CONSONANTS(24);2 categories:1)total closure/stricture causing friction+noise component;types:forties&lenis;2)partial closure/unimpeded oral/nasal escape of air;ẅ-labial-velar fortis voiceless fricative;PLOSIVES:3stages:1)closing stage-organ move together to form the obstruction2)hold/compression st-lung action compresses air behind closuremay or not be voice3)release of explosion st-organs allow compressed air to escape forming obstruction;voiced or voiceless;Phonetic features:1)place of articulation/pb/-bilabial/t,d/-alveolar/k,g/-velar2)Force of art-/ptk/=strong/fortis-more muscular energy,stronger breath effort than/bdg/=weak,lenis3)Aspiration-lenis no asp;fortis initial in accented syllable=voiceless interval-aspiration between release of plosive and onset of following vowel-time measured=voice onset time-VOT;devoicing:/ptk/ +/lrw/,preciding vowel in unaccented syllable,weak;/s/precedes=no aspiration;final position-no audible release4)Voicing-/ptk/-no;/bdg/-may have full voice in 2 stage when:between voiced sounds;final/initial=partially voiced/voiceless,or in the last portion of 2 stage5)Length of preceding sounds-finally in the syllable, value determined by the syllable they close,closed by fortis are shorter,this reduction known as pre-fortis clipping;Acoustic features-perceptible period of silence,/p/distinguished from/b/-low frequency component(voice)&influence of duration,aspiration, burst of noise;bilabial/alv/vel distinction-noise burst in release,alv-3000/4000cps/bil-360/vel.depends on nature of following vowel;Release stage-not always;variants:1)no audible release in final position-closure,gentle release,inaudible opening,air may be released nasally by lowering soft palate,delaying separation of organs forming closure;third stage missing=plosive termed `incomplete';careful speakers tend to release;2)no audible release in stop clusters-in cluster of 2 stops-1sthas no audible release,closure for 2ndstop Is made before release of 1st;release if 1stplosive delayed in case of germination,e.g.good dog-the 2ndprolonged voice or silence;omission of audible 3rdst=inaudible 1stst of following stop;sequence of 3 plosives-central no audible3)glottal reinforcement of final/ptk/air-pressure behind oral closure released audibly,or anticipate articulation,or (rare) some compression of air between oral/glottal closure;4)Nasal release-a)plosive followed by homoganic nasal consonant release not by removal of oral closure-nasal passageb)nasal consonant following plosive is not homorganic-plosive closure is not normally released until the articulatory movements of nasal consonants5)Lateral release- sequences /td/+/l/=homorganic(the same place of articulation)-laterally,distinguished from sequences /pbkg/+/l/-partial alv contact for /l/ before or at time of release of plosive=escape of air-lateral6)Affrication of plosives-plosives made with slow, fricative release=affricatived;alv/td/may be heard in affricated form[tsdz](London),occasionally heard with velar plosives;Bilabial plosives-/pb/-description-soft palate raised,nasal resonator shut off,obstacle by closure of lips,lung air compressed behind closure,air escape with force,lateral sound follows-lateral escape round the point of alv.closure;Sources-PresE/pb/from the same OE,French,in some cases b from p;Alv.Plosives-/td/-description-tongue-tip raised,soft palate raised,nasal resonator shut off,obstacle by closure between tip&rims of tongue&upper alv.ridge;lung air compressed,vocal folds wide apart for/t/, may vibrate for/d/, lip position conditioned by adjacent sound;alveolar stop contact depends on the following consonant-if/r/=post-alv,/ θ,ð/-dental;variants-/t/in syllable final=glottal closure,sometimes /‽/ to replace /t/ when /ņ/follows, for /t/ preceding /l/Sources-OE,French,some th had /t/ until eModE,many cases of elision of earlier /td/Velar Plosives-/kg/-Desc.soft palate raised, nasal resonator shut pff,obstacle by closure between back of tongue and soft palate,lung air behind closure,vocal folds wide apart for/k/,may vibrate for /g/,lip position conditioned by adjacent sound,air escapes with force;Sources-OE,French,/k/spelt with c/ck=from plosives equivalent of North French,Fr qu=/kw/Glottal Plosive-‽-Desc.-obstruction by closure of vocal folds,pressure below glottis, sudden separation of vocal folds, compression stage=silence, voiceless, strong air compression, reducing the length of preceding sounds, no acoustic;Usage-syllable boundary maker,hiatus of vowels, where there is a danger of intrusive /r/,by some applied where should be linking/r/, final/ptk/, reinforced/t∫/, the first element of cluster;replacement of/ptk/-when cons.follows,replaces /t/ when:following cons.is homorganicless commonly before nasals,all non-sylabic cons,except/h/,before stressed syllable(e.g.at last)/pk/ replaced when the following cons.is homorganic,occasionally for final /t∫/unaccented/t/replaced by /‽/between vowel or /n,l/ and vowel,in rapid speech likely to be weak,in London speech replaces /f/(e.g.half a);History-mentioned in 17thcent.as a feature of the onset of initial vowels;Affricate-plosive whose relase stage is performed so that considerable friction occurs approximately at the point where plosive stop is made, shorter friction;Phonemic status-as a single phonemic entities or a sequence of 2 phonemes;Distribution-a)syllable initia,b)syllable final,within the same syllable/morpheme,c)word medial,with close-knit stop and fricative el,d)word medial/final,with stop final&fricative initial in adjacent syllable/morpheme;if/t∫,dʒ,tr,dr/=2 morphemes-realisation will differ;Possibilities of commutation- /t∫/may be commutated within the same syllable:word initially, in the stop, with zero only;in the fricatives, with /rw/and zero ;word medially,in the stop,with zero only;in the fricative, with /r/ or zero;word finally, in the stop, with /l/ or zero;/dʒ/within the same syllable:word initially,in the fricative only,with/rjw/and zero;medially in the stop,with zero,and in fricative,with/r/&zero;word finally,in the fricative only,with/z/or zero;Sources-OE/OF plosives [c]/odwrócone[f],&coalescence of /t/or/d/+/j/;Conclusion-:/t∫,dʒ /=complex phonetic/single phonemic;/tr,dr/=units/phonetic relationship;Palato-alv.Affricates-:/t∫,dʒ /-description-soft palate raised,nasal resonator shut off,closure-tip,blade&rims&upper alv.ridge&side teeth,front of tongie raised towards hard palate,closure released slowly,never loose fricative stage,lip position conditioned /t∫/reduces length of preceding sound;Sources-early OE[c]/odwrócone[f],OF [t∫dʒ],coalescence of medial /tj,dj/;Post-Alv.Affricate-/tr,dr/-desc.-soft palate raised,nasal passage shut off,closure-tip&rims&rear edge of upper alv.ridge&upper side teeth,vocal folds apart for/tr/,no in final syllable position,lip position conditioned;Fricatives-2organs,air turbulence,plosives&affricates,noise component,may/may not be voice;place of articulation-/fv/=labio-dental,/ θ,ð/=dental,/sz/=alv/∫,ʒ/=palate-alv/h/=glottal;Force of articulation-/f θs∫/more muscular energy,stronger breath force than others;/h/=fortis, may have lenis allophone;Voicing-/vz ð ʒ/-voiced between voiced sounds,initial/final position-partially/or voiceless;Length of preceding sounds-if appear finally their value determined by the length of syllable they close;Acoustic features of eng.fricatives-depend upon:a)extend&position of noise component;b)intensity of noise component(lenis lower intensity;/s∫/-high);c)Low frequebcy component(lenis periodic low-voicing);d)Formant transition;e)duration of fricative noise(friction of lenis series shorter);Labio-dental Fricatives-/fv/-desc.-soft palate raised,resonator shut off,inner surface of the lower lip makes a light contact with edge of upper teeth,escaping air causing friction,point of contact will vary,/v/may be some vocal fold vibration,strong friction between lower lip and upper teeth;Sources-/f/:OE initial &final [f]/OF[f],ph,th;/v/:OE/f/;Dental fricatives-/ θ,ð/-desc-soft palate raised,resonator shut off,tip & rims light contact with edge & inner surface of upper incistors & firmer contact with upper side teeth,air escaping cause friction,lip position depends;difficulties of dental articulation may lead to replacement by labio-dental fr;Sources-/θ/-initial & final OE/θ/(think,throat,worthless);OF/ð/(faith);Greek-theory,thesis;others that had /t/-catholc,theatre; /ð/-OE(θ)-between voice sounds(other,feather);Alv.fricatives-/sz/-soft palate raised,resonator shut off,tip & blade light contact with upper alv.ridge &side rims close contact with upper side teeth,air stream escapes by mans of narrow groove in centre of tangue-friction,sometimes tonge-tip contact lower teeth;Variants-/s/often replaced by/z/,difference in:/ns /-/nts/(tense-tents)/nts tending to be used in all cases-insertion of/t/=plosive epenthesis;epenthetic plosive homorganic with the nasal(Samson-p between m/n/ ŋ and s);Sources-/s/=OE[s,ss]OF[s];z=OE/s/OF/z/Plato-alv fricatives-/∫,ʒ /Sources-/∫/fromOE[∫],earlier OE [s]+[k]/[c]/coalescence of /s/+/j/or/i/;/ʒ/=coalescence of/z/+/j/or /i/;Glottal fricative-h:desc.-only in syllable initial,pre-vocalic position,air expelld from lungs,pressure, friction;NASALS-bilabial-m,alveolar-n,velar- ŋ=phoneme/allophone=if g is pronounced;Sources-OF/OE,so long as occurred only before /kg/,the nasal was an allophone of /n/,the loss of g= /ŋ/gained a phonemic significance;Laterals-partial closure,tip of tongue articulates with centre of upper teeth ridge,voiced, frictionless, vowel-like;clear [l]-front of tongue raised in direction of hard palate,tip contact is made at the same time;dark l-tip contact,back raised in direction of soft palate,velarisation;both l are voiced;Post-alv Approximant-/r/-voiced, post alveolar frictionless continuant;if precede by /d/-allophone of/r/is fricative;following accented fricatives/ptk/=devoiced;;Semi-vowels-rapid vocalic glide on to a syllabic sound of greater steady duration;/jw/-from position of /i:/,/u:/ ;Unrounded Palatal Semi-vowels-/j/-;Labial-velar Semi-vowel-/w/