arthritides are a chronic synovitis, eroding bone that is “unprotected” by cartilage. These changes are

noted first at the margins of joints, where cartilage is thinnest. Cartilage is also eroded by the joint inflammation, but

tends to erode in an even and uniform manner.

Figure 40-1.

Ulnar deviation of the metacarpals is noted in this patient

with RA. There is a typical marginal erosion of the metacarpal head

(arrow).

280

OsteOarthritis and inflammatOry arthritis

7. What finding, which is common in osteoarthritis, is virtually never seen

with RA?

The presence of significant osteophytes (productive bone changes) is not consistent with the diagnosis of RA. A joint that

has been destroyed by RA may then develop osteoarthritis, however, owing to cartilage loss.

8. What additional joint findings are seen with RA?

Subluxations and malalignments at the metacarpophalangeal and metatarsophalangeal joints are typical. The

subluxations tend to deviate the phalanges in the ulnar direction (see

Fig. 40-1

).

9. Where are the swan neck and boutonnière deformities located?

The chronic inflammatory changes of RA in the joints of the fingers produce retraction of the tendons. The swan

neck deformity is caused by hyperextension of the proximal interphalangeal joint with simultaneous flexion of the

distal interphalangeal joint. If you try this manipulation on yourself, you will recognize the reason for the name. The

boutonnière (or buttonhole) deformity is caused by hyperextension of the distal interphalangeal joint with simultaneous

flexion of the proximal interphalangeal joint.

10. When can RA be confused with other arthritides?

Severe erosions of the subchondral bone may develop late in RA after the cartilage is destroyed and may give an

appearance similar to erosive osteoarthritis.

11. What joints are typically affected by osteoarthritis?

Osteoarthritis most often affects the proximal and distal interphalangeal joints of the hands and the major weight-

bearing joints—the hips and the knees. In addition, the carpal joints at the base of the thumb are commonly affected

(trapeziometacarpal and scaphotrapeziotrapezoidal joints). The most commonly affected joint in the foot is the first

metatarsophalangeal joint. Any joint damaged by trauma that results in an irregular articular surface can become

prematurely arthritic.

12. Where are Heberden and Bouchard nodes located?

•

Heberden nodes are osseous outcroppings involving the distal interphalangeal joints.

•

Bouchard nodes involve the proximal interphalangeal joints.

Bouchard and Heberden nodes are physical examination signs of hand osteoarthritis.

13. Which joints are rarely involved in

primary osteoarthritis?

Involvement of the radiocarpal, pan-carpal, and

metacarpophalangeal joints is rare in osteoarthritis,

but is common in RA and psoriatic arthritis.

14. What are the hallmarks of

osteoarthritic change in a joint?

Erosive arthritides have uniform cartilage loss,

whereas degenerative osteoarthritis results in

segmental cartilage loss. In small joints, such

as joints in the fingers, the loss may seem to

be uniform. The layer of bone just beneath the

cartilage is called the subchondral bone. When

exposed to increased stress, this layer becomes

sclerotic. As this process continues, the cartilage

and the underlying bone can become eroded,

producing cystlike pockets in the bone, called

geodes. At the edge of a joint where the cartilage

is thinnest, exposed bone becomes hypertrophic,

resulting in irregular or pointed outcroppings of

bone, called osteophytes.

15. What is erosive osteoarthritis?

Erosive osteoarthritis is a form of osteoarthritis that

is sometimes called inflammatory osteoarthritis

(

Fig. 40-2

). Although the joint distribution is the

Figure 40-2.

Erosive osteoarthritis involving the distal interphalangeal

joints, with a combination of productive and erosive changes. Note the

classic “gull wing” deformity of the distal interphalangeal joint (arrow).

OsteOarthritis and inflammatOry arthritis

281

musculOskeletal radiOlOgy

same as in typical osteoarthritis, the erosive changes are more severe, and there is soft tissue swelling, which may give

a similar appearance to RA or psoriatic arthritis. These changes involve the subchondral cortex in the main portion of the

joint, however, rather than the peripheral “bare areas.” Ultimately, the phalangeal joints may become fused.

16. Name the seronegative spondyloarthropathies.

Seronegativity refers to the absence of rheumatoid factor in blood tests of patients who present with inflammatory

arthritis. This group of diseases includes psoriatic arthritis, reactive arthritis (Reiter syndrome), ankylosing spondylitis (AS),

and enteropathic arthritis (associated with inflammatory bowel diseases such as Crohn disease and ulcerative colitis).

17. What mnemonic can be used to remember the triad of symptoms seen with reactive

arthritis (also known as Reiter syndrome)?

“Can’t see (uveitis), can’t pee (urethritis), can’t bend your knee (arthritis).”

18. What are the different presentations of psoriatic arthritis?

Psoriatic arthritis tends to involve the terminal interphalangeal joints of both hands; this is in contrast to RA, which more

commonly involves more proximal joints in the hands and wrists. A second presentation pattern of psoriatic arthritis

may involve multiple joints of a single hand. The third pattern involves only the joints of a single ray. The appearance is a

combination of erosive and productive bony changes. The erosive changes occur at the peripheral bare areas, similar to RA.

Psoriatic arthritis also has productive bone formation adjacent to the joint, however, typically in an exuberant and irregular

manner. Although the clinical symptoms of psoriatic arthritis develop in 30% to 40% of patients with psoriasis, psoriatic arthritis

usually does not occur concomitantly with the dermatologic diagnosis and may take 10 years or longer to manifest. It has been

estimated, however, that 10% to 15% of patients have musculoskeletal complaints as the first manifestations of psoriasis.

19. What is the “pencil-in-cup” deformity?

The advanced erosive changes seen in psoriatic arthritis can produce a pointed appearance of the proximal phalanx that

then pushes into the base of the more distal phalanx and deforms it to look like a cup.

20. Does AS have a specific pattern of

joint involvement?

AS preferentially involves the sacroiliac joints and

lumbar spine, and then may advance craniad to

involve the thoracic and cervical spine. Ankylosis

refers to the bony fusion of the opposing surfaces,

which results in sclerosis and loss of the normal

sacroiliac joint cartilage space (

Fig. 40-3

). Focal

cortical irregularities at the anterior margin of the

superior and inferior discovertebral junctions are

considered early and significant features of AS

seen on conventional radiographs and have been

termed Romanus lesion. The MRI correlate has

been described and is termed the “MRI corner”

sign. Healing of the Romanus lesion leads to

sclerosis at the end-plate corners and has been

termed the “shiny corner” sign.

21. What does the term bamboo spine

describe?

AS produces syndesmophytes, which are osseous bridges of the intervertebral disc spaces along Sharpey fibers in

the anulus fibrosus. Combined with fusion of the facet joints and ossification of the longitudinal spinal ligaments, the

appearance is similar to that of a stick of bamboo.

22. What is the radiologic appearance of gout?

Gout classically involves the first metatarsophalangeal joint. Other joints of the hand and foot can also be affected,

however. Although more than one joint may be involved, it does not tend to be symmetric as other inflammatory

arthritides can be. The classic appearance of a gout erosion is termed the overhanging margin, with a rim of eroded

cortex hanging over a soft tissue density called a tophus. Tophi are soft tissue deposits of monosodium urate crystals

that may occur anywhere, particularly in the dorsal aspect of the foot and the extensor aspect of the elbow.

23. What is pseudogout?

Pseudogout is not a radiographic diagnosis; it refers to a goutlike clinical syndrome with acute attacks of intermittent pain.

Figure 40-3.

AS causes fusion of the sacroiliac joint. When this joint

fuses, the normally dark-appearing cartilage becomes replaced by bone

matrix (double arrows).

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OsteOarthritis and inflammatOry arthritis

24. What are the differences between

pyrophosphate arthropathy and

CPPD crystal deposition disease?

CPPD crystal deposition disease is a specific

term for a disorder characterized by the exclusive

presence of CPPD crystals in and around joints.

Pyrophosphate arthropathy describes a pattern

of joint damage that is secondary to CPPD crystal

deposition disease. Although the radiographic

changes of pyrophosphate arthropathy may

be similar to osteoarthritis (osteophytosis,

subchondral sclerosis, and joint space narrowing),

there is a tendency to develop prominent

subchondral cystic changes and decreased

osteophytosis (as seen in osteoarthritis), and

it tends to involve non–weight-bearing joint

spaces, such as the shoulder, patellofemoral, and

radiocarpal joints. It also tends to be symmetric.

In the hand, CPDD crystal deposition disease

tends to involve the metacarpophalangeal joints,

particularly the second and third, but spares

the interphalangeal joints. The subchondral

bone becomes involved by multiple cystlike

lucencies that can eventually lead to collapse

of the articular surface (scapholunate advanced

collapse wrist).

Calcium pyrophosphate crystals tend to deposit within fibrocartilage. The menisci of the knee, triangular fibrocartilage

of the wrist, labra of the acetabulum and glenoid, symphysis pubis, and anulus fibrosus of the intervertebral disc are

common sites. These cartilage calcifications are termed chondrocalcinosis (

Fig. 40-4

). These deposits may also affect

the hyaline cartilage, which becomes a more specific radiologic marker for the disease. Soft tissue calcification is also

common in tendons, bursae, and synovium.

B

iBliography

[1] A. Brower, Arthritis in Black and White, Saunders, Philadelphia, 1988.

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[3] A. Feydy, F. Lioté, R. Carlier, et al., Cervical spine and crystal-associated diseases: imaging findings, Eur. Radiol. 16 (2006) 459–468.

[4] C.A. Helms, Fundamentals of Skeletal Radiology, second ed., Saunders, Philadelphia, 1995.

[5] N.R. Kim, J.Y. Choi, S.H. Hong, et al., “MR corner sign”: value for predicting presence of ankylosing spondylitis, AJR Am. J. Roentgenol.

191 (2008) 124–128.

[6] J.A. Jacobson, G. Girish, Y. Jiang, B.J. Sabb, Radiographic evaluation of arthritis: degenerative joint disease and variations, Radiology 248

(2008) 737–747.

[7] C.C. Peterson, M.L. Silbiger, Reiter’s syndrome and psoriatic arthritis: their roentgen spectra and some interesting similarities, AJR Am. J.

Roentgenol. 100 (1967) 860–871.

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2002.

Key Points: Differentiating Arthritis on Hand Radiograph

1. Symmetric erosive change of the metacarpophalangeal and proximal interphalangeal joints of both hands,

periarticular osteopenia, and symmetric joint space loss suggest RA.

2. Extensive productive osteophyte changes of the distal interphalangeal joints, with less severe changes of the

proximal interphalangeal and metacarpophalangeal joints, or a thickened “sausage-digit,” suggests psoriatic

arthritis.

3. Osteophyte production and joint space narrowing without marginal erosions of the distal interphalangeal and

proximal interphalangeal joints, with little or no involvement of the metacarpophalangeal joints, suggests

degenerative joint disease.

4. A soft tissue mass with an overhanging rim of bone, adjacent to a joint space, suggests gout. Gout also tends

to preserve the joint space and the mineralization of the bone.

5. Calcifications within the soft tissues of the fingertips, resorption of the cortex of the finger tufts, or both suggest

scleroderma or polymyositis.

Figure 40-4.

CPDD with calcium crystal deposition in the meniscus

(double arrows). This is called chondrocalcinosis.