R&D ACTIVITY OF A COMPANY - MEASUREMENT, PROJECTS AND PLANNING, GENERATING IDEAS AND TESTING
Indicators of R&D activity:
Compare the budgets (government - private sector); the larger the budget, the higher the level of R&D activity;
Take into account the number of new patents;
The number and the frequency of publications (peer-reviewed publications);
The percentage of revenues that a company spends on R&D each year (R&D intensity); it's regularly updated, is available to the public, reflect business risk;
R&D scientists:
Work in project teams - scientists from various disciplines and representatives from diverse groups (marketing, human resources);
“throwing it over the wall” - each stage of the process is isolated from the others, time-consuming method;
Cross-functional communication and participation;
Coordinate processes, identify and avoid problems;
Have up-to-date knowledge of technical fields, skills in communication, problem-solving, group decision-making;
CPM - Critical Path Method; projects are broken down into steps and sequences. Certain steps have to be completed before we can move on to the next one, while other can be done simultaneously. We can determine the minimum time we are going to need to complete whole project. We construct a diagram to show each step in the process and how long it will take to complete. We can determine the earliest completion date looking at all possible paths through the diagram and find the one that requires the most time. The longest path will take a total of weeks minimum from start to finish.
R&D planning consist of choosing projects that will use available human and financial resources and the most efficient and profitable way.
Generating ideas:
Many ideas come from R&D department;
Other employees in the company;
From customers, competitors, focus groups;
Brainstorming, attribute listening, virtual prototyping;
Testing ideas:
Ask key questions about the ideas;
Ask if target market will benefit from a product;
Ask if it's technically feasible to manufacture it;
Ask if it will be profitable;
Testing by asking a sample of prospective customers what they think of it;
Fuzzy Front End - not very expensive part of the process but very time-consuming. This is where we decide on clear, sound concept and make serious commitments regarding time, money and how the product will be.
INDUSTRIAL DESIGN - HISTORY, PRODUCT CHARACTERISTICS, COMPARISON OF PRODUCTS
1929 - Raymond Loewy received first industrial design commission - to modernize the appearance of Gestetner's duplicating machine;
HOUSEHOLD CONSUMER GOODS: refrigerators, freezers, electric shaves, toothbrushes;
TRANSPORTATION: Scenicruiser, sports car, spacecraft;
SOFT DRINKS: CC bottle & aluminum can;
MISCELLANEOUS: postage stamp, shell logo, ballpoint pens;
CRITERIA OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN:
Expression of function in terms of form;
Beauty of line, color, proportion, texture;
Convenience and comfort in use;
High efficiency and safety operation;
Durability;
Ease of maintenance and repair;
VALUE ENGINEERING - HISTORY, MEANING, APPLICATIONS, ELIMINATIONG WASTE
Value engineering is a method by which a company tries to improve the value of its product; value - is the ratio of function to cost (INCREASED by improving function or by reducing cost); optimize the balance of function and cost;
Happened by accident during the IInd World War, found that use of substitute materials reduced production costs or improved a product or even produced both effects.
APPLYING CALUE ENGINEERING TO PRODUCTS:
Analyze the functions of a product;
Determine which functions are important (What does this product have to do? What else could it do? What must this product not do?);
Think of alternatives;
Evaluate all the alternatives and compare them with the product as it actually is;
Choose the best option and present it;
ELIMINATION WASTE:
Efficient use of energy - reduce costs and add value to a product by making it more energy-efficient;
Cheaper substitute materials - replace expensive materials with cheaper ones that function jus as well;
Efficiency and producibility - redesign products to make them more producible and adopt more efficient production process. Eliminate unnecessary parts, standards of precision;
Modules and subassemblies - use multipurpose components that can be reused in a number of slightly different products; save an original engineering and design costs;
Customer feedback - redesign a product so that it matches exactly what most customers want. Extras can then be sold as options;
PLAYTESTS
Playtests - one of software designers - or someone else - tests a new game/program for bugs and improvements; established part of the quality control process;
Open - test open to anyone who wishes to join; testers from the outside;
Closed - is an internal testing process that is not available to the public at all;
Beta - takes place in the final stages just before go to the market with a new product; is usually semi-open, done with limited form of the game/program just to pick up any last-minute problems;
“Eat your own dog food”
EAT YOUR OWN DOG FOOD is part of the jargon of software and technology companies. The phrase mean two things: it can refer simply to a company using the products that it makes to carry out its own day-to-day business (f.e. Microsoft - use of its own software products inside the company). The other meaning refers to a company testing the products that it makes by actually using them in real-world situations (f.e. use only prerelease and beta versions of a product).
BENEFITS OF `EAT YOUR OWN DOG FOOD':
We can find what is missing in the product;
Confidence in own product;
Knowledge and experience;
Lower costs of testing;
SAFETY TESTING AND PERFORMANCE TESTING
SAFETY TESTING is mandatory.
PERFORMANCE TESTING is voluntary process, it's dictated just by the goals and objectives of the company. It enables a company to verify its own internal test data. It offers one of the best ways to gain a demonstrable competitive edge over the competition, f.e. company can measure how well its product compare with whose of its competitors so that it can design them to be more competitive. The other thing is that after performance testing company can make impressive marketing claims such as “the longest lasting..”. It also helps company to secure valuable approval and endorsements from trade associations in their industry.
COMPARATIVE TESTING is based on unique goals and objectives and, most often, tests are designed to suit the product or service and its application.
INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERS, AREAS OF EXPERTISE
Industrial engineers manage the layout and the design of industrial and manufacturing facilities. They try to achieve the most advantageous and efficient deployment of the site and the machinery. They schedule and direct the placement and the flow of raw materials, components and machine parts. They organize personnel and equipment and try to optimize the use of human resources. They supervise the running of the plant and ensure that the whole operation runs safely.
AREAS OF EXPERTISE:
Facility layout and design;
Machinery and equipment;
Materials and components;
Production planning and methods;
Logistics and operations research;
Statistics;
Ergonomics (interactions between human beings and machines);
Human resources;
Safety procedures;
Management;
Cost issues;
ELECTRCAL ENGINEERING AS ONE OF ENGINEERING FIELDS?
Electrical engineering is the discipline that employees the largest number of engineers. It involves the development, design, application and manufacture of systems and devices that generate and use electric power and electric signals. Electrical engineering can be divided into four disciplines: electric power, communications, electronics and computer hardware. They design and manufacture generators, motors, transmission systems and controls. Also they're branched into communications systems, including radio and television, and electronic engineering.
COMPUTER SOFTWARE ENGINEERS
Computer systems software engineer coordinate the construction and maintenance of a company's computer system. Have to organize things like ordering, inventory, billing, payroll, etc. Help companies to coordinate their computer systems in theses departments. More concerned with developing algorithms and analyzing and solving programming problems than with actually writing code programs. Also helps to set up intranet system and make suggestions about the technical direction of a company and help to plan for future growth.
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING, BASIC CHEMICAL PROCESSES
Chemical engineering is the application of chemistry to the process of converting either raw materials or chemical substances into more useful or valuable forms. They design, construct and operate industrial equipment and devise chemical processes that can be used to produce chemical products on an industrial scale. Individual chemical engineering tasks are described n terms of unit processes (chemical engineer = process engineer).
The chemical engineer has to select and specify the chemical processes and the most appropriate equipment that will be needed. Chemical engineers must organize all the unit processes in their correct sequence.
CRYSTALIZATION - forming solid crystals from a homogenous solution
DISSOLUTION - dissolving a substance into a liquid
DISTILLATION - separating substances based on differences in their vapor pressures
FILTRATION - using a filter to separate a mixture mechanically
POLYMERIZATION - combining simple molecules to form more complex molecules of higher molecular weight and with different physical properties
SOLVENT EXTRACTION - separating the compounds of a mixture based on the difference in solubility of a compound in various solvents
LEDs
LED - light-emitting diode - is a device that emits visible light when an electric current passes through it. To manufacture LEDs, semiconductors are combined with phosphors. When electricity is passed through a diode, infrared radiation is emitted by the semiconductor. This radiation is absorbed by the phosphors in the diode and it is then reemitted as visible light. LEDs are used in the indicator lights and in alphanumeric displays on many of the electronic devices and appliances that we use at home and at work.
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Mechanical engineers make machines for producing power - things like electric generators, steam or gas turbines - and different types of internal combustion engines. They also make machines that use power - air-conditioning, refrigeration equipment, machine tools.
Disciplines related to mechanical engineering: electrical engineering, civil engineering, industrial engineering, systems engineering, aerospace engineering, nuclear engineering.
The nature of the work: research, develop, design, manufacture and test all sorts of tools, machines, engines and other mechanical devices. Design tools that other engineers need for their work.
Fundamental subjects of mechanical engineering: The basics areas of knowledge are dynamics, statics, solid mechanics, strength of materials, fluid dynamics, thermodynamics, heat transfer, kinematics, mechatronics.
SAFETY IN MANUFACTURING PLANS
Safety engineering is a specialty adopted by engineers who received their initial training in some other branch of engineering. Principal objective of engineers is preventing accidents, Safety engineers work on ways of safeguarding all types of worker but particularly the ones who work in occupations that can be hazardous. Some safety engineers help in the design of machinery, factories, ships and roads (avoid hazards like sharp turns or blind intersections). They suggest modifications and improvements to try to reduce likelihood of an accident. The safety engineer will ensure that any emergency cutoff switches are within reach of the operator.
OPERATING ENGINEERS - oversee and control a number of different areas, set up procedures and supervise personnel
MAINTENANCE ENGINEER - continued safe and dependable operation of the equipment; carrying timely and efficient repairs
CONTROL ENGINEER - carry on-site inspections to check that all parts and systems meet various technical and other requirements
PROTECTIVE CLOTHING
Gloves, hard hat, googles - protective glasses, overalls, strong boots, earplugs, mask, special vest reflective, protective screen, clean room
HAZARDS TO SAFETY AND STABILITY IN CIVIL ENGINEERING
LIMIT STATE DESIGN - is a design methodology used by structural and civil engineers. Structures and buildings are designed to comply with codes that are based on limit state theory (set of performance criteria covering strength, tendency to vibrate, stability, tendency to buckle or twist etc.). TWO MAIN CRITERIA OF LSD: the ultimate limit state - all the types of stresses (bending, shearing) that a particular element could be subjected to must be below an established limit; the serviceability limit state - make sure that people inside a structure are not upset or alarmed by large deflections or vibrations in the floor when they walk, require the beam deflections in a roof to be low enough to ensure that the plaster or the paint on the ceiling does not fall off.
QUALITY CONTROL AND QUALITY ENGINEERING
The role of quality control and quality engineering is to develop systems to ensure that products are designed and produced to meet or exceed customers' requirements and expectations. These systems are often set up in conjunction with other business and engineering disciplines using a cross-functional approach.
STATISTICAL PROCES CONTROL (SPC) - this system was born of the realization that quality control cannot be inspected into a finished item. SPC provides inspectors with a sampling system, traditional SPC involves random sampling and testing of a fraction of total output. Any variances from established levels of tolerance are continuously tracked and manufacturing processes are corrected to prevent defective parts from being produced.
PDCA CYCLE
PDCA - Plan, Do, Check, Act - is the most widely used quality control paradigms. Was made popular by Edward Deming. PDCA cycles should be implemented repeatedly and each repetition should begin as soon as possible with each cycle taking you closer and closer toward your objective. A series of PDCA cycles can help people to define and achieve their objectives.
PLAN - establish your objectives and the processes that are necessary to produce the results you're looking for, according to your specifications
DO - this is when you implement the process, set into motion
CHECK - time for monitoring and evaluating your results against your initial objectives and specifications and also the time to report the results
ACT - act upon your results, reviewing all of the four steps and making any necessary modifications and improvements to the process before its next implementation which should take place as soon as possible
A `TOTAL QUALITY CONTROL' APPROACH
Product must reflect the correct quality requirements: reliability, maintainability, safety. To avoid losing sales we should implement `tqc' approach by making changes in different areas. We must meet customers' needs, like obtain better up-to-date information about definitions of customers requirements, product specifications should be redefined to conform these requirements, conformance to specifications should be ensured at every stage of manufacturing, the company should consider replacing workers with a poor track record, QC should carry out inspections and tests. Company should think about expanding Customer Service and listen to customer feedback.
TRENDS IN ENGINEERING
TIME-STUDY ENGINEERING - engineers need to work not just with machines but also with people. To find out how machines can be operated most efficiently by operators you have to oversees how engineer behind the machine act. Small change in the position or certain muscle movements can have a big effect on speed, efficiency and production.
HUMAN-FACTORS ENGINEERING - ERGONOMICS - work to establish criteria for the efficient, safe, human-centered design of things like large, complex control panels that direct and monitor operations in, f.e. nuclear reactor
INTERDISCIPLINARY APPROACH - specialists from different engineering disciplines working together, and also include experts from legal, social, behavioral and environmental fields.
LICENSURE - the construction of public and commercial structures needs approval by a professionally licensed engineer, especially when public and worker safety is a consideration. Many engineers are licensed by the state, just as doctors and lawyers are. It is a document that confirms that a person had finished a licensing process by taking the examination and after that can work in special discipline.
CAREER OPTIONS AND PROSPECTS FOR SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING GRADUATES
Private sector: coping with more stringent timeframes
Engineer: working closer to an actual production line
Physicist: could be hired by biotechnology firm
Chemist: might find yourself working for a pharmaceutical company
Biochemistry: work for a financial services institution as a biotech stock analyst
Well-rounded education or analytical skills and computer experience can be put into a wide range of other professions like sales, marketing and business consulting. So each engineer can change their career and it'll be easier to him than to some manager.
WOMEN IN ENGINEERING
The number of women earning engineering degrees increased dramatically from the mid-1970s through the mid-1980s and then leveled off for next ten years. More than 30% of bachelor's degrees in the fields of bio, environmental, chemical, industrial and agricultural engineering are awarded to women.
The reason for the difference between these numbers could be the fact that after graduating women are at age when they decide to have families and so many times they focus mostly on that. Their aim is to bring up their children properly. Another aspect is the fact that nowadays many companies don't want to have mothers working for them because they aren't able to give the best to their job. So the women sacrifice their career outlook and are the best mothers.
The most often chosen branches are chemical and industrial engineering. I think it is so because women feel the best in this disciplines, the feel that they can develop their skills and knowledge. What is more, women's interests are covering with the branches needs so many women find them attractive, they can connect their hobbies with work.