praca lic WORD drama, naukowe, aps


Uniwersytet Warszawski

Centrum Kształcenia Nauczycieli Języków Obcych i Edukacji Europejskiej

Uniwersyteckie Kolegium Kształcenia Nauczycieli Języka Angielskiego

Anna Radzka

nr albumu Z-422

Experimenting with drama techniques

for effective communication with adults

Praca licencjacka

na kierunku Filologia

w zakresie nauczanie języka angielskiego

Praca wykonana pod kierunkiem

Dr Hanny Mrozowskiej

Uniwersyteckie Kolegium Kształcenia

Nauczycieli Języka Angielskiego

OŚWIADCZENIE KIERUJĄCEGO PRACĄ

Oświadczam, że niniejsza praca została przygotowana pod moim kierunkiem i stwierdzam, że spełnia on warunki do przedstawienia jej w postępowaniu o nadanie tytułu zawodowego.

………………2005 podpis kierującego pracą …………………………

OŚWIADCZENIE AUTORA PRACY

Świadoma odpowiedzialności prawnej oświadczam, że niniejsza praca dyplomowa została napisana przeze mnie samodzielnie i nie zawiera treści uzyskanych w sposób niezgodny z obowiązującymi przepisami.

Oświadczam również, że przedstawiona praca nie była wcześniej przedmiotem procedur związanych z uzyskaniem tytułu zawodowego w wyższej uczelni.

Oświadczam ponadto, że niniejsza wersja pracy jest identyczna z załączoną wersją elektroniczną.

………………2005 podpis autora pracy ………………………..……STRESZCZENIE

Niniejsza praca zatytułowana jest: „Eksperymentowanie z technikami dramy w skutecznym porozumiewaniu się u dorosłych”. Jej celem jest: wyrobienie pewności siebie i samodzielności w mówieniu, zapewnienie praktyki w porozumiewaniu się w codziennych sytuacjach, przedstawienie elementów ustnej komunikacji i umiejętność wykorzystania ich, a także wprowadzenie zwrotów do radzenia sobie z pauzami w wypowiedziach ustnych.

W części teoretycznej przedstawiona jest charakterystyka dorosłych uczniów i komunikacji ustnej, a także definicja i zalety technik dramy w nauczaniu języków obcych. Techniki te są uszeregowane według najczęściej używanych typów. Szczególna uwaga jest zwrócona na live action role playing, użyte w trzeciej lekcji części praktycznej. Pierwsza lekcja poświęcona jest skeczom i przygotowaniom do ich wystawienia, a druga sytuacjom w hotelu, a także elementom i celom ustnej komunikacji.

SŁOWA KLUCZOWE

słowa kluczowe w języku polskim:

drama, techniki dramy, umiejętność mówienia w języku obcym, komunikacja ustna, codzienne sytuacje, LARP - Live Action Role Playing - gra symulacyjna

słowa kluczowe w języku angielskim (keywords):

drama, drama techniques, speaking skill, oral communication, real-life situations,

LARP - Live Action Role Playing

DZIEDZINA PRACY WG PROGRAMU SOCRATES-ERASMUS

05100

kształcenie nauczycieli

Table of contents

1. INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………………….…6

1.1 Justification of the choice of the topic…………………………………………...6

1.2 Project aims……………………………………………………………………….7

1.3 Teaching context…………………………………………………………………..8

1.3.1 The school………………………………………………………………..8

1.3.2 Class profile…………………………………………………………….10

2. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND……………………………………….…..…………16

2.1 Adult learners…………………………………………………………………....16

2.1.1 Features of adult learners……………………………………………..16

2.1.2 Teaching adult learners……………………………………………….17

2.2 Effective oral communication…………………………………………………..17

2.2.1 Relation of speaking to other language skills……………….………..18

2.2.2 Nature of oral communication process…………………….…………18

2.2.3 Guidelines for planning a successful speaking activity…….….…….18

2.3 Drama techniques………………………………………………………….…….20

2.3.1 Definition of drama techniques……………………………………….20

2.3.2 Typology of drama techniques………………………………………..21

2.3.3 Advantages of drama techniques in language teaching……………..25

2.3.4 The role of the teacher and the student in drama techniques……....26

3. TASK INVENTORY……………………………………………………………………..27

4. PRACTICAL APPLICATION…………………………………………………………..32

4.1 Introduction to the lessons………………………………………………………32

4.2 LESSON PLANS………………………………………………………………...33

4.2.1 Lesson 1…………………………………………………………….…..33

4.2.2 Justification of choice of activities……………………………….……35

4.2.3 Post lesson reflections…………………………………………….……35

4.2.4 Lesson 2…………………………………………………………….…..38

4.2.5 Justification of choice of activities……………………………….……40

4.2.6 Post lesson reflections………………………………………………….41

4.2.7 Lesson 3……………………………………………………………...…43

4.2.8 Justification of choice of activities……………………………….……44

4.2.9 Post lesson reflections…………………………………………….……45

5. CONCLUSIONS……………………………………………………………………....….48

5.1 Final questionnaire results……………………………………………….……..48

5.2 Aims achievement……………………………………………………….……….50

5.3 Final conclusions………………………………………………………………...51

6. BIBLIOGRAPHY………………………………………………………………………...52

7. APPENDICES…………………………………………………………………………….53

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 JUSTIFICATION OF THE CHOICE OF THE TOPIC

Firstly, a group of adults were chosen as I work with adults in a private language school and I am concerned with their learning problems. It is important here to try to understand their attitude towards language, and above all to be able to define their needs and goals and to help them to achieve them by enriching the course syllabus.

Secondly, the project is focused on speaking according to questionnaire results. All the students chosen to take part in the diploma lessons want to develop their speaking skill above all others. The first sign they want to develop this is their decision to attend lessons in Bravo school, as we advertise that we focus on real-life communication. But the very reason to choose this topic was a student on lower pre-intermediate level who wanted me to teach him to speak quickly and efficiently. This diploma project is a way to check if it is possible.

Finally, drama techniques are used as they aim at providing real-life speaking practice, they activate students' and teachers' feelings and imagination, and are an almost endless source of inspiration. They can change classroom into any place and introduce any situation, can teach how to observe the world better, use one's voice and body to communicate, solve a problem together or negotiate to achieve some goals. They may be used not only to develop speaking, but the whole personality of a student. Furthermore, they provide a lot of fun, which makes remembering new material easier, no matter how old the student is. As it seems, there is no better way of learning through doing something, experiencing it directly - by using drama techniques.

1.2 PROJECT AIMS

In a modern foreign language teaching drama techniques, as part of communicative approach, are perceived as helpful, varied and invaluable teachers' aids. They may be used at any stage of a lesson or a course to develop speaking, writing, listening or reading skill. In this project they are explored as a way to help students to communicate successfully. There are the following aims of the projects:

Most of the adult students attending a course at a language school expect a teacher to provide enough speaking practice to make them feel secure in communicating in foreign language. Apart from that speaking is undoubtedly the skill that is mostly used in real life and therefore developing it is one of the aims of the project.

To communicate well students should be aware that not only words are used to convey the meaning because gestures, face expression, body language and voice volume are as important as lexical utterances. What is more, a good course should provide a number of real life situations to make students familiar with them. The following five elements of communication are to be introduced: body language, feelings and moods, relations between people, setting, short, not tidy sequenced utterances. Students are also to be familiar with two aims of communication: information gap and socialising.

There will be attempts to convince students that not only words, expressions and sentences can be used to talk to others. The whole bodies, especially one's hands and face, may play a great role in successful communication both in understanding others and expressing themselves.

It is extremely important to prepare students to deal with foreign language themselves. Therefore a good course or a single lesson is carefully planned, enjoyable, and interesting, and it contains useful vocabulary that can be easily used in different situations in everyday communication.

In a conversation with a fluent speaker there will be not many pauses or stops to recollect a word, rather a meaningful stream of words. Students will be introduced to the following techniques to enable fluent and less stressful utterances:

Being aware of students' interests and needs is extremely important, especially in teaching adult learners. It is teacher's role to provide proper tools to interview students in that matter, analyse the answers and include the results in lessons or an entire course. 1.3 TEACHING CONTEXT

1.3.1 THE SCHOOL

1.3.1.1 General information

I work for a private language school BRAVO established in 2004 and situated in the centre of Warsaw. People can learn English, Portugese Portugese, Brasilian Portugese, Italian, French and Russian there. School methodology is based on drama techniques and the assumption that teaching a language is above all teaching the culture, so the school organises e.g. dance courses and celebration of special days of different cultures (like Halloween, French new wine tasting, or festivals such as Fiesta Brasil). We attempt to create an environment similar to the foreign country in each classroom and during as many lessons as possible. The staff is half native and half Polish, which makes teaching culture and real-life language much more effective.

The school offers a variety of courses: general language, business, conversations, preparation to FC and CAE as well as individual classes.

1.3.1.2 Students and their needs

Bravo students are mainly high school pupils, university students and working people up to 35 years old. The school also offers Senior Course for people that are 55 and older. As I was conducting all the placement tests in the school, I know that students want to learn English because they like it or to travel; a number of them also needs English at work, but what is the most important almost all of them declared that they wish to develop mainly speaking skill. That is why we decided that each lesson should contain at least 20 - 30 minutes of speaking. To make communication more efficient, the limit of students in a group is 8. Because it is the first year of the school, the biggest group has 7 students, on average 4-6.

Student's needs are taken into consideration during particular courses: they can always suggest what they would like to do, what real-life situation to act in the classroom, or if the course should focus more on developing e.g. writing skill. There is an obligatory minimum number of writing tasks included in each programme: 4 per semester. Each teacher can conduct a small survey to find out more about students' needs and include them in a programme.

1.3.1.3 Methodology: central role of drama techniques in teaching

Bravo school uses the communicative approach with an extensive use of drama techniques. After each topic (usually one-two units in a book) teachers are supposed to change the classroom into a shop or a restaurant and practise all the grammar and vocabulary that has been taught in everyday situations. Small and short drama techniques such as: charades to remember new vocabulary, activities to integrate groups or to make students more aware of how to use the voice or gesture to communicate better can be also used. School teachers are supposed to use role-plays or problem-solving exercise, too.

General English courses are conducted on the basis of the books: Cutting Edge elementary and pre-intermediate (S. Cunningham, P. Moor, Longman first published 2001), Inside Out (S. Kay, V. Jones, Macmillan first published 2000) intermediate to advanced. All four skills are taught: listening, speaking, writing and reading, using the communicative approach but drama techniques are supposed to make it all more efficient, effective and pleasant.

Testing in the school is also specific as the students take two tests: in the middle and at the end of the course. Each test contains written part checking knowledge of grammar and vocabulary and spoken part where students act out real-life situations or everyday dialogues.

1.3.1.4 The classrooms and available equipment

Each classroom has a number of beautiful pictures (also painted ones) and posters from the country of the language taught, including irregular verbs charts or posters with a short history of the country or a person. There is a tape recorder, a white board, colourful markers and a comfortable bookcase to put all additional materials and drama techniques accessories in each classroom. The desks and chairs are light and therefore it is easy to remove or move them and rearrange the classroom into a shop, a restaurant, a ticket office or a TV studio.

Teachers can also use a TV and a DVD player. In our library there is also a computer where one can surf the Internet and numerous foreign-language books that students can borrow. There is also unlimited access to the photocopier, a colourful printer and a scanner for all teachers.

1.3.2 CLASS PROFILE

type of a course: general English

class level: upper-intermediate and intermediate

number of students: 3 upper-intermediate, 3 intermediate

sex: upper-intermediate: 3 female, intermediate: 1 female and 2 male

age: 17 to 30 years old

meetings a week: 2 x 90 minutes

upper-intermediate: Olga Kośmider

Małgorzata Nowak

Marzena Zajkowska

intermediate: Sylwia Tejwan

Lech Tejwan

Piotr Siwiński

As this diploma project is devoted to developing spoken communication ability, I decided to focus on factors that mostly influence speaking skill: personality, risk-taking and styles of thinking. Level language and interaction patterns were included because they cannot be omitted in describing speaking background and situation. The last part of students characteristics is based on needs questionnaire.

1.3.2.1 Personality

The results of observation are displayed in the table below:

personality: extrovert (1-7) or introvert (8-12):

Olga

Marzena

Małgosia

Sylwia

Piotr

Leszek

1

focuses on external world and other people

√

√

√

√

√

2

speech-readiness

√

√

√

√

√

√

3

good at communicating

√

√

√

√

4

better at oral skills

√

√

5

fluent but not accurate

√

6

prefers group work

√

√

√

√

√

√

7

does better on oral test

8

good at comprehension skills

√

√

9

better at reading and writing

10

accurate

√

√

√

√

11

prefers individual work

12

does better on written tests

√

This factor is important to analyse because extrovert students are generally ready to communicate orally and are interested in the world around. On the other hand, they commit more grammar errors while giving a speech.

On upper-intermediate level the group was being observed while whole-class discussions about general topics: important events in history in 20th century and student's ways of spending free time. First three students according to their order in the table were actively discussing all the time, they were interested in other people's utterances and they were communicative.

On intermediate level the class was being observed while speaking exercise connected with rules in their offices. Peter and Sylwia were able to express themselves quite fluent and they even helped others to find missing words. Leszek needed more time to form the sentences and his utterances were often unfinished due to lack of words. It happened only twice in Sylwia's and once in Peter's case.

        1. Risk - taking

The results of observation are displayed in the table below:

risk taking (1-7) and risk-avoiding (8-11)

Olga

Marzena

Małgosia

Sylwia

Piotr

Leszek

1

provide their own speaking practice

√

√

√

2

engages in interaction

√

√

√

√

√

3

works through trial and error

√

√

√

√

4

tests their own hypotheses

5

guesses from the context

√

√

6

doesn't have inhibitions when it comes to communication

√

√

√

√

7

uses circumlocations, paraphrases, coinages

√

√

8

difficult to develop fluency

√

9

avoids interaction when not sure about form

√

√

10

extends her/his silent period

11

more comfortable at practice than production

√

Risk-taking factor is important in terms of being ready to speak in foreign language, experimenting and using it in an imaginative way.

With upper-intermediate group this factor was being observed while charades game with adjectives and prepositions where students had to show or explain expressions provided on strips of paper. The second activity used to check risk-taking was going to the shop activity, when students played roles of customers and shop assistants and used materials from different newspapers to prepare their own shop. Olga, Marzena and Małgosia felt really unconstrained, had fun and were often laughing.

Intermediate group was being observed while speaking task based on TV programme in which students were asked to choose what they would like to see, discuss together and agree on programmes to watch. Sylwia nad Piotr started the discussion and exchanged their opinions willingly, whereas Leszek had to be asked by them to start talking. The same two students were also not discouraged by lack of a word but rather tried to change their utterances to express themselves. In this speaking task Sylwia and Leszek asked teacher to help them with unknown words they wished to use in their utterances. They wanted to be sure that they would not make any mistake. Second activity to observe students was free practice stage when discussing grammar issue: Future Perfect and Future Continuous. Here Leszek felt highly comfortable as he knew the rule and did not make any mistakes. Other two students were as relaxed as they are during most speaking exercises.

1.3.2.3 Style of thinking

The results of observation are displayed in the table below:

styles of thinking: reflective (1-4), impulsive (5-7)

Olga

Marzena

Małgosia

Sylwia

Piotr

Leszek

1

learn more slowly

√

2

commit fewer errors

√

√

√

3

are not risk-taking

√

4

display more anxiety at the beginning

√

√

√

√

√

5

use trial and error approaches

√

√

6

is risk-taking

√

√

√

√

√

7

show less anxiety at the beginning and more at the end

√

Style of thinking is important because impulsive person will speak willingly and without much concern about mistakes.

In upper-intermediate group students can be described as impulsive, which is easily observable especially during all whole-class discussions. When there are pair-work activities they tend to start speaking first and ask other student to answer their questions. When introducing grammar problems Marzena and Małgosia carefully follow the rules, whereas Olga tends to be not accurate.

In the intermediate group Leszek is definitely a reflective type. He does not want to risk making a mistake and needs some time to get involved into a task. Peter commits fewer errors as he is more self-confident but on the other hand he is not afraid of trying new structures and vocabulary and usually finds a way to express himself. Sylwia is exactly in the middle as sometimes she asks teacher for help, but on many occasions she deals with a communication problems herself.

1.3.2.4 Level of language

Students were marked in scale from 1 to 5 points.

Olga

Marzena

Małgosia

Sylwia

Piotr

Leszek

1

speaking

5

4

5

3

4

3

2

listening

4

3

4

3

3

3

3

reading

4

4

5

4

5

4

4

writing

3

4

4

4

4

3

5

pronunciation

5

4

4

3

4

2

6

vocabulary

4

4

4

4

4

3

7

grammar

4

4

4

4

5

3

Self-confidence in using a language often depends on a number of words and grammar structures that students know and on the ability to use them in various situations. On intermediate and upper-intermediate level students theoretically have the knowledge, but do not always feel safe enough to use it. The mark scale put here is based on student comparison, where 5 is the best student in the class and at a very good level of particular skill or knowledge.

        1. Learners' motivations

A survey was conducted to find out what the learner's motivations are and the students' answers were as follows. Małgosia learns to communicate with people and at her work; Marzena learns for herself and for better communication; Olga attends English classes because she likes the language and she wants to be a teacher; Leszek would like to speak with people from other countries; Sylwia thinks English is useful and many people know this language and Piotr would like to speak English fluently.

In all of the answers it can be seen that students' most important goal is improving their spoken communication in English.

Additionally a questionnaire was conducted in which the students were asked to tick how important is developing each language skill for them. The results are displayed in the table:

Olga

Marzena

Małgosia

Sylwia

Piotr

Leszek

speaking

5

5

5

5

5

4

listening

4

5

4

5

5

4

reading

5

4

4

4

4

3

writing

4

4

4

4

1

3

pronunciation

5

4

5

5

5

4

Answers in the first part of questionnaire were fully confirmed here. The majority of the students ticked 5 in speaking column. It confirms that spoken communication is the crucial aspect of language they want to develop.

        1. Drama techniques questionnaire

As teaching should be based on analysing different aspects of students' needs a drama questionnaire was conveyed to find out which drama techniques students already know and which they would like to try.

Numbers in the following table show how many students ticked the answer.

Drama techniques that students know

Drama techniques that students have already tried (at any occasion)

Drama techniques that students would like to try

a)

observation

6

3

1

b)

miming

5

2

3

c)

role play

3

4

2

d)

improvisation

3

3

2

e)

simulation

3

2

4

f)

sketches

5

2

4

g)

plays

5

3

3

To sum up, most of the students would mostly like to try: sketches, miming, simulation and plays. According to their wishes I intend to use them in diploma lessons except for4 plays as they are too long to introduce them in just three classes.

As the last lesson of the diploma project is supposed to be a Live Action Role Playing the second part of the questionnaire contained questions about it. The answers about RPG and LARP were as follows.

Do you know what RPG (role playing games) are?

Do you know what LARP (live action role playing) is?

Have you ever played RPG?

Have you ever played LARP?

Yes.

3

3

1

1

I've heard a bit about it.

3

1

-

-

No.

0

2

5

5

In order to prepare proper LARP characters students were also asked what two heroes, heroines or villains, they would like to act out. The students' answers are displayed in the table below.

Olga

Marzena

Małgosia

Sylwia

Piotr

Leszek

Indiana Jones

√

Superman

Godfather

√

Hercules Poirot

√

Rambo

√

√

√

Princess Fiona

√

Queen of the Ice

√

√

√

Alexis

Robin Hood

√

√

All of the answers will be included in preparing short life-story of each LARP character, e.g. Sylwia's character is going to be a professional, objective person, as she chose Quenn of the Ice, whereas Leszek is going to act out fair character, helping other people for free, as he chose Robin Hood. The quests for particular characters are also to be adjusted to students' personalities and choices of villains or heroes. Because Sylwia chose Hercules Poirot she is going to find out who has a love affair, whereas Marzena is going to have rebel plans of leaving the family and be modern as princess Fiona.

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

2.1 ADULT LEARNERS

In this chapter adults as learners will be described. Their characteristic will be based on advantages and disadvantages of teaching them connected with their expectations, needs, motivation and memory type as well as personal circumstances, inactive and not risk-taking attitude and other learning problems.

2.1.1 Features of adult learners

Generally speaking, adults may be described as people over 19 years old, emotionally and socially mature. They usually come to the classroom with a set of expectations towards the teacher and the programme. They want to be effectively taught and see the progress mostly in the field of spoken communication. Seeing the aim and the sense of discussed vocabulary and structures is next important factor. What is convenient for teachers mature students do not usually need to be motivated as it was their independent decision to learn a foreign language. On the other hand, adults may have problems with pronunciation and fluency. As they want to be correct and accurate they may feel more ashamed when making mistakes. Another problem is connected with time-consuming job and family duties, which may cause not doing homework or being less focused or even tired during the lessons. It can be assumed that some of them may use the foreign language in the classroom only. (Hay 1994: 2-5)

There is a number of factors that can be treated as part of universal characteristics in terms of why adults learn a foreign language:

What is the most important, they all need to use the language: be able to shop or work, to speak and understand people around them (McKay, Tom 1999: 1-2).

Adult learners bring to a class seven main qualities. Firstly, their native language that they know well and they identify with it. It may help or hinder learning new language as there is a risk of making mistakes or being misunderstood. Secondly, they bring background knowledge and experience of their own and other cultures, generally speaking knowledge of the world that teacher can exploit. Thirdly, they have expectations based on their positive or negative schooling experience. Teacher should know the students' expectations and be ready to negotiate what and how to learn. Fourthly, adults have different learning styles according to e.g. modality, remembering by analysing rules or just by watching and listening. Fifthly, their bring confidence or lack of it which may depend on personal characteristics. The teacher should therefore remember to provide supportive classroom atmosphere. Sixthly they may have varied motivation e.g. to communicate fluently or just on basic level. Grades or attendance list are not motivating for adults. Teacher should motivate them through interesting activities and showing that taught material is relevant to their goals. What is more, teacher must remember that personal circumstances may occur, such as health problems, age, unemployment, lack of concentration caused by personal problems (McKay, Tom 1999: 2-4).

The final important factor is that adults have current communicative needs connected with their working environment or plans for the future. They may wish to develop different aspects of language according to their needs; therefore it is important to take them into considerations while planning a course (Komorowska 2002: 31).

2.1.1 Teaching adult learners

Teaching adults may be considered less difficult than working with children in state schools as they are not forced to learn. They have strong self- or work-motivation, which makes teacher's work easier in terms of e.g. setting language goals. However, there may be lack of time due to duties or problems connected with job, family or friends. Therefore there is often no homework done or irregular presence on classes. Mature learners are already shaped, with fixed opinions and convictions, they also have expectations towards methods of teaching. It is difficult for them to be students as they are afraid of criticism and being laughed at. It is not easy for them to change a role form e.g. a director of company into someone subordinate (Komorowska 2002: 35-7).

Considering weak points of adults the following seven factors can be enlisted. They may suffer from lack of time caused by family and job duties and lack of spontaneity. In addition, they are afraid to speak and can not adapt to new situations fast. What is more, they are often not risk-takers, not trusting and not active.

However, these disadvantages may be overcome using following strong points of adults as learners as they have long-term and logical memory developed, can concentrate longer than children and finally have some learning skills (Komorowska 2002: 91-92).

2.1.2 Conclusions

To sum up, when teaching adults one has to consider their expectations, language needs, their opinions and personal problems and adjust a course to all these factors. On the other hand, adults' self-motivation, long term, logical memory and background knowledge can help in achieving language goals and teaching them successfully.

2.2 EFFECTIVE ORAL COMMUNICATION

In this chapter the following aspects will be discussed: how speaking relates to other skills, what is the nature of spoken communication, and how to plan a successful speaking activity.

2.2.1 Relation of speaking to other language skills

When teaching speaking it is important to realise what the relations between all four skills are as it is impossible to teach them separately. Considering their nature, as shown in the table below, there are two types of skills in spoken and written language: receptive and productive. Speaking can be described as a productive skill used in spoken language, but in everyday use it is inevitably linked to listening, which is a receptive skill. While planning activities developing speaking skill this connection should be taken into consideration.

Relations of four skills (Byrne 1990: 8):

spoken language

receptive

skills

understanding

speaking

productive

skills

reading

writing

written language

2.2.2 Nature of oral communication process

Oral communication is a two-way process between speaker and listener and involves the productive skill of speaking and the receptive skill of understanding. It is important to remember that receptive does not only imply passive: in listening and reading language users are actively involved in the process of interpreting and negotiating meanings (Byrne 1990: 8).

In communication process the speaker has to encode the message they wish to convey in appropriate language, while the listener has to decode the message. The listener's interpretation will not necessarily correspond to the speaker's intended meaning. The message itself usually contains a good deal of redundant information and listener is helped by prosodic features, such as stress and intonation, as well as by facial and bodily movements such as gestures. It should be also noted that speech is often characterised by incomplete and sometimes ungrammatical utterances, and by frequent false starts and repetitions (Byrne 1990: 8-9).

Spoken language consists of short, often fragmentary utterances, in a range of pronunciations. There is often a great deal of repetition and overlap between one speaker and another, and speakers frequently use non-specific references (e.g. “it” or “this” instead of “the highly perfumed French poodle on the sofa”). Spoken language, loosely organised, using non-specific words and phrases, using fillers as “well, “oh” and “uhuh” is less conceptually dense than other types of language such as expository prose (Nunan 1989: 26-27).

A useful distinction between two basic language functions is often made. First, transactional function is primarily concerned with the transfer of information, whereas the other, interactional function's primary purpose of speech is the maintenance of social relationships (Nunan 1989: 27). What is more, we normally communicate when one of us has information (facts, opinions or ideas) that another does not have. This type of interaction is also known as an “information gap” (Scrivener 2003: 62).

Successful oral communication involves developing:

2.2.3 Guidelines for planning a successful speaking activity

Firstly, selection of an activity should depend on the nature of participants, age of students, size of a group and previous experience of the class. (Dougill 1994:113-4)

While planning a communicative activity it is also extremely important to remember that it should involve a real exchange of information. What is more, in real communication the language that students use may be largely unpredictable. Therefore teacher needs to be clear if in particular activity his or her aim is accuracy or fluency. It is also important to remember that the aim of the communicative activity in class is to get learners to use the language they are learning to interact in realistic and meaningful ways. (Scrivener 2003: 62)

If the aim of the activity is to provide speaking practice different kinds of discussions, drama and role play can be used. It is also important to remember that all-class speaking activity offers little speaking time to individual students therefore it is better to put students in pairs or small groups. (Scrivener 2003: 59)

Considering encouraging students to talk there is a number of factors to think through. The subject of discussion must be relevant and interesting, students should know something about it or be provided with substance of the topic, they should also feel motivated to talk about particular issue. Before the students start the discussion it is a good idea to lead them in by introduce e.g. a picture or a text that would provide necessary vocabulary. It is also important to remember is that a general topic will be rather difficult to discuss. Setting a specific related problem as a topic of speaking practice is more challenging, interesting and above all more realistic. It is also worth mentioning that it is easier to speak in someone else's character and therefore various role-cards may be used to set a discussion. (Scrivener 2003: 59-60)

The introduction into genuine and creative communication may also mean that the teacher leads students step by step, gradually reducing control over what they say and how they say it. It can be done by moving from the completely manipulative phase, such as oral drills based on repeating after teacher, through the predominantly manipulative phase in which students may complete sentences with single words, to the predominantly communicative phase in which short dialogues and question-answer exercises may be used to the last stage called the completely communicative phase in which participants converse freely with each other. Graduating difficulty and independence will help students to start talking in a more confident and effective way. (Dobson 1989: 1-2)

And finally, when conducting a speaking activity it is worth to build a group spirit. It can be done by arranging chairs in a form of a circle or a semi-circle and trying not to let students get attached to one chair or one part of the classroom. By moving around and sitting next to different people they can get to know each other better and become acquainted to all members of the group. (Dobson 1989: 16)

To sum up, planning a successful speaking activity may seem a complicated process but on the other hand it is worth to put some effort into it to see how students gradually can communicate more and more independently and confidently.

2.2.4 Conclusions

While considering teaching effective oral communication it is important to remember it is connected to listening, that a certain message is to be conveyed using transactional or interactional type of communication and that a real exchange of information must be included while planning speaking activity.

2.3 DRAMA TECHNIQUES

I hear and I forget,

I listen and I remember,

I do and I understand.

(Chinese proverb)

In this chapter the following issues concerning drama techniques will be discussed: its definition, its teaching advantages and the role of teacher and student while using it in the classroom.

2.3.1 Definition of drama techniques

This chapter aims at describing the most important elements of drama techniques in language learning.

According to Macmillan English Dictionary for advanced learners, drama is:

a play for the theatre, television, or radio;

the study of play;

something unusual or exciting that happens.

Basing on the dictionary entry most people may be convinced that drama techniques are closely connected to acting out plays, or scenes, learning lines by heart and being on the stage. It may be easily forgotten that word “techniques” changes the meaning of the expression into using some elements of drama that are useful in effective language teaching.

Drama techniques, according to Maley and Duff (1994: 10-12), involve the following elements:

The physical environment which may or may not influence the language used, e.g. second-hand car may be se sold in a lift. People behave in a different way at home, in the office or in the street, and this factor is to be used by drama techniques to make exercises more real-life like.

It's important to make students aware that people's roles and status in real-life influence language used, e.g. dentist will be sympathetic towards the patient, but will give instructions to the nurse. Our utterances and attitude depend on who we talk to and if he or she is superior, subordinate or equal to us.

Even in most formal situation mood, attitude and feeling influence language used. Most of the feelings in English are conveyed through intonation which students should be aware of.

Unspoken assumptions and unconscious prejudices are always present in each real-life conversation.

All above elements are a `dramatic situation' and should be included in successful drama activity. Thanks to this drama can help us to restore totality by reversing the learning process, that is, by beginning with meaning and moving to language from there (Maley, Duff 1994: 12). It means lesson may start from real-life situation and later on focus on some grammar issues or even skip them at all.

Furthermore, drama is a highly flexible technique as it requires no major adjustments on the part of the teachers, but it will help to bring materials to life by using the feelings, imagination and thought of the learners, who become active participants in the learning process (Wessels 1995: 10).

In language learning drama should be viewed as a technique of communicative language teaching. Drama techniques emphasize active role of the learner but can be sometimes difficult to put into practice as genuine communication consists of: speaking to another person not in the tidy sequence but with use of hesitations, interruptions, distractions, misunderstandings and even silences; emotions; relationship between speakers and their status; environment where a conversation takes place; speakers' body language (Wessels 1995: 11). All these elements can be retrieved in language teaching by using drama techniques. When planning a drama activity they should be all included.

To sum up, all drama elements discussed in this chapter are elements of real-life situations and are the basis for discussing and using drama techniques in language classroom.

2.3.2 Typology of drama techniques

Drama techniques may be classified according to the following factors:

2.3.2.1 Warm-ups

As drama activities can work only with relaxed students in a friendly atmosphere, warm-ups, sometimes also called starters or icebreakers, are meant to achieve these. They are divided into non-verbal that aim to prepare body to act, and verbal that activate voice and sometimes vocabulary or grammar that will be needed in later stages of a class.

2.3.2.2 The most popular drama activities

It activates all of the students' senses to make them more aware of the surrounding world and more sensitive to some important details. Kims, miming and guessing what other people mime are good examples of such activities.

It helps students to realise importance of the body and the face expression in everyday successful communication. One of the best known examples of mime games are charades from showing and guessing a simple objects or emotions to more complex utterances, even dialogues.

The most important feature of this type of drama activity is that students are no more themselves as they play a role of someone else. They are usually put into everyday situation where two or more people must communicate with each other to solve a problem, make an appointment or gain some information. They may be suitable for low level students when guided as well as for higher levels with role-cards or only with a short introduction into conflict situation.

It is one of the most demanding drama activities as students are supposed to use their imagination as well as wide range of vocabulary and react in an appropriate way for other students' actions and utterances. Learners may be asked to improvise a situation at the airport or at the party, sometimes with use of special accessories. Improvisations may be based on a text or picture, the most difficult ones on a short piece of information like “an airport” only.

The most important difference between role-play and simulation is that here students stay themselves and can express their own opinions. They are usually asked to solve a problem e.g. how to build a castle out of paper and paperclips, how to convince a headmaster to have a party at school or prepare alibi for themselves. Students mainly discuss, they usually do not stand up or act anything.

One of the most amusing drama activities from acting out ready sketches, finishing dialogues and stories to improvising new sketches, with a proper use of voice and body language, sometimes accessories, too. They are easy to incorporate in the lessons as they are usually short.

A literary text is always a good stimuli to drama techniques, as plays, stories and songs provide a good example of authentic use of foreign language. Staging plays is an excellent occasion to practice pronunciation and intonation and to acquire chunks of language. On the other hand it is so time-consuming that almost impossible to incorporate into learning programme. That is why to make it more practical they should be treated as an impulse, starting point to conduct amusing drama techniques.

2.3.2.3 Strategic Interaction

Apart of activities enlisted above there are two more drama-like forms of work that are worth mentioning. The first of them is an approach called Strategic Interaction presented by Di Pietro in a book of the same title.

Most people are probably not aware of the strategic nature of what they say in their own language e.g. while talking to overeager sales personnel. As this kind of conversation may be difficult in foreign language Di Pietro suggests that such situations should be brought to classroom and practiced to make students speak purposefully and artfully in dealing with others. His approach is called “strategic interaction” and is based on “scenarios”, which are real-life happenings that entail the unexpected and require the use of language to resolve them. They aim at creating “dramatic tension” between speakers. What is more there is rarely a single solution to the scenario therefore both students and teachers are encouraged to use their imagination. (Di Pietro 1994: vii-viii)

Students are put in real-life situations but unlike in real life they are given opportunity to discuss their options and plan their solutions in groups during rehearsal phase. What is more, they are also permitted to interrupt their conversation and return to their supporting groups if they need help. The performing of scenarios involves the interplay of verbal strategies like using functions and protocols in conversation (e.g. making apologies, “Merry Christmas!”), as well as proper using of gestures, intonation or laughter. (Di Pietro 1994: 31-39) The important feature of roles in strategic interaction is that they are paired, what means that the speakers share the reason for interacting with each other but not necessarily have the same goal, like shop assistant and window-shopper. (Di Pietro 1994: 44-45)

To sum up, Strategic Interaction involves all assumption of drama techniques concerning real-life communication and learning by direct experience. The only problem is that in real life all people talk at the same time rather than have one representative who talks in their name. To find something more stimulating and engaging the whole group, a step further should be done and LARP can be used.

2.3.2.4 Live Action Role Playing

The other drama-like form of work is LARP: live action role playing, which can be described as a drama technique, closest to improvisation activities. It is used not only by fantasy and science fiction fans but also in the world of business as well as military, police and special force trainings. The biggest problem with explaining what LARP is that one must take part in it to understand what it really is. As the name suggests it is “live” so it is impossible to understand it from written description only. However, main rules of LARP can be described, and they are presented below.

In a LARP a group of approximately 6 to 30 people act out characters while talking to each other. But this is not just improvising a play as there is no audience and everyone speaks simultaneously. There is also no particular script, just a base situation which participants are to develop.

Before the LARP starts a scenario must be prepared. A game master or a conductor makes up a story in which a group of people meet in a particular place. First of all there must be a good reason for them to meet, such as a family get-together, a reception or a business meeting. The story above all must be dramatic and should include a number of real-life problems to solve. Next connection between all the characters must be stated, in terms of liking and disliking, and similar or opposite goals. While doing it, it is important to create a balance of forces in terms of number of people in each fraction and their possibilities to act connected with characters' knowledge. The second field of balance is a number and types of quests for each character. In groups up to 10 people two quests per participant are enough, with higher number there should be three tasks. Each quest should be of different nature: to negotiate something, to convince somebody to act in a certain way, to interrupt or help someone to convince other participants, to reach a compromise on some field or even to be malicious towards someone. There are also other ways to make sure the scenario is playable and coherent. If any character has a secret, somebody should know it and have power to counteract. What is the most important, each quest must be possible to fulfil at the LARP by talking to other players.

The next stage of preparation is to write general information that will be all participants' shared knowledge. The introduction should be as good as first three pages of a book that aims at catching reader's attention: dramatic, interesting and clear. Then, a character sheet per each player should be written. It must include knowledge exclusively for the player and character's quests. Next, before the characters will be distributed, the game master should talk to each player to find out what kind of character he or she wants to play - a diplomat, a gangster, a rebel or other to ensure good fun for participants. Then the playing can start.

It is very important to mention here that after the LARP starts everything depends on players. They decide what to do, who to cooperate with and who to counteract to. It is impossible to predict how the plot may develop and no assumptions should be made by game master or conductor as they will probably not become true. However, during a LARP the game master role is to be a judge and provide knowledge of characters that players do not have, like law or medicine. In case of using LARP as English teaching activity he or she can also help with difficult words or expressions.

At the end it is a good idea to sum up the LARP by revealing all the most important quests and asking the players if and how they have fulfilled them. It gives everyone a picture of a story and allows a game master to see development of a situation.

2.3.2.5 Formality level

Classyfing the formality (Dougill 1994:2)

Impersonal/Theatrical Personal/Dramatic

Reading plays Humanistic approaches

Performing plays Games and problem-solving

Acting dialogues Simulation

Sketches Role-play

While choosing a drama activity it is important to remember they can be of different formality in terms of impersonal and personal tasks for participants. For some students it can be difficult to act out a character they do not understand and feel, for others it can be complicated to solve a problem using his or her imagination and opinions or to improvise a dialogue. The formality may be also taken into consideration in case of language use. Plays involve formal language with already shaped utterances, often literary ones, whereas simulation or problem solving is connected with spoken, not always ordered and well-planned dialogues or discussions.

2.3.2.6 Risk level

Classyfing the risks for students in drama activities (Dougill 1994:36)

Low-risk

Handshakes

Guiding the blind (warm-ups)

Low language and dramatic demand

The mime box

Guess the situation (mime)

Mirroring

Low language demand but some dramatic demand

Inviting (role-play)

Sentence-building

Fairly high language demand but low dramatic demand

High-risk

Play reading

Mimed scenes

(preparation and performance)

Progressive improvisation

High language and dramatic demand

The next factor that should be taken into consideration when using drama techniques is that they are connected with language and dramatic risk. Each drama task demands some degree of acting abilities and knowledge of proper vocabulary or expressions. It is relevant to adjust both aspects to students' needs and skills, preferably starting from the less demanding tasks.

2.3.2.7 Difficulty level

It is important to classify drama techniques according to students' language level and speaking abilities as it is extremely relevant not to discourage them with too complicated tasks. Each activity in drama techniques books is usually described for who it is designed, from elementary to advanced learners.

2.3.2.7 Conclusions

Although there is a number of factors to remember while properly introducing drama techniques they are so various that they may be used at different occasions and at different stages of the lesson. Different types of drama activities, as enlisted above, allow each teacher to choose something suitable to age, language level and needs of his or her students.

2.3.3 Advantages of drama techniques in language teaching

Learning a language should be as meaningful as any other social activity. It should entail the same dynamic tension that real-life encounters do. That is why drama techniques attempt to put back to teaching process the real-life factors discussed in previous chapter. They also aim at learning through direct learner's experience. All these factors are discussed in this chapter and described as main advantages of drama techniques.

The conviction that language consists of vocabulary and essential structures lies at the base of nearly every foreign language syllabus. This kind of teaching is based only on intellectual aspect of language, whereas in real life it rarely functions without emotions. Emotional aspect is often lacking in teaching materials whereas many of the skills one most needs when speaking a language, foreign or not, are those which are given least attention in the traditional text-book: adaptability (i.e. the ability to match one's speech to the person one is talking to), speed of reaction, sensitivity to tone, insight, anticipation; in short appropriateness (Maley and Duff 1994: 7). Drama techniques aim at reversing this attitude.

The people one meets and talks to in real-life situations show some emotions, have their mimics, talk too slow or too fast, are not necessarily interesting, but alive. Drama attempts to put back some of this forgotten emotional content into language. Therefore meaning should not be confused with structure. Simple sentences such as `It's eight o'clock.' may be an order to switch off the television, a request to hurry up, or a persuasion to leave. It is important to remember that the meaning is a result of speaker's intention and his or her relation to the other person. It can also be stated that drama techniques can help to ensure that learners will use out-of-class language in appropriate context when we rearrange the classroom into a hotel or airport. (Maley, Duff 1994:7-9)

Another advantage of drama is that it is teaching through direct experience. An example of these may be given how to explain the student what a blind person is. It is not enough to give a definition: “A blind person cannot see”. It would be much better to ask the students to shut their eyes and try to find their pen on the desk in front of them. This method would be successful as teacher would be involving learner in the actual experience of being blind. Precise function of drama is to help students to learn through direct experience. Teacher should not only introduce the situation but also ask students how they would feel about it. That is why drama is not a new theory of language teaching, but rather a technique which can be used to develop certain language skills. (Wessels 1995: 7-8)

To sum up, the following aspects can be enlisted as advantages of drama techniques in language learning:

To sum up, drama techniques attempt at teaching through direct learner's experience and using aspects of real-life communication such as: speakers' emotions, relations and intentions to improve student confidence and skills such as speaking.

2.3.4 The role of the teacher and the student in drama techniques

The roles of teacher and learner are to be changed from traditional model into more student-centred and student activating method if one wishes to use drama techniques.

Considering the role of the teacher, it should be different than in traditional attitude. Drama techniques oppose the view that education is one-way transmission of knowledge from the teacher to the student. Here learners should be permitted to take responsibility for their own learning so that teacher can take a less dominant role. Whenever the technique of drama is used learners will have a chance to take responsibility, use their imaginations and come up with solutions (Wessels 1995: 14-15).

However, while using drama techniques there are three demands towards students and teachers to fulfil. First is an enthusiasm which depends on relationship of trust. It is both teacher and students task to cooperate and decide together on what to do in terms of drama techniques. Second demand is a good plan, good stimuli for students. Here the teacher's task is to adjust activities to students' needs and interests. The final demand is willingness to take risks and assume roles. It should be done gradually from easier, less demanding to more complicated activities not to discourage participants and a conductor.

What is more to remember for a teacher, all students have similar expectations: to talk confidently, read and write effectively. But different approaches may appear; for example the worst language learners would be dependent on a teacher and be unwilling to participate. It is the role of the teacher to create conditions to enable successful and natural use of drama techniques (Wessels 1995: 16).

Moreover, drama may help to solve a problem how to interest students in the language as it can keep thirty people in the class active at the same time. Furthermore, it is easier for the teacher to monitor groups of five or six people than spread attention out on thirty students. Drama techniques also change the role of the teacher as he or she is not in the centre of attention but rather stays at the back mainly monitoring students' progress (Maley and Duff 1994: 12-14).

What makes teacher's work with drama techniques easier is that motivation is not needed, because the enjoyment comes from imaginative personal involvement, not from the sense of having successfully carried out someone else instructions.

To sum up, the teacher is responsible for creating proper atmosphere and activating the students, but than he or she should step back and give the learning responsibility to students. The teacher is not in the centre anymore. He or she can be a coach, consultant, observer or evaluator, whereas each student can be a performer, role player, advice seeker, giver (of e.g. their own knowledge of a word), observer and finally evaluator. (Di Pietro 1994: 20-21)

2.3.5 Conclusions

The starting point in drama is life, not language. That is why dramatic activities are most successful in the phase of free practice as they can help students to say something they really want to say. These activities should be introduced gradually, from simple, observation tasks to more demanding ones not to discourage students.

Drama techniques may be effectively used as a means of teaching spoken communication skills. The role of drama is to get students to speak in discussions, debates, role plays, simulations or games. In each of these activities learners have to be active participants, use their imagination and interact with others. As a result they can acquire communication skills in the foreign language almost unconsciously.

3. TASK INVENTORY

There are various drama activities and all of them can be easily adapted and changed according to students' needs and teacher's plan. The following drama activities have been enlisted according to types presented in Typology of drama techniques and can be used at various stages of a lesson.

physical warm-up activity

Feeling your muscles (Maley, Duff 1994: 57)

Suitable for all levels

Students lie comfortably on the floor in their own space, with eyes closed. When the word is given, they tense all their muscles and hold them until told to relax again. This is done several times. The students are then left to lie quietly on the floor for a few moments before getting up.

physical warm-up activity

Slow motion (Maley, Duff 1994: 58-9)

Suitable for all levels

The students form pairs. The room needs to be cleared. A recording of some suitably slow music should be played. The students move to he music together, but in slow motion (as slowly as possible).

pronunciation and articulation warm-up activity

Twist your tongue! (Medgyes 2002: 44-5)

Tongue twisters to practice difficult sounds and clear articulation. Students practice it until they can recite fluently.

She sells sea-shells on the sea-shore.

The shells she sells are sea-shells, I'm sure,

For if she sells sea-shells on the sea-shore,

Then I'm sure she sells sea-shore shells.

Peter Piper picked a pick a peck of pepper.

Did Peter Piper pick a pick a peck of pepper?

If Peter Piper picked a pick a peck of pepper,

Where's the peck of pepper

Peter Piper picked?

Whether the weather be fine,

Or whether the weather be not,

Whether the weather be cold,

Or whether the weather be hot,

We Weather the weather

Whatever the weather

And whether we like it or not.

There's no need to light a night-light

On a light night like tonight,

For a night-light's a slight light

On a night like tonight.

A tutor who tooted a flute

Tried to tutor two tooters to toot.

Said the two to the tutor:

Is it harder to toot, or

To tutor two tooters to toot?

How much wood could a woodchuck chuck

If a woodchuck could chuck wood?

As much wood as a woodchuck would chuck

If a woodchuck could chuck wood.

communication warm-up activity

Entangled two-liners (Medgyes 2002: 33-4)

Students match two lines of split up dialogues, guess why is it funny and who is taking part in conversation.

improvisation activity

Which do you want first? (Medgyes 2002: 31-2)

Teacher present students the line: “I have some good news and some bad news. Which do you want first?” and explains that good news/bad news jokes are popular in Britain. Then he gives two examples and ask students to finish them to be funny.

Extra

Game aimed at building up a story which consists of alternately good and bad news. The first player starts by reporting some good news. The next player has to state a piece of bad news which contradicts the good news. And so on round the other members of a group, with reach player adding some good or bad news in turn.

miming activity


What are we doing? (Wessels 1995: 41-2)

This game is played in groups of three. Two people mime an action, while the third is trying to guess what they are doing.

Two people moving a piano.

Someone walking a very frisky dog.

Two people quarrelling over which TV channel to watch.

sketches and dialogues activity

Every picture tells a story (Wessels 1995: 45)

The students are divided into groups and each group is given a picture. They have to devise a one-minute drama which will end with the group in the positions suggested by their picture. Each group presents its drama to the rest of the class, and when the teacher has shown the relevant picture to the class, they decide whether the group has successfully copied it.

miming activity

Hotel receptionist (Maley, Duff 1994: 125-128)

Level: elementary upwards

This activity should be done with the whole class forming one group. The group sits in a large horse-shoe formation. This formation represents the hotel reception desk. A slip of paper is handed to one person who should read the slip, memorize the request and move to the open end of the horse-shoe to demonstrate in mime to the receptionist what is her/his problem. The receptionist by questioning will try to discover what voiceless is trying to communicate. The guest continues miming until the exact content of the message have been conveyed. Once the message has been understood, someone else takes a turn.

Remarks

With first try there will inevitably be some nervousness ad stiffness that's why this activity must not be rushed.

Example sentences

My wife/husband is in bed with a bad hangover. Could you give me some Alka-Seltzer?

I asked for a room with a view. I meant a view of the sea, not he car-park!

Last night I was kept awake by mosquitoes. Please could you have my room sprayed!

Don't think I'm mad, but every night a ghost comes to my room and sings…. I want to change the room.

addition to any role-play activity

Dramatic suggestions (Dougill 1995: 57)

The teacher gives students suggestions how they should play their parts. These suggestions are kept unknown to the other person involved.

You don't like Helen. You're in a hurry.

You've got a cold. You're very proud of your coat.

You're rather deaf. You're feeling depressed.

After acting out the dialogue teacher asks students to guess what the other was attempting to portray.

Strategic Interaction activity

Strategic Interaction activity level 1 (Di Pietro 1994: 18-19)

Teacher asks for volunteers who would like to be transported to Rome. Students sit in rows as if they were in a bus. One is asked to play the bus driver. Others have no special assignments. Teacher enters the bus as a new passenger and steals one of the student's bags. Then asks students to react to it in a foreign language.

My own tasks

voice and acting warm-up

Hidden feelings

To practice acting out emotions and recognising them

Stage 1

Students can say only “oh” to express one feeling like: regret, happiness, sadness, anger, disappointment etc.

They choose a feeling from the list and say `oh' loudly. Other students guess which feeling is it.

Stage 2

All students are presented with two sentences:

I've bought some bread.

It's Friday today.

Each of them gets a stripe of paper from a teacher with a feeling on it. His task is to say two sentences in a way to make other students guess what feeling they act out.

Feelings:

happy, sad, depressed, in a good mood, nervous, disappointed, frightened, relaxed, sleepy, energetic, enthusiastic, hating, in love, surprised, proud

sketches and dialogues activity

Relations

To make students realise how relations can influence use of language and body language in conversation.

Students are presented with two dialogues (first with superior person, second with equal position of speakers) and asked to guess what situation is it, who is talking and what is their relation finding proofs in the text. Then they are asked if relation can influence the language of conversation and body language.

Students work in pairs. Each pair gets a strip of paper. They prepare a short conversation typical for people mentioned on their strip and act it out. Other pairs guess what people are talking to each other looking at their movements and listening to what they say.

  • relations 1 (with superior person)

mother and daughter, boss and employee, millionaire and chauffeur, hotel guest and room maid, policeman and criminal, teacher and student, cat and mouse

  • relations 2 (equal position of speakers)

2 workmates in a radio, 2 roommates in student hostel, 2 lions before performance in circus, 2 cats lying on the sun, 2 young mothers in a park, 2 banknotes in a small wallet

LARP

Family role-play

A variation of live action role-playing games without using dice.

The situation in house Gainsborough is serious. Father of the family, after being seriously ill is now dying. His last wish was to see all of his daughters and family for the last time. The problem is that al the daughters are in some minor or major conflicts with each other and most of them don't like the young wife of their father. Family meeting can change into the worst nightmare…

Each student will get his/her own role card with what he/she would like to achieve at the meeting and what information about other sisters does she have. There will also be a piece of information shortly introducing all the family members' names, jobs and their character - all characters shared knowledge. To create unusual atmosphere, the classroom will be decorated as the dining room with tablecloth, candles and glasses. To make students more brave the light will be switched off. The student will be asked to wear clothes suitable for their characters. The aim is to achieve completely not classroom-like background.

(To see the whole LARP worksheets see lesson 3 and appendices)

4. PRACTICAL APPLICATION

4.1 INTRODUCTION TO THE LESSONS

There are five main assumptions underlying lessons conducted in this diploma project.

Firstly, all the lessons in this diploma project are based on various drama techniques that have been chosen to check their usefulness in developing spoken communication abilities. The reason to try them out was that adult students in a private language school expect from the course that it will help them to improve their speaking skill. Students' needs were checked in a questionnaire and all lessons presented below are strictly connected with the results.

Secondly, the drama techniques in the lessons are supposed to be gradually more and more difficult in terms of independent use of the language, activating students' imagination and acting out. Therefore the first lesson includes dialogues and sketches, the second role-play, simulation and dialogues, and the third is most demanding as it is LARP - Life Action Role Playing. Two first lessons are a form of preparation to the last one as gradually students get less and less help in what they should say.

Thirdly, most of the activities were supposed to be as close to real-life as possible to prepare students to deal with misunderstandings and unexpected communication factors that may influence everyday use of language. Lesson 2 and 3 are devoted to this problem and they introduce checking in a hotel, hotel conversations, socialising with others and finally Life Action Role Playing taking place during family get-together.

Fourthly, the students are to be put in several real-life speaking situations as even good course books do not always provide enough oral tasks in terms of function practice, e.g. how to check in a hotel, buy a ticket at the airport, report about a loss in a lost property office or talk to the doctor. In pre-lessons questionnaire most students wrote they use English when they travel, so in the second lesson hotel situation was introduced and many aspects of it were shown.

Finally, the students' emotions and imagination should be activated if they are to remember and learn successfully. Therefore having fun and creative use of English is included in every lesson of this diploma project. Using these factors may easily convince students that learning a foreign language can be pleasant and satisfactory. Being convinced about it, every learner may be successful.

4.2 LESSON PLANS

4.2.1 LESSON 1 (FILMED)

Date: 12.04.2005

Time of the lesson: 90 minutes

Number of students: 6

Level: intermediate and upper-intermediate

sex: upper-intermediate: 3 female, intermediate: 1 female and 2 male

age: 17 to 30 years old

Aims:

Objectives:

By the end of the lesson students will be able to:

Anticipated problems:

stage of the lesson

problem

suggested solutions

Stage 1. - introduction into the lesson.

Students may be surprised and confused.

Teacher consequently acts out her part and involving students into casting situation.

Stage 5. a - From seed to tree

Students may be ashamed.

Teacher tells students to stand with face to the wall in order not to stare at other participants but to concentrate on oneself.

Stage 6. - during preparation to act out a sketch.

Students will probably use mother tongue.

Teacher asks one student to make sure they will use English.

Preparation before the lesson:

Materials:

The bank: gun, paper bag, note with shopping list, money;

Travel agency: telephone, 2 pens, a piece of paper, holiday catalogues;

The dentist: a large bag (a small suitcase), a string, a hammer, a pair of forceps;

Shakespeare's house: an ashtray, money, a newspaper;

Lesson procedure:

stage

activities

timing

1.

The teacher wears clothes untypical of her. As students enter the class they see a chair with a sign “director” on it (appendix 1). They hear a conversation in which the director is complaining about lack of good actors at today's casting. The director introduces herself as Stephanie Spielberg and says that she is looking for good actors for her next comedy project and is happy that students appeared at the casting. If students are surprised, she will also point to an advertisement about casting on the door of the classroom (appendix 2).

2 min.

2.

Students are asked to introduce themselves to the camera to check how they feel in front of it. Director shortly comments on it.

7 min.

3.

On the desk there are four piles of props: each is to be used in one sketch. Students are divided into two groups of three people. They are asked to think for 3 minutes about uses of each thing and briefly present it to the second group.

10 minutes

4.

Difficult words from the sketches (appendix 3) are added to each pile. Students are also given lines of the sketches, are told where the situation takes place and how many people are involved. On basis of all given information students are asked to prepare a short dialogue up to 10 lines including all the words. They must use at least three of the words and one prop. Then they read their dialogue to the camera again.

15 min.

5.

After the dialogues the director comments on weak points and says that to act there are more preparations needed. All actors use their bodies and voices to show some emotions. Stephanie suggests a small warm up.

  1. body warm-up: gathering inner energy, Feeling your muscles and From seed to a tree/flower

  2. voice warm-up: energising yawning, elocution exercises and Twist your tongue! (appendix 4)

  3. acting warm-up: Hidden feelings (appendix 5)

(all activities described in inventory of tasks)

5 min.

8 min.

6 min.

6.

Students are given complete text of sketches they chose, check if they understand everything and are asked to prepare to act out their scenes. They can use the props and rearrange the classroom as they wish. Groups work in separate rooms: in the class and in the library. The director generally does not help them, but is around in case she is needed.

20 min.

7.

Both groups meet and prepare the classroom to show their sketch. Next they act it out in front of the camera.

15 min.

8.

Director shortly praises the actors, promises to call them and leaves the classroom.

2 min.

4.2.2 Justification of choice of activities

Stage 1.

Teacher's different clothes, sign “director” and casting advertisement are aimed at introducing a situation and achieving not classroom-like situation. The teacher plays director role to introduce the camera in a natural way and to give a reason to conduct activities connected with acting that will take place later in the lesson.

Stage 2.

This activity's first aim is to involve the camera into the lesson instead of leaving it standing as a means to make students stressed. The second aim is to check how students feel in front of the camera and if they have any acting talents.

Stage 3.

At this stage it is important to introduce difficult vocabulary so that students do not have a problem with this later. Secondly, the purpose of this stage is to activate students' imagination as it is helpful when one acts and to make students use English in a creative way.

Stage 4.

This stage aims at introducing dialogue situation as in sketches and at activating students' imagination and communication awareness.

Stage 5.

The activities in stage 5 are meant to make students aware of all aspects of acting: using body, voice and feelings and checking if students are able to use all of them. All warm-ups are aimed at make it easier for students to act out sketches at the following stage. Tongue-twisters are supposed to give students meaningful and enjoyable pronunciation practice. All these are also supposed to be opposite to class routine.

Stage 6.

This stage's purpose is to make students activate their acting imagination and create their own interpretation of the sketch using all the knowledge they have gained in previous activities.

Stage 7.

Sketches acting aims at giving students meaningful pronunciation practice, offering them an occasion to check their theatrical talents and introduce some expressions from everyday life in an everyday context.

Stage 8.

This stage aims at appreciating students' effort and at ending a lesson as if it was a real casting.

4.2.3 Post lesson reflections

AIMS

The first aim to give students meaningful pronunciation practice was not fully achieved as while acting out sketches there were some pronunciation problems. On the other hand, it was achieved at warming-up stage as students really enjoyed the poems and read them with correct pronunciation and stress.

The second and third aim of the lesson were achieved as students had good fun with English which could be observed while acting out the sketches as they were laughing at them and while presenting how the props could be used. At stage 3 and 4 they also showed they were able to use English in a creative way.

The objective to help students to be more aware of bodies and voices has been achieved, as each presentation in front of the camera seemed to be better - less nervous, they spoke not too fast and their bodies were not tense.

ANTICIPATED PROBLEMS

Students may be surprised and confused.

At the beginning of the lesson students were surprised by teacher's clothes: a checked shirt. As the teacher was consequently acting out her part, she succeeded in involving students into casting situation. The telephone conversation and an advertisement on the classroom door were also successful means of introducing the background.

Students may be ashamed.

During From seed to tree activity students were ashamed because of the camera. Teacher did not ask them to stand with face to the wall in order not to stare at other students but to concentrate on themselves. Students were not focused enough to do this activity properly and it would be a waste of time to try to explain them how to do it. It could also discourage students form acting out if they were criticised in warm-up stage. Teacher just shortened the physical warm-up part.

Students will probably use mother tongue.

During preparation to act out sketches students used some Polish, but the teacher did not ask one student to make sure they will use English as it occurred not to be such a problem. They mainly read their parts and were moving around to prepare the whole scene. Polish actually helped them to be more efficient and to save time. The teacher decided that this activity should be rather product- than process-oriented.

UNEXPECTED EVENTS

Students and teacher's performance:

The first problem that could be observed at each stage of the lesson was camera anxiety. Although in the lesson plan there were attempts to involve the camera into all activities, students did not feel comfortable in front of it and often just escaped form the range of camera. The teacher and the cameramen reminded the students which area of the classroom is seen by the camera. In the future lessons with use of camera it could be a good idea to do all kind of warm-ups before the camera will be turned on. Furthermore first pilot recording should be conducted to make students familiar with the camera and students' behaviour in front of the camera should be analysed on the spot.

In the sketches there was a problem as the pronunciation of some words was incorrect. It is both teacher's and students' fault. Teacher did not check if the pronunciation is correct and students did not ask. If the teacher was to conduct this lesson one more time, at the stage of introducing difficult words from the sketches also pronunciation would be included.

Hidden feelings exercise at stage 5. occurred to be really difficult especially in terms of acting out emotions with voice only. Students were able to guess mainly if the feelings were positive or negative. Although the teacher gave some hints, they did not really help. More time should be spent on, first, concentrating on analysing particular emotions, and then acting them out. If this exercise was to be done again, first a list with feelings would be introduced, then the whole group would try to act them together with director's hints and the last stage would be acting them out and guessing.

Students' performance:

At stage 3. while showing use of props teacher thought students would rather talk about different uses of objects than prepare scenes with them. Semester 6. students were very imaginative here and for a moment teacher even considered cancelling the next stage of the lesson with preparing a dialogue.

The stage 4. dialogues, to teacher's surprise, were put line after line on the paper. They were less interesting and alive than a scene at stage 3. In the future the teacher could try to ask students to prepare an improvisation rather and ask them not to write everything down.

Body warm-up at stage 5. did not really work probably because there was not enough space to scatter around the room. The second reason may be that to conduct professional theatrical body warm-up people must be more silent, focused and relaxed: in front of the camera it occurs to be impossible.

After the lesson students asked what the plots of other sketches were. The teacher shortly informed them about it, but after rethinking she regretted that she just did not promise them to use sketches later in the course.

Teacher's performance:

There was a misunderstanding with group division at stage 3. as teacher did not give the instructions clearly. When the teacher noticed that students do not work in groups of three, she explained students should work in their groups as during the courses. In the future teacher should be more careful and specific when giving instructions.

Materials:

Students did not choose a sketch with dentist although it was really funny. Next time when these sketches are to be used the titles will be put with the props at the beginning of the lesson.

False money props were especially appealing to students. They chose two sketches involving them without much thinking. Generally, they had lot of fun using the props and analysed them from every possible side, especially an ashtray.

4.2.4 LESSON 2

Date: 14.04.2005

Time of the lesson: 90 minutes

Number of students: 5

Level: intermediate and upper-intermediate

Sex: upper-intermediate: 2 female, intermediate: 1 female and 2 male

Age: 17 to 30 years old

Aims:

a) body language,

b) feelings and moods,

c) relations between people,

d) setting,

e) short, not tidy sequenced utterances to make students aware of the value of feelings of the speaker,

f) information gap and

g) socialising;

Objectives:

By the end of the lesson students will be able to: