Biodegradable
Polymers
Market Report
David K. Platt
A Smithers Group Company
©PlasBio Inc. (www.plasbio.com)
©PlasBio Inc. (www.plasbio.com)
Biodegradable Polymers
Market Report
David K. Platt
Smithers Rapra Limited
A wholly owned subsidiary of The Smithers Group
Shawbury, Shrewsbury, Shropshire, SY4 4NR, United Kingdom
Telephone: +44 (0)1939 250383 Fax: +44 (0)1939 251118
http://www.rapra.net
Published in 2006 by
Smithers Rapra Limited
Shawbury, Shrewsbury, Shropshire, SY4 4NR, UK
©2006, Smithers Rapra Limited
All rights reserved. Except as permitted under current legislation no part
of this publication may be photocopied, reproduced or distributed in any
form or by any means or stored in a database or retrieval system, without
the prior permission from the copyright holder.
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
Every effort has been made to contact copyright holders of any material reproduced within
the text and the authors and publishers apologise if
any have been overlooked.
ISBN: 1-85957-519-6
Typeset by Smithers Rapra Limited
Cover printed by Telford Reprographics Limited, Telford, UK
Printed and bound by Smithers Rapra Limited, Shrewsbury, UK
i
Contents
1.1 Background
................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 The
Report
.................................................................................................................... 2
1.3 Methodology ................................................................................................................. 3
1.4 About the Author .......................................................................................................... 3
2.1 Global Market Forecasts ............................................................................................... 5
2.2 Material Trends ............................................................................................................. 6
2.3 Regional Trends ............................................................................................................ 7
2.4 Market Trends ............................................................................................................... 8
2.5 Competitive Trends ....................................................................................................... 9
3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 11
3.2 Defi nitions of Biodegradable Polymers ........................................................................ 11
3.3 Mechanisms of Polymer Degradation .......................................................................... 11
3.4 Measuring Biodegradability of Polymers ..................................................................... 12
3.5 Factors Affecting Biodegradability ............................................................................... 13
3.6 Biodegradable Polymer Classes .................................................................................... 14
3.6.1 Naturally Biodegradable Polymers .................................................................. 15
3.6.2 Synthetic Biodegradable Polymers ................................................................... 15
3.6.3 Modifi ed Naturally Biodegradable Polymers ................................................... 15
3.7 Starch-Based Biodegradable Polymers ......................................................................... 16
3.8 Polyhydroxyalkanoates ............................................................................................... 18
3.9 Polylactic Acid Polyesters ............................................................................................ 20
3.10 Synthetic Biodegradable Polymers ............................................................................... 22
3.10.1 Polycaprolactone (PCL) ................................................................................... 22
3.10.2 Polyglycolide (PGA) ........................................................................................ 23
3.10.3 Poly(dioxanone) (a polyether-ester) ................................................................. 23
3.10.4 Poly(lactide-co-glycolide) ................................................................................. 23
ii
Biodegradable Polymers
3.11 Processing Biodegradable Polymers ............................................................................. 25
3.11.1 Introduction .................................................................................................... 25
3.11.2 Film Blowing and Casting ............................................................................... 25
3.11.3 Injection Moulding .......................................................................................... 27
3.11.4 Blow Moulding ............................................................................................... 27
3.11.5 Injection Stretch Blow Moulding ..................................................................... 28
3.11.6 Thermoforming ............................................................................................... 29
3.11.7 Fibre Spinning ................................................................................................. 30
4.1 Introduction
................................................................................................................ 31
4.2 Market
Drivers
............................................................................................................ 31
4.2.1 Development of Framework Conditions .......................................................... 31
4.2.2 Development of a Composting Infrastructure .................................................. 35
4.2.3 Pricing Trends ................................................................................................. 37
4.2.4 Growth in Pre-Packaged Food Sales ................................................................ 38
4.2.5 Consumer Preference for Sustainable Packaging .............................................. 38
4.2.6 Product and Technology Development ............................................................ 39
4.3 Market Development and Structure ............................................................................. 39
4.4 The Global Biodegradable Polymers Market Forecast ................................................. 41
4.4.1 Western European Biodegradable Polymers Market Forecast .......................... 44
4.4.2 North American Biodegradable Polymers Market Forecast ............................. 46
4.4.3 Asia Pacifi c Biodegradable Polymers Market Forecast ..................................... 48
5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 57
5.2 Applications Development ........................................................................................... 57
5.3 Market Drivers ............................................................................................................ 59
5.4 Market Size and Forecast ............................................................................................ 60
5.5 Major Suppliers and their Products ............................................................................. 61
5.5.1 Novamont ....................................................................................................... 61
5.5.2 Rodenburg Biopolymers, BV ........................................................................... 63
5.5.3 EarthShell Corporation ................................................................................... 63
5.5.4 Stanelco Group ................................................................................................ 64
5.5.5 Grenidea Technologies .................................................................................... 65
5.5.6 Biopolymer Technologies ................................................................................. 65
5.5.7 NNZ BV ......................................................................................................... 65
5.5.8 Plantic Technologies ........................................................................................ 66
iii
Contents
6.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 67
6.2 Applications Development ........................................................................................... 67
6.2.1 Rigid Packaging ............................................................................................... 68
6.2.2 Flexible Packaging ........................................................................................... 69
6.2.3 Blow Moulded Bottles ..................................................................................... 70
6.2.4 High Performance Applications ....................................................................... 70
6.3 Market Drivers ............................................................................................................ 70
6.3.1 Better Environmental Credentials .................................................................... 71
6.3.2 Stable Supply and More Competitive Prices .................................................... 71
6.3.3 World’s First Greenhouse-Gas-Neutral Polymer .............................................. 71
6.3.4 Replacement of Traditional Packaging Materials ............................................. 72
6.3.5 Speciality Cards ............................................................................................... 72
6.3.6 Source Options ................................................................................................ 72
6.3.7 New Applications ............................................................................................ 73
6.3.8 Better Processing ............................................................................................. 73
6.4 Market Size and Forecast ............................................................................................ 74
6.5 Major Suppliers and their Products ............................................................................. 75
7.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 79
7.2 Applications Development ........................................................................................... 81
7.2.1 Films ............................................................................................................... 82
7.2.2 Flexible Packaging ........................................................................................... 82
7.2.3 Thermoformed Articles ................................................................................... 82
7.2.4 Coated/Corrugated Paper ................................................................................ 82
7.2.5 Synthetic Papers .............................................................................................. 83
7.2.6 Bioresorbable Medical Devices ........................................................................ 83
7.2.7 Polymer Blends ................................................................................................ 83
7.3 Market Drivers ............................................................................................................ 83
7.4 Market Size and Forecast ............................................................................................ 84
7.5 Suppliers and their Products ........................................................................................ 84
8.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 87
8.2 Applications Development ........................................................................................... 88
iv
Biodegradable Polymers
8.3 Market Drivers ............................................................................................................ 89
8.4 Market Size and Forecast ............................................................................................ 89
8.5 Suppliers and their Products ........................................................................................ 90
9.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 93
9.2 Packaging .................................................................................................................... 93
9.2.1 Flexible Packaging ........................................................................................... 93
9.2.2 Rigid Packaging ............................................................................................... 94
9.2.3 Paper Coating .................................................................................................. 96
9.2.4 Loose-Fill Packaging ........................................................................................ 97
9.3 Bags and Sacks ............................................................................................................ 97
9.4 Disposable Serviceware ............................................................................................... 97
9.5 Agriculture and Horticulture ....................................................................................... 98
9.6 Medical Devices .......................................................................................................... 98
9.6.1 Sutures ............................................................................................................ 98
9.6.2 Dental Devices ................................................................................................. 99
9.6.3 Orthopaedic Fixation Devices ......................................................................... 99
9.6.4 Other Applications .......................................................................................... 99
9.7 Consumer Electronics Products ................................................................................. 100
9.8 Automotive ............................................................................................................... 100
9.9 Speciality Cards ......................................................................................................... 101
9.10 Fibres ........................................................................................................................ 101
10.1 Alpha Packaging ........................................................................................................ 103
10.2 Arkhe Planning Co. ................................................................................................... 103
10.3 Arthur Blank & Company ......................................................................................... 104
10.4 Autobar Group Ltd. .................................................................................................. 105
10.5 Bartling GmbH & Co. KG Kunststoffe ..................................................................... 106
10.6 Bi-Ax International .................................................................................................... 106
10.7 BioBag International AS ............................................................................................ 107
10.8 Biosphere Industries Corporation .............................................................................. 108
10.9 BIOTA Brands of America Inc. .................................................................................. 108
v
10.10 Bomatic
Inc.
........................................................................................................... 109
10.11 Brenmar
Company
................................................................................................. 109
10.12 Carolex
SAS
........................................................................................................... 110
10.13 Chien Fua Bio-Tech Industry Co., Ltd. ................................................................... 111
10.14 Coopbox
Europe
.................................................................................................... 111
10.15 Cortec
Corporation
................................................................................................ 112
10.16 Earthcycle Packaging Ltd. ....................................................................................... 113
10.17 Europackaging
plc
.................................................................................................. 114
10.18 Ex-Tech Plastics, Inc. .............................................................................................. 114
10.19 Fabri-Kal
................................................................................................................ 115
10.20 Faerch Plast A/S ...................................................................................................... 115
10.21 Farnell
Packaging
Ltd.
............................................................................................ 116
10.22 Fortune
Plastics
...................................................................................................... 116
10.23 Good Flag Biotechnology Corporation ................................................................... 117
10.24 Grenidea Technologies Pte Ltd. ............................................................................... 118
10.25 The Heritage Bag Company .................................................................................... 118
10.26 Huhtamäki
Oy
....................................................................................................... 119
10.27 IBEK Verpackungshandel GmbH ............................................................................ 120
10.28 ILIP
........................................................................................................................ 121
10.29 Innovia
Films
BVBA
............................................................................................... 122
10.30 Liquid
Container/Plaxicon
...................................................................................... 123
10.31 NNZ
bv
.................................................................................................................. 123
10.32 Natura
Verpackungs
GmbH
................................................................................... 124
10.33 NVYRO
................................................................................................................. 125
10.34 Plastic
Suppliers
Inc.
............................................................................................... 126
10.35 RPC Group plc ....................................................................................................... 127
10.36 Siamp-Cedap
.......................................................................................................... 128
10.37 Sidaplax
.................................................................................................................. 129
10.38 Signum
NZ
Ltd.
..................................................................................................... 129
10.39 Spartech
Corp.
........................................................................................................ 130
10.40 Sunway Household Ltd. ......................................................................................... 131
Contents
vi
Biodegradable Polymers
10.41 Toray
Industries
Inc.
............................................................................................... 131
10.42 Toray
Saehan
Inc.
................................................................................................... 132
10.43 Treofan
Group
........................................................................................................ 133
10.44 Vertex
Pacifi c Limited ............................................................................................. 134
10.45 Wei Mon Industry Co. Ltd. .................................................................................... 135
10.46 Wentus Kunststoff GmbH ...................................................................................... 136
10.47 Wilkinson
Industries
Inc.
........................................................................................ 137
1
1
Introduction
1.1 Background
Biodegradable polymers have been around for almost a decade, but it has only been in the last two
to three years that they have started to be produced on a commercial scale. Biodegradable polymers
have already found acceptance in application areas such as food packaging, bags and sacks, loose-
fi ll packaging agricultural fi lm and many niche market applications. However, while they remain
very much a niche product at the moment, there are signs that biodegradable polymers are ready to
attack mass markets with a number of major suppliers such as NatureWorks LLC, Novamont and
BASF, gearing up for large-scale production.
Biodegradable polymer demand is being driven by a number of important trends. In developed
countries of the Western world, particularly in Western Europe, governments have implemented
legislation to reduce the amount of municipal waste packaging being sent to landfi ll. Other options
being pursued include mechanical recycling, incineration with energy recovery and composting. As
these trends gather momentum, more favourable framework conditions for biodegradable plastics
market development are slowly coming into place.
There is also a growing trend for brand owners and retailers to recognise the potential marketing
benefi ts of ‘green’ or ‘sustainable’ packaging as consumers become more concerned about the
development of sustainable technologies, reduction in CO
2
emissions and the conservation of the
earth’s fossil resources. Several major world brands including Wal-Mart have been persuaded to
switch from petrochemical-based plastics to biodegradable plastics in recent years.
Demand for biodegradable polymers is also benefi ting from a narrowing in the price differential
between biopolymers and petrochemical-based plastics over the last two years. Petrochemical-
based plastic prices have gone up sharply due to a surge in crude oil prices and look like remaining
at historically high levels for some time to come. At the same time, biopolymer prices have come
down signifi cantly in recent years due to better production techniques, better material sourcing by
suppliers and higher production volumes. In 2006, certain starch-based and PLA biopolymers were
competitive with standard thermoplastics such as PET.
This report uses the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) defi nitions of biodegradable
and compostable plastics.
• Biodegradable plastic: a biodegradable plastic is a degradable plastic in which the degradation
results from the action of naturally occurring microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi and algae.
• Composting: composting is a managed process that controls the biological decomposition of
biodegradable materials into a humus-like substance called compost; the aerobic and mesophilic
and thermophilic degradation of organic matter to make compost; the transformation of
biologically decomposable materials through a controlled process of bio-oxidation that proceeds
through mesophilic and thermophilic phases and results in the production of carbon dioxide,
water, minerals and stabilised organic matter (compost or humus).
2
Biodegradable Polymers
Biodegradable polymers and biopolymers can be produced by a wide variety of technologies, both
from renewable resources of animal or plant origin, and from fossil resources. A number of different
types are already available on the market.
Biodegradable polymers that are based on renewable resources include polyesters such as polylactic
acid (PLA) and polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA). Biodegradable polymers can also be made from extracts
from plants and vegetables such as corn, maize, palm oil, soya and potatoes.
Biodegradable polymers can also be made from mineral oil based resources such as the aliphatic-
aromatic co-polyester types. Mixtures of synthetic degradable polyesters and pure plant starch,
known as starch blends, are also well-established products on the market.
Biodegradable polymers are similar in terms of their chemical structure to conventional thermoplastics
such as polyethylene, polypropylene and polystyrene. They can be processed using standard polymer
processing methods such as fi lm extrusion, injection moulding and blow moulding.
While biodegradable polymers may be similar to petrochemical-based thermoplastics in terms of their
structure, their chemical structure imbues them with technical properties that make them perform in
different ways. For example, starch blends can produce fi lm with better moisture barrier protection
and higher clarity than some conventional plastics. PLA has a high water vapour transmission rate,
which is benefi cial for fresh food applications where it is important that the water vapour escapes
quickly from the packaging. PLA also reduces fogging on the lid of the packaging.
1.2 The Report
The report starts with an overview of biodegradable polymers including an examination of the
processes of biodegradation, classifi cation of biodegradable polymers including their chemical
structure, properties, and processing performance.
Section 4 examines the global market for biodegradable polymers by major geographic region, covering
Western Europe, North America and Asia Pacifi c. Biodegradable polymer consumption by polymer
type and end use market is presented for each region for the years 2000, 2005 and forecast for 2010.
The main body of the study (Chapters 5-8) is divided into four core sections based on biodegradable
polymer types.
• Starch-based
• Polylactic acid (PLA)
• Polyhydroxyalkanoates
(PHA)
• Synthetic biodegradable polymers such as aliphatic-aromatic co-polyesters
Each section contains an overview of key market drivers, analysis of world consumption by geographic
region for the years 2000, 2005 and forecast for 2010, application developments and an analysis of
the major suppliers and their products.
Chapter 9 examines the market opportunities for biodegradable plastics by end use market covering
packaging, bags and sacks, disposable serviceware, agriculture and horticulture, medical devices,
consumer electronics products, automotive, speciality cards and fi bres.
3
Introduction
Finally, Chapter 10 examines around fi fty major processors of biodegradable plastics and their
products, including: BioBag International, Biosphere Industries, Bomatic, Coopbox, Cortec,
Europackaging, Ex-Tech Plastics, The Heritage Bag Company, Huhtamäki, IBEK, Innovia Films,
NNZ, natura Verpackungs, Plastic Suppliers, RPC Group, Toray and Treofan.
1.3 Methodology
The research for the report is based on various information sources including: the Rapra Polymer
Library, trade press, Internet/company web sites, and interviews with some of the leading suppliers.
The opinions expressed and the data presented are those of the author.
1.4 About the Author
David Platt graduated from the University of Nottingham with an Economics degree before completing
an MBA at the University of Bradford. He joined a leading international market consultancy where
he specialised in plastics sector research. He conducted a wide range of multi-client and single-client
studies covering a wide range of materials, from standard thermoplastics, engineering and high
performance polymers to conductive polymers and thermoplastic elastomers.
Now operating as a freelance consultant, he makes regular contributions to the European plastics
trade press, and also works with leading plastics industry consultants.
4
Biodegradable Polymers
5
2
Executive Summary
2.1 Global Market Forecasts
The market for biodegradable polymers has shown strong growth during the last fi ve years, albeit from
a very small base. However, there are still only a handful of producers operating truly commercial
scale production plants. The situation is slowly changing with a number of major plant expansions
planned over the next few years.
The major classes of biopolymer, starch and starch blends, polylactic acid (PLA) and aliphatic-
aromatic co-polyesters, are now being used in a wide variety of niche applications, particularly for
manufacture of rigid and fl exible packaging, bags and sacks and foodservice products. However,
market volumes for biopolymers remain extremely low compared with standard petrochemical-
based plastics. For example, in 2005, biopolymer consumption accounted for just 0.14% of total
thermoplastics consumption in Western Europe.
In 2005, the global biodegradable plastics market tonnage is estimated at 94,800 tonnes (including
loose-fi ll packaging) compared with 28,000 tonnes in 2000. In 2010, market tonnage is forecast to
reach 214,400 tonnes, which represents a compound annual growth rate of 17.7% during the period
2005-2010. Excluding loose-fi ll packaging, which is a relatively more mature sector for biodegradable
polymers, global market tonnage in 2005 is 71,700 tonnes and the compound annual growth rate
for the period 2005-2010 is 20.3%.
Table 2.1 shows global consumption of biodegradable polymers by polymer type for the years 2000,
2005 and forecast for 2010.
Table 2.1 Global consumption of biodegradable polymers by polymer type, 2000, 2005 and
forecast for 2010 (’000 tonnes)
2000
2005
2010
Starch
15.5
44.8
89.2
PLA
8.7
35.8
89.5
PHA
0
0.2
2.9
Synthetic
3.9
14.0
32.8
28.1
94.8
214.4
In 2005, starch-based materials were the largest class of biodegradable polymer with just over 47% of
total market volumes. Loose-fi ll foam packaging accounts for more than a half of starch biopolymer
volumes. Polylactic acid (PLA) is the second largest material class followed by synthetic aliphatic-
aromatic co-polyesters. The PHA category is at an embryonic stage of market development with
very low market tonnage at the moment.
6
Biodegradable Polymers
All classes of biodegradable polymers are projected to experience substantial growth during the next
fi ve years. Of the material classes with existing commercial applications, PLA will grow the fastest
with a compound annual growth rate of 20.1% for the period 2005-2010. PLA demand is being
driven by strong product and applications development by major suppliers such as NatureWorks
LLC. Synthetic types will also experience growth approaching 20% per annum over the forecast
period. Starch-based polymers are projected to grow at slightly lower rates. This is mainly due to
the presence of loose-fi ll packaging, which is a relatively more mature applications sector. PHA,
which started from virtually a zero base in 2005, is projected to grow at close to 60% per annum as
commercial scale plants come on stream and better products and processes are introduced.
Demand for biodegradable polymers is being driven by a number of important trends, including:
• Development of supporting framework conditions such as more favourable government regulations
to reduce waste packaging and landfi ll in favour of recycling and composting. Political support
is also slowly gaining ground with biodegradable packaging receiving special treatment in some
countries such as Germany.
• The world biodegradable plastics industry has agreed a set of standards and certifi cation procedures
for biodegradable packaging materials, which will continue to encourage growth and possibly
deter imitation.
• Composting infrastructures are being developed by local councils in major towns and cities
around the world in response to the problem of packaging waste and over-reliance on landfi ll in
some countries.
• The price differential between biodegradable polymers and petrochemical-based plastics has
narrowed during the last two years.
• Growing consumer awareness and preference for sustainable packaging.
• Brand owners are also recognising the benefi ts of promoting sustainable or ‘green’ packaging.
• There has been a stream of new product and technology development by leading biodegradable
polymer suppliers that have opened up new markets and potential applications.
2.2 Material Trends
Product development and improvement has a crucial role to play in the further development of the
biodegradable polymers market. These include development of more reliable and lower cost raw
materials for manufacture of biodegradable polymers, improvement in performance properties vis-
à-vis standard thermoplastics, improvement in processing performance and development of new
polymers and blends.
Some of the most interesting material developments covered in the report are as follows.
• New types of renewable feedstock such as palm oil for manufacture of starch-based
biodegradable polymers.
• A new generation of PLA materials that can withstand high temperatures and are suitable for
microwavable food packaging.
7
Executive Summary
• New blends of synthetic biopolymers and PLA with better properties and processing performance.
• Plasticiser-free
fl exible PLA fi lm.
• Development of markets for PLA injection stretch blow moulding applications.
• PLA bottles with higher barrier for oxygen sensitive food and beverages.
• Improvements to biodegradable polymer additive formulations helping to improve processing
effi ciencies.
• Development of biodegradable polymers with fl ame retardant properties that can be used for
consumer electronics product housing.
• Development of synthetic biodegradable polymers such as polybutylene succinates (PBS) with
improved stiffness and thermal properties.
• Progress in fermentation processes and identifi cation of lower cost feedstock for manufacture of
PHA products to provide lower material costs.
2.3 Regional Trends
Figure 2.1 shows percentage share of global biodegradable polymer consumption by major world
region for 2005.
Figure 2.1
Percentage share of global biodegradable polymer consumption by major world region, 2005
Western Europe is the leading market for biodegradable polymers with 59% of market volumes in
2005. The Western European market has been driven more by regulation than other world regions such
as the USA and Japan. These include the European Union directives on packaging waste and landfi ll
which aim to divert a growing amount of packaging waste towards recycling and composting. Europe
has also benefi ted from some of the world’s leading biodegradable producers such as Novamont,
Rodenburg Biopolymers and BASF being based in the region.
8
Biodegradable Polymers
North America has lagged well behind Western Europe in terms of biodegradable polymer market
development. Traditionally, there has not been the same degree of urgency to address the issue of
waste disposal through landfi ll in North America because of its enormous landmass. Government
and consumer attitudes towards recycling of packaging waste and environmental protection have
also militated against market development of sustainable materials.
However, attitudes are slowly changing. During the last few years there have been a number of
positive trends that are encouraging biodegradable polymer development including, growth of the
composting infrastructure, more institutions looking at food waste diversion from landfi ll, rising
tipping fees for landfi ll and a better understanding among foodservice suppliers that there is a market
for compostable materials.
Japan is the largest consumer of biodegradable polymers in the Asia Pacifi c region, followed by
Australia and New Zealand, with Taiwan, South Korea, Singapore and China, some way behind in
terms of market development.
2.4 Market Trends
Biodegradable polymers can be found in a wide range of end use markets although these materials
still remain very much niche products. Continued progress in terms of product development and
cost reduction will be required before they can effectively compete with conventional plastics for
mainstream applications.
Starch-based biodegradable plastics are used for manufacture of various types of bags and sacks,
rigid packaging such as thermoformed trays and containers, and loose-fi ll packaging foam as an
alternative to polystyrene and polyethylene. They are also used in agriculture and horticulture for
applications such as mulching fi lm, covering fi lm and plant pots. Injection moulding applications
include pencil sharpeners, rulers, cartridges, combs and toys.
The main markets for PLA are thermoformed trays and containers for food packaging and food
service applications. Other developing areas include fi lms and labels, injection stretch blow moulded
bottles and jars, specialty cards and fi bres.
Synthetic biodegradable polyesters are used mainly as specialty materials for paper coating, fi bres,
and garbage bags and sacks. They are also showing up in thermoformed packaging as functional
adjuncts to lower-cost biodegradable materials.
Potential applications for PHA include feminine hygiene products, packaging, appliances, electrical
and electronics, consumer durables, agriculture and soil stabilisation, nonwovens, biomedical device
adhesives, and automotive parts.
Figure 2.2 shows percentage share of global biodegradable polymer consumption by end use market
for 2005.
In 2005, packaging (including rigid and fl exible packaging, paper coating and foodservice) is the
largest sector with 39% of total biodegradable polymer market volumes. Loose-fi ll packaging is the
second largest sector, followed by bags and sacks. Fibres or textiles is an important sector for PLA,
and accounts for 9% of total market volumes. Others include a wide range of very small application
areas, the most important of which are agriculture and fi shing, medical devices, consumer products
and hygiene products.
9
Executive Summary
2.5 Competitive Trends
There are around thirty suppliers actively involved in the world biodegradable polymers market in
2005. The synthetic biopolymers market is dominated by large, global and vertically integrated chemical
companies such as BASF, DuPont, and Mitsubishi Gas Chemicals. The starch and PLA sectors contain
mainly specialist biopolymer companies such as Novamont, NatureWorks LLC, Rodenburg Biopolymers
and Biotec, which were specifi cally established purely to develop biodegradable polymers.
The leading suppliers are Novamont, NatureWorks, BASF and Rodenburg Biopolymers, which
together represent over 90% of the European market for biodegradable plastics.
Global production capacity for biodegradable polymers has grown dramatically since the mid 1990s.
In 1995, production was mainly on a pilot-plant basis with total worldwide capacity amounting to
no more than 25-30,000 tonnes. In 2005, global capacity for biodegradable polymers was around
360,000 tonnes. Based on announced projects, total production capacity is set to almost reach
600,000 tonnes by 2008.
At the moment, there are a growing number of biodegradable polymers performing well in niche
applications. Many of these materials can be even more cost competitive in the future compared to
petroleum-based resins including PET, polyethylene (PE), and polypropylene (PP) as suppliers develop
better material properties that can lead to thinner fi lms or lower processing costs.
Historically, pricing had been the biggest barrier to biodegradable polymer market development.
However, the competitive position of biodegradable polymers has been improved during the last two
years by the sharp upswing in the cost and declining availability of standard petroleum-based resins.
Commodity resin prices have climbed steadily since 2003 as oil and natural gas prices have surged.
During the period 2003-2005, the average price for competing materials such as polypropylene,
general-purpose polystyrene and low density polyethylene (LDPE) have increased between 30-35%.
Bottle-grade PET prices have increased by nearly 18%.
At the same time, prices for the three major types of bio-based resins, starch-based biopolymers,
polylactic acid (PLA) and aliphatic aromatic co-polyester, have dropped considerably over the last
Figure 2.2
Percentage share of global biodegradable polymer consumption by end use market for 2005
10
Biodegradable Polymers
three years as production volumes have increased, more effi cient production processes have been
deployed and lower cost raw materials have been found.
In 2003, the average price of starch blends was around €3.0-5.0 per kg. In 2005, the average price
range of starch blends was down to €1.5-3.5 per kg. PLA is now being sold at prices between €1.37-
2.75 per kg compared to a price range of €3.0-3.5 per kg three years ago, and is now almost price
competitive with PET. The average cost of an aliphatic aromatic co-polyester has fallen from €3.5-4.0
per kg in 2003 to €2.75-3.65 per kg in 2005. Prices are expected to fall further for all biodegradable
polymer types over time as production volumes increase and unit costs fall.
In terms of the product life cycle, the biodegradable plastics industry has now reached the market
introduction stage, having spent the last ten years or so developing their products and processes.
The main focus of suppliers was on improving the technology and the products in readiness for
full commercialisation. Now, a signifi cant number of products are commercially available and the
emphasis has switched to the end user and developing markets and applications.
Brand owners and consumer will have a key role to play in the growth of this industry over the
next fi ve to ten years. Buyers are indeed beginning to recognise the marketing value of sustainable
materials and are starting to endorse this biopolymers movement. It is education and awareness
along with the cost and performance improvements that will take sustainable materials out of niche
market status.
While the cost of some biodegradable plastics are high compared with conventional polymers, from
a marketing perspective, it is important not only to consider the material cost, but also all associated
costs, including the costs of handling and disposal, which are of course lower for biodegradable
plastics. Hence, marketing of biodegradable plastics products is most successful when their cost
savings and material advantages are exploited to the full. Also, users of biodegradable plastics can
differentiate themselves from the competition by demonstrating how innovative and proactive they
are for the benefi t of the environment.
Applications development to achieve higher production volumes will be crucial for continued
market expansion. Production costs for biopolymers still remain high because of low volumes, and
profi tability of biodegradable plastics products is still too low. Hence, volumes must be increased if
unit costs are to fall and profi tability is to improve.
11
3
Overview of Biodegradable Polymers
3.1 Introduction
This chapter begins with an examination of the mechanisms of polymer biodegradation, how
biodegradation mechanisms are measured and the factors affecting biodegradation. This is followed
by a review of the different classes of biodegradable polymers, their chemical composition, properties,
performance characteristics and processing technologies.
3.2 Defi nitions of Biodegradable Polymers
Biodegradability and compostability are clearly defi ned by the scientifi c community and were legally
incorporated into a Standard by the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), under
reference ASTM D 6400 - 99, in July 1999. Similar defi nitions have been recognised in several countries
around the world, the most signifi cant being DIN CERTCO 54900 in Germany. Harmonisation of
the defi nitions was carried out through the International Biodegradable Products Institute (BPI),
which signed a memorandum of understanding with the Japanese Biodegradable Plastics Society
and the German DIN CERTCO.
The ASTM defi nes a biodegradable plastic as a degradable plastic in which the degradation results
from the action of naturally occurring microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi and algae.
Composting is defined as a managed process that controls the biological decomposition of
biodegradable materials into a humus-like substance called compost; the aerobic and mesophilic and
thermophilic degradation of organic matter to make compost; the transformation of biologically
decomposable materials through a controlled process of bio-oxidation that proceeds through
mesophilic and thermophilic phases and results in the production of carbon dioxide, water, minerals
and stabilised organic matter (compost or humus).
Following the international agreement on defi nitions for biodegradable plastics, specifi ed periods
of time, disposal pathways and standard test methodologies were incorporated into the defi nitions.
Standardisation organisations such as CEN, International Standards Organisation (ISO) and American
Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) were consequently encouraged to develop standard
biodegradation tests so these could be determined. Society further demanded non-debatable criteria
for the evaluation of the suitability of polymeric materials for disposal in specifi c waste streams such
as composting or anaerobic digestion. Biodegradability is usually just one of the essential criteria,
besides ecotoxicity and effects on waste treatment processes.
3.3 Mechanisms of Polymer Degradation
Biodegradation is usually defi ned as degradation caused by biological activity, it will usually
occur simultaneously with, and is sometimes initiated by, non-biological degradation such as
photodegradation and hydrolysis.
12
Biodegradable Polymers
Many different polymers are subject to hydrolysis. Different mechanisms of hydrolysis are usually
present in most environments. In contrast to enzymic degradation, where a material is degraded
gradually from the surface inwards, chemical hydrolysis of a solid material can take place throughout
its cross-section, except for very hydrophobic polymers.
Biological degradation takes place through the actions of enzymes or by products (such as acids and
peroxides) secreted by microorganisms (bacteria, yeasts, fungi). Also, microorganisms can eat, and
sometimes digest polymers, and cause mechanical, chemical and enzymic ageing.
Two steps occur in the microbial polymer degradation process, fi rst, a depolymerisation or chain
cleavage step, and second, mineralisation. The fi rst step normally occurs outside the organism due
to the size of the polymer chain and the insoluble nature of many of the polymers. Extracellular
enzymes are responsible for this step, acting either endo (random cleavage of the internal linkages of
the polymer chains) or exo (sequential cleavage of the terminal monomer units in the main chain).
Once suffi ciently small size oligomeric or monomeric fragments are formed, they are transported into
the cells where they are mineralised. At this stage the cell usually derives metabolic energy from the
mineralisation process. The products of this process are gases, water, salts, minerals and biomass.
Many variations of this general view of the biodegradation process can occur, depending on the
polymer, the organisms and the environment. Nevertheless, there will always be at some stage the
involvement of enzymes.
Enzymes are the biological catalysts that can induce massive increases in reaction rates in an
environment that is otherwise unfavourable for chemical reactions. All enzymes are proteins with a
complex three-dimensional structure ranging in molecular weight from several thousands to several
million g/mol. The enzyme activity is closely related to the conformational structure, which creates
certain regions at the surface forming an active site. At the active site the interaction between enzyme
and substrate takes place, leading to the chemical reaction, eventually giving a particular product.
Some enzymes contain regions with absolute specifi city for a given substrate while others can recognise
a series of substrates. For optimal activity most enzymes must associate with cofactors, which can
be of inorganic (such as metal ions) or organic origin (such as coenzymes A, ATP, and vitamins like
ribofl avin and biotin).
There are an enormous number of different enzymes each catalysing its own unique reaction on
groups of substrates or on very specifi c chemical bonds, in some cases acting complimentarily and
in others synergistically. Different enzymes can also have different mechanisms of catalysis. Some
enzymes change the substrate through some free radical mechanism while others follow alternative
chemical routes (1).
3.4 Measuring Biodegradability of Polymers
Given the various mechanisms available for the biodegradation of a polymer, it will be appreciated
that biodegradation does not only depend on the polymer chemistry, but also on the presence of the
biological systems involved in the process. When investigating the biodegradability of a material,
the effect of the environment cannot be neglected. Microbial activity and hence biodegradability is
infl uenced by the:
• Presence of microorganisms
• Availability of oxygen
13
Overview of Biodegradable Polymers
• Amount of available water
• Temperature
• Chemical environment (pH, electrolytes etc.)
In order to simplify the overall picture, the environments in which biodegradation occurs are divided
into two environments, aerobic, where oxygen is available, and anaerobic, where no oxygen is present.
These two can in turn be subdivided into aquatic and high solids environments.
The high solids environment is the most relevant for measuring the biodegradation of polymeric
materials, since they represent the conditions during biological municipal solid waste treatment such
as composting. However, possible applications of biodegradable materials other than in packaging and
consumer products (such as fi shing nets at sea) explain the necessity of aquatic biodegradation tests.
Numerous methods to measure the biodegradability of polymers have been developed. Because of
slightly different defi nitions or interpretation of the term ‘biodegradability’, the different approaches
are therefore not equivalent in terms of information they provide or the practical signifi cance. Since
the typical exposure environment involves incubation of a polymer substrate with microorganisms
or enzymes, only a limited number of measurements are possible. These include those pertaining to
the substrates, to the microorganisms, or to the reactive products.
Four common approaches available for studying biodegradation processes are used.
• Monitoring microbial growth
• Monitoring the depletion of substrates
• Monitoring reaction products
• Monitoring changes in substrate properties
Measurements for testing the biodegradability of polymers are usually based on one or more of these
four basic approaches (2).
3.5 Factors Affecting Biodegradability
The environment is an important factor affecting the rate and degree of biodegradation of polymer
substrates. The other key aspects determining biodegradability are related to the chemical composition
of the polymer. The polymer chemistry governs the chemical and physical properties of the material
and its interaction with the physical environment, which in turn affects the material’s compostability
with particular degradation mechanisms.
Many attempts have been made to correlate polymer structure to biodegradability. However,
this proved to be challenging and so far only few general relationships between structure and
biodegradability have been formulated. In many cases complex interplay between some of the different
factors occur simultaneously, often causing diffi culty in sorting out primary effects and correlations.
Some of the general factors affecting biodegradability are listed below, but it should be considered
that many exceptions to the norm have also been reported.
The accessibility of the polymer to water-borne enzymes is vitally important because the fi rst step in
the degradation of plastics usually involves the actions of extracellular enzymes, which break down
14
Biodegradable Polymers
the polymer into products small enough to be assimilated. Therefore, the physical state of the plastic
and the surface offered for attack, are important factors. Biodegradability is usually also affected by
the hydrophilic nature (wettability) and the crystallinity of the polymer. A semi-crystalline nature
tends to limit the accessibility, essentially confi ning the degradation to the amorphous region of the
polymer. However, contradictory results have been reported. For example, highly crystalline starch
materials and bacterial polyesters, are rapidly hydrolysed.
The chemical properties that are important include the:
• Chemical linkage in the polymer backbone.
• Pendant groups, their position and their chemical activity.
• End-groups and their chemical activity.
Linkage involving hetero atoms, such as ester and amide bonds, are considered susceptible to
enzymic degradation. However, this is not the case for polyamides, aromatic polyesters and many
other polymers containing hetero atoms in the main chain. The stereo-chemistry of the monomer
units along the polymer chain also infl uences biodegradation rates, since an inherent property of
many enzymes is their stereo-chemical selectivity. The stereo-chemistry may nevertheless not be
observed when a broad spectrum of microorganisms are used instead of enzyme solutions with
high stereo-specifi city.
The molecular weight distribution of the polymer can have a dramatic effect on rates of
depolymerisation. This effect has been demonstrated for a number of polymers, where a critical
lower limit must be present before the process will start. The molecular origin for this effect is
still subject to speculation, and has been attributed to a range of causes such as changes in enzyme
accessibility, chain fl exibility, fi ts with active sites, crystallinity or other aspects of morphology.
Interaction with other polymers (blends) also affects the biodegradation properties. These additional
materials may act as barriers to prevent migration of microorganisms, enzymes, moisture or oxygen
into the polymer domain of interest. The susceptibility of a biodegradable polymer to microbial
attack is sometimes decreased by grafting it onto a non-biodegradable polymer, or by crosslinking.
On the other hand, it has sometimes been suggested that combining a non-biodegradable polymer
with one that is biodegradable, or grafting a biodegradable polymer onto a non-biodegradable
backbone polymer may result in a biodegradable system. Whether the non-biodegradable component
is in fact mineralised, however, is usually disregarded (3).
3.6 Biodegradable Polymer Classes
There are broadly three classes of commercially available biodegradable polymers in existence.
1. Unmodifi ed polymers that are naturally susceptible to microbial-enzyme attack.
2. Synthetic polymers, primarily polyesters.
3. Naturally biodegradable polymers that have been modifi ed with additives and fi llers.
Naturally biodegradable polymers produced in nature are renewable. Some synthetic polymers are
also renewable because they are made from renewable feedstock, for example polylactic acid is
derived from agricultural feedstock.
15
Overview of Biodegradable Polymers
3.6.1 Naturally Biodegradable Polymers
Natural polymers are produced in nature by all living organisms. Biodegradation reactions are
typically enzyme-catalysed and occur in aqueous media. Natural macromolecules containing
hydrolysable linkages, such as protein, cellulose, and starch, are generally susceptible to
biodegradation by the hydrolytic enzymes of microorganisms. Thus the hydrophilic/hydrophobic
character of polymers greatly affects their biodegradability. It also has a great impact on their
performance and durability in humid conditions.
Polysacharides such as starch are the most prevalent naturally biodegradable polymer in commercial
use. Aliphatic polyesters such as polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) are also a family of easily
biodegradable polymers found in nature that are beginning to fi nd commercial use.
3.6.2 Synthetic Biodegradable Polymers
While natural polymers are produced by living organisms, synthetic biodegradable polymers
are only produced by mankind. Biodegradation reactions are the same for both, i.e., typically
enzyme-catalysed and produced in aqueous media. The major category of synthetic biodegradable
polymers consists of aliphatic polyesters with a hydrolysable linkage along the polymer chain
such as polylactic acid (PLA). Other widely available synthetic types include aliphatic/aromatic
co-polyesters.
3.6.3 Modifi ed Naturally Biodegradable Polymers
Over the last thirty years or so, many attempts have been made to improve the biodegradability
of synthetic polymers by incorporating polysaccharide-derived materials. The most prominent
modifi ed naturally biodegradable polymer in commercial use is produced by Novamont under
the Mater-Bi trade name. This starch-based technology is unique because the modifi cation goes
beyond conventional compounding. The starch is destructurised by applying suffi cient work and
heat to almost completely destroy the crystallinity of amylose and amylopectine in the presence
of macromolecules able to form a complex with amylose. Novamont produces several different
classes of Mater-Bi, all containing starch with different classes of synthetic components such as
polycaprolactone (PCL). The material obtained is suitable for producing fi lm and sheet, foams
and injection moulding.
For the purpose of this report, four classes of commercially available biodegradable polymers
are examined.
1. Starch based biodegradable polymers (including modifi ed starch blends)
2. Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA)
3. Polylactic acid (PLA)
4. Synthetic biodegradable polymers such as aliphatic-aromatic co-polyesters.
The following sections discuss the chemical composition, properties and production of each
biodegradable polymer type in more detail.
16
Biodegradable Polymers
3.7 Starch-Based Biodegradable Polymers
In nature, the availability of starch is just second to cellulose. The most important industrial sources of
starch are corn, wheat, potato, tapioca and rice. In the last decade, there has been a signifi cant reduction
in the price of corn and potato starch, both in Europe and the USA. The lower price and greater
availability of starch associated with its very favourable environmental profi le aroused a renewed interest
in development of starch-based polymers as an alternative to polymers based on petrochemicals.
Starch is totally biodegradable in a variety of environments and thus permits the development of
totally degradable products for specifi c market demands. Degradation or incineration of starch-
based products recycles atmospheric carbon dioxides trapped by starch-producing plants and does
not increase potential global warming.
The most relevant achievements in this sector are related to thermoplastic starch polymers
resulting from the processing of native starch by chemical, thermal and mechanical means, and to
its complexation to other co-polymers. The resulting materials show properties ranging from the
fl exibility of polyethylene to the rigidity of polystyrene, and can be soluble or insoluble in water as
well as insensitive to humidity. Such properties explain the leading position of starch-based materials
in the biodegradable polymer fi eld.
Starch is unique among carbohydrates because it occurs naturally as discrete granules. This is because
the short-branched amylopectin chains are able to form helical structures, which crystallise. Starch
granules exhibit hydrophilic properties and strong intermolecular association via hydrogen bonding
due to the hydroxyl groups on the granule surface. The melting point of native starch is higher than
the thermal decomposition temperature: hence the poor thermal stability of native starch and the
need for conversion to starch-based materials with a much-improved property profi le.
In nature, starch is based on crystalline beads of about 15-100 microns in diameter. Crystalline
starch beads in plastics can be used as fi llers or can be transformed into thermoplastic starch, which
can either be processed alone or in combination with specifi c synthetic polymers. To make starch
thermoplastic, its crystalline structure has to be destroyed by pressure, heat, mechanical work or
use of plasticisers. Three main families of starch polymer can be used: pure starch, modifi ed starch
and fermented starch polymers.
The production of starch polymers begins with the extraction of starch. Taking as an example corn;
starch is extracted from the kernel by wet milling. The kernel is fi rst softened by steeping it in a dilute
acid solution, then ground coarsely to split the kernel and remove the oil-containing germ. The starch
slurry is then washed in a centrifuge, dewatered and dried. Either prior, or subsequent to the drying
step, the starch may be processed in a number of ways to improve its properties.
The addition of chemicals leading to alteration of the structure of starch is generally described as
‘chemical modifi cation’. Modifi ed starch is starch that has been treated with chemicals so that some
hydroxyl groups have been replaced by for example ester or ether groups. High starch content plastics
are highly hydrophilic and readily disintegrate when in contact with water. Very low levels of chemical
modifi cation can signifi cantly improve hydrophilicity, as well as change other rheological, physical
and chemical properties of starch.
Crosslinking, in which two hydroxyl groups or neighbouring starch molecules are linked chemically
is also a form of chemical modifi cation. Crosslinking inhibits granule swelling or gelatinisation and
gives increased stability to acid, heat treatment and shear forces. Chemically modifi ed starch may
be used directly or palletised or otherwise dried for conversion to a fi nal product.
17
Overview of Biodegradable Polymers
Starch can also be modifi ed by fermentation as used in the Rodenburg process. In this case the raw
material is a potato waste slurry originating from the food industry. The slurry mainly consists of
starch, the rest being proteins, fats and oils, inorganic components and cellulose. The slurry is held
in storage silos for about two weeks to allow for stabilisation and partial fermentation. The most
important fermentation process that occurs is the conversion of a small fraction of starch to lactic
acid by mans of the lactic acid bacteria that are naturally present in the feedstock. The product is
subsequently dried to a fi nal water content of 10% and then extruded.
Starch-based polymers have been the most studied class of biodegradable polymer for their extrusion
characteristics. Extrusion processing plays a large role in establishing the polymer properties. Starch
can be made thermoplastic by using technology very similar to extrusion cooking. Starch exists as
granular beads of about 15-100 microns in diameter that can be compounded with another synthetic
polymer as a fi ller. However, under special heat and shear conditions during extrusion it can be
transformed into an amorphous thermoplastic by a process known as destructurising.
Starch can be destructured in the presence of more hydrophobic polymers such as aliphatic polyesters.
Aliphatic polyesters with low melting points are diffi cult to process by conventional techniques such
as fi lm blowing and blow moulding. Films such as polycaprolactones (PCL) are tacky as extruded
and have a low melt strength (over 130 °C). Also, the slow crystallisation of the polymer causes the
properties to change with time. Blending starch with aliphatic polyesters improves processability
and biodegradability.
Addition of starch has a nucleating effect, which increases the rate of crystallisation. The rheology
of starch/PCL blends depends on the extent of starch granule destruction and the formation of
thermoplastic starch during extrusion. Increasing the heat and shear intensities can reduce the melt
viscosity, but enhance the extrudate-swell properties of the polymer.
Starch/aliphatic polyester compositions are prepared by blending a starch-based component and an
aliphatic polyester in a co-rotating, intermeshing twin-screw extruder. The co-rotating, self-cleaning
screw on these machines prevents caking and churning of cooked starch. Temperature and pressure
conditions are such that the starch is destructurised and the composition forms a thermoplastic melt.
The resulting material has an interpenetrated or partially interpenetrated structure.
Novamont is easily market leader for starch-based biodegradable plastics. Under the Mater-Bi trade
name, Novamont offers a wide range of materials divided into fi ve product families by processing
technology. These are fi lm, extrusion/thermoforming, injection moulding, foaming and tyre technology.
Mater-Bi products are mainly used in specifi c applications where biodegradability is required. Examples
include composting bags and sacks, foodservice products such as single serve cups, containers and
plates, foam for industrial packaging, fi lm wrapping, laminated paper, agricultural fi lm products,
slow release devices and hygiene products.
Mater-Bi is characterised by the following properties.
• Use performance similar to traditional plastics
• Processing performance similar or better than traditional plastics
• Wide range of mechanical properties from soft and tough material to rigid
• Antistatic
behaviour
• Compostability in a wide range of composting conditions
18
Biodegradable Polymers
Other leading starch-based biodegradable polymer manufacturers are Biotec and BIOP
Biopolymers.
Following the sale of the fi lm business to Novamont in 2000, Biotec offers starch-based materials
for foodservice products and pharmaceutical applications.
BIOP Biopolymer Technologies offers a starch-based material comprising an additive consisting of
a vinyl alcohol/vinyl acetate copolymer, sold under the Biopar trade name (4).
3.8 Polyhydroxyalkanoates
Polyhydroxyalkonates (PHA) is a term given to a family of aliphatic polyesters produced by
microorganisms that are fully biodegradable. They offer a wide array of physical properties that can
range from stiff and brittle plastics to elastomers.
An attractive feature of PHAs is the ability to produce them using renewable carbon resources.
PHA can be produced using renewable carbon sources such as sugars and plant oils. Various waste
materials are also being considered for potential carbon sources for PHA production, including whey,
molasses and starch. The carbon source available to a microorganism is one of the factors (others
being the PHA synthase substrate specifi city and the types of biochemical pathways available) that
determine the type of PHA produced. For industrial scale production, the carbon source signifi cantly
contributes to the fi nal cost. This makes the carbon source one of the most important components
in the production of PHA and is therefore a prime target for potential cost reduction.
PHAs are mainly composed of R-(-)-3-hydroxyalkanoic acid monomers. These can be broadly
subdivided into two groups:
Short chain length PHAs
• consist of 3 carbon - 5 carbon monomers (C3-C5)
• produced by bacterium Alcaligenes eutrophus (plus others)
Long chain length PHAs
• consist of 6 carbon - 14 carbon monomers (C6-C14)
• produced
by
Pseudomonas oleovorans (plus others)
Each type of PHA generally consists of 1000-10000 monomers, but most are synthesised by short
chain length monomers.
There are many different types of PHA, distinctly characterised by chain length, type of functional
group and degree of unsaturated bonds. A higher degree of unsaturation increases the rubber
qualities of a polymer, and different functional groups change the physical and chemical properties
of a polymer.
PHB (or poly-3-hydroxybutyrate (P(3HB))) is the most common type of PHA produced and is an
example of a short chain length homopolymer produced by A. eutrophus. PHB has poor physical
properties for commercial use, as it is stiff, brittle and hard to process. This has led to an increased
interest to produce heteropolymers with improved qualities.
19
Overview of Biodegradable Polymers
Biopol, produced by Metabolix, is a leading example of an improved poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-
3-hydroxyvalerate), P(3HB-3HV), heteropolymer. Compared to PHB, P(3HB-3HV) is less stiff,
tougher, and easier to process, making it more suitable for commercial production. It is also water
resistant and impermeable to oxygen, increasing its value.
PHB is a completely biodegradable polymer and degrades through various types of bacteria and
fungi to carbon dioxide and water through secreting enzymes. It can also be degraded through non-
enzymatic hydrolysis. Degradation appears to be the fastest under conditions of high temperatures
and mechanical disruption. PHB is also biocompatible, meaning it is a metabolite normally present
in blood.
The production of biodegradable polymers using carbon as the starting material can be carried
out using a 3-stage or a 2-stage process.
The 3-stage process involves utilisation of plant sugars derived from photosynthetically fi xed CO
2
as carbon sources in the fermentation of organic acids, alcohols and amino acids. These substances
are then used as building blocks for the chemical synthesis of polymers. Examples of polymers
using the 3-stage process include polylactic acid and polybutylene succinate.
On the other hand, the 2-stage process involves the direct conversion of plant sugars and plant
oils into polymer by microorganisms. At present, the biosynthesis of PHA is largely carried out
through the 2-stage process. Compared to the 3-stage process of polymer production, the 2-stage
process can be more cost effective provided that excellent producers of PHA are identifi ed and the
fermentation process is highly optimised. Inexpensive plant oils have been found to be an excellent
carbon source for the effi cient production of PHA.
There were a number of efforts to commercialise PHA, notably by ICI in the 1980s and early 1990s,
and by Monsanto in the mid 1990s. However, these attempts were largely unsuccessful due to the
high cost and very limited processability and properties. In recent years, these defi ciencies have
been largely overcome most notably by Metabolix and by Procter & Gamble’s Nodax business
unit, which both specialise in PHA materials development.
The broad range of properties offered by PHA make them useful for a wide variety of applications,
including:
Food packaging
Single-serve cups and other disposable foodservice items
Houseware
Appliances
Electrical and electronics
Consumer durables
Agriculture and soil stabilisation
Adhesives, paints and coatings
Automotive
Medical (bone plates and surgical sutures)
20
Biodegradable Polymers
3.9 Polylactic Acid Polyesters
Polylactic acid (PLA) is a biodegradable polymer derived from lactic acid. It is a highly versatile
material and is made from 100% renewable resources like corn, sugar beet, wheat and other starch-
rich products. Polylactic acid exhibits many properties that are equivalent to or better than many
petroleum-based plastics, which makes it suitable for a variety of applications.
The starting material for polylactic acid is starch from a renewable resource such as corn. Corn is
milled, which separates starch from the raw material. Unrefi ned dextrose is then processed from
the starch. Dextrose is turned into lactic acid using fermentation, similar to that used by beer and
wine producers.
Polylactide (PLA) polymer chemistry stems from lactide, which is the cyclic dimer of lactic acid that
exists as two optical isomers, d and l. l-lactide is the naturally occurring isomer, and dl-lactide is the
synthetic blend of d-lactide and l-lactide. The homopolymer of l-lactide (LPLA) is a semicrystalline
polymer. Poly(dl-lactide) (DLPLA) is an amorphous polymer exhibiting a random distribution of both
isomeric forms of lactic acid, and accordingly is unable to arrange into an organised crystalline structure.
This material has lower tensile strength, higher elongation, and a much more rapid degradation time.
PLA is about 37% crystalline, with a melting point of 175-178 °C and a glass-transition temperature of
60-65 °C. The degradation time of LPLA is much slower than that of DLPLA, requiring more than two
years to be completely absorbed. Copolymers of l-lactide and dl-lactide have been developed prepared
to disrupt the crystallinity of l-lactide and accelerate the degradation process.
Turning the lactic acid into a polymer involves a chemical process called condensation, whereby two
lactic acid molecules are converted into one cyclic molecule called a lactide. This lactide is purifi ed
through vacuum distillation. A solvent-free melt process causes the ring-shaped lactide polymers
to open and join end-to-end to form long chain polymers. A wide range of products that vary in
molecular weight and crystallinity can be produced, allowing the PLA to be modifi ed for a variety
of applications.
PLA compares well with petrochemical-based plastics used for packaging. It is clear and naturally
glossy like polystyrene, it is resistant to moisture and grease, it has fl avour and odour barrier
characteristics similar to polyethylene terephthalate (PET). The tensile strength and modulus of
elasticity of PLA is also comparable to PET.
PLA can be formulated to be either rigid or fl exible and can be co-polymerised with other materials.
Polylactic acid can be made with different mechanical properties suitable for specifi c manufacturing
processes, such as injection moulding, sheet extrusion, blow moulding, thermoforming, fi lm forming
and fi bre spinning using most conventional techniques and equipment.
PLA is a non-volatile, odourless polymer and is classifi ed as GRAS (generally recognised as safe) by
the US Food and Drug Administration.
Polylactic acid has been around for many decades. In 1932, Wallace Carothers, a scientist for DuPont,
produced a low molecular weight product by heating lactic acid under a vacuum. In 1954, after
further refi nements, DuPont patented Carothers’ process.
Due to high costs, the focus was initially on the manufacture of medical grade sutures, implants and
controlled drug release applications. Recently, there have been advances in fermentation of glucose,
which turns the glucose into lactic acid. This has dramatically lowered the cost of producing lactic
acid and signifi cantly increased interest in the polymer.
21
Overview of Biodegradable Polymers
Cargill, Incorporated, was one of the fi rst companies to extensively develop polylactic acid polymers.
Cargill began researching PLA production technology in 1987. It began production of pilot plant
quantities in 1992 and in 1997 formed a joint venture with Dow Chemical Company, Inc., creating
Cargill Dow Polymers LLC. The joint venture is dedicated to further commercialising PLA polymers
and formally launched NatureWorks
TM
PLA technology in 2001. Construction was completed on
a large-scale PLA manufacturing facility in Blair, Nebraska in 2002. Cargill Dow now trades as
NatureWorks LLC, following the sale by Dow Chemicals of its share in the joint venture to Cargill
Inc. in 2005.
Polylactic acid has many potential uses, including many applications in the textile and medical
industries as well as the packaging industry.
The main types of NatureWorks PLA that are available for packaging applications include general
purpose fi lm grades, extrusion coating, extrusion and thermoforming grades and injection stretch
blow moulding.
The general purpose fi lm grade is ‘biaxially oriented’, a property that gives it stability at temperatures
up to 130 °C. They also offer a biaxially oriented fi lm for high temperature applications (150 °C).
According to NatureWorks, these resins offer excellent optical properties, good machinability and
excellent twist and dead fold characteristics. These polymers are offered in common pellet form,
which should allow for rapid adoption with conventional extruders.
Grades designed for extrusion coating on paper, process easily on conventional extrusion coating
equipment at a lower melt extrusion temperature than polyethylene coatings according to the company.
Paper and board coated in this resin can be heat-sealed on typical equipment. Potential applications
for these grades include, lawn and leaf bags, hot and cold drinking cups, picnic plates, bowls, straws,
fried food boxes, frozen vegetable packaging, and liquid food packaging.
Clear extrusion sheet grades are designed for extrusion and thermoforming applications, and like
other NatureWorks’ PLA polymers, use conventional processing techniques and equipment. Potential
uses include dairy containers, food service ware, transparent food containers, blister packs, and cold
drink cups.
PLA is available in grades suitable for manufacture of injection stretch blow moulded bottles. It is
claimed these offer comparable organoleptic properties to glass and PET making it suitable for a
variety of short shelf-life food and beverage bottling applications.
NatureWorks LLC is also developing grades for microwavable packaging and bottles for packaging
oxygen sensitive food and beverages using barrier-enhanced PLA.
Polylactic acid also has many potential uses in fi bres and non-wovens. It is easily converted into a
variety of fi bre forms using conventional melt-spinning processes. Spunbound and meltblown non-
wovens as well as monocomponent, bicomponent, continuous (fl at and textured) and stable fi bres
are all easily produced.
Polylactic acid based fi bres have various attributes that make them attractive for many traditional
applications. PLA polymers are more hydrophilic than PET, have a lower density, and have excellent
crimp and crimp retention. Shrinkage of PLA materials and thermal bonding temperatures are easily
controllable. These polymers tend to be stable to ultraviolet light resulting in fabrics that show little
fading. They also offer low fl ammability and smoke generation characteristics.
22
Biodegradable Polymers
Major applications for PLA fi bres and non-wovens include clothing and furnishings such as drapes,
upholstery and covers. Some interesting potential applications include household and industrial wipes,
diapers, feminine hygiene products, disposable garments, and UV resistant fabrics for exterior use
(awnings, ground covers).
In the fi eld of biomedical devices, polylactic acid has become an important material, having been in use
for over 25 years. Polylactic acid is a biodegradable, bioresorbable polymer, i.e., it can be assimilated
by a biological system. Since PLA can be assimilated by the body, it has found applications in sustained
release drug delivery systems. Furthermore, its mechanical properties and absorbability make PLA
polymer an ideal candidate for implants in bone or soft tissue (facial traumatology, orthopaedic
surgery, ophthalmology, orthodontics, local implants for controlled release of anti-cancer drugs), and
for resorbable sutures (eye surgery, conjunctional surgery, surgery of the chest and abdomen).
The mechanical, pharmaceutical and bioabsorption characteristics are dependent on controllable
parameters such as chemical composition and molecular weight of the polymer. The time frame for
resorption of the polymer may be anything from just a few weeks to a few years, and can be regulated
by use of different formulations and the addition of radicals on its chains.
PLA polymers are fully compostable in commercial composting facilities. With proper equipment, PLA
can be converted back to monomer, which then can be converted back into polymers. Alternatively,
PLA can be biodegraded into water, carbon dioxide and organic material. At the end of a PLA-based
product’s life cycle, a product made from PLA can be broken down into its simplest parts so that no
sign of the original product remains.
3.10 Synthetic Biodegradable Polymers
Polyesters have played a prominent part in the development of biodegradable polymers. One of
the fi rst products developed as a biodegradable plastic in the early 1970s was based on a polyester
belonging to the polyhydroxyalknoates (PHA) group, called polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB).
Beside the natural polyesters a number of synthetic aliphatic polyesters have also been shown to
be biodegradable. From a commercial point of view the most important synthetic biodegradable
aliphatic polyester was traditionally polycaprolactone (PCL).
3.10.1 Polycaprolactone (PCL)
The ring-opening polymerisation of ε-caprolactone yields a semicrystalline polymer with a melting
point of 59-64 °C and a glass transition temperature of -60 °C. The polymer is regarded as tissue
compatible and was originally used in the medical fi eld as a biodegradable suture in Europe. Because
the homopolymer has a degradation time of the order of two years, copolymers have been synthesised
to accelerate the rate of bioabsorption. For example, copolymers of ε-caprolactone with dl-lactide
have yielded materials with more rapid degradation rates.
Polycaprolactone aliphatic polyesters have long been available from companies such as Solvay and
Union Carbide (now Dow Performance Chemicals) for use in adhesives, compatibilisers, modifi ers
and fi lms as well as medical applications. These materials have low melting points and high prices
(
€4-7 per kg in 2005). PCL is predominantly used as a component in polyester/starch blends such as
23
Overview of Biodegradable Polymers
Mater-Bi as produced by Novamont. Caprolactone limits moisture sensitivity, boosts melt strength,
and helps plasticise the starch.
Other types of synthetic biopolymers that have been in use for medical applications for a number of
years are polyglycolide, polydioxanone and poly(lactide-co-glycolide).
3.10.2 Polyglycolide (PGA)
Polyglycolide is the simplest linear aliphatic polyester. PGA was used to develop the fi rst totally
synthetic absorbable suture, marketed as Dexon in the 1960s by Davis and Geck, Inc. Glycolide
monomer is synthesised from the dimerisation of glycolic acid. Ring-opening polymerisation yields
high molecular-weight materials, with approximately 1-3% residual monomer present. PGA is highly
crystalline (45-55%), with a high melting point (220-225 °C) and a glass transition temperature of
35-40 °C. Because of its high degree of crystallisation, it is not soluble in most organic solvents; the
exceptions are highly fl uorinated organics such as hexafl uoroisopropanol. PGA fi bres exhibit high
strength and modulus and are too stiff to be used as sutures except in the form of braided material.
Sutures of PGA lose about 50% of their strength after two weeks and 100% at four weeks, and are
completely absorbed in 4 to 6 months. Glycolide has been copolymerised with other monomers to
reduce the stiffness of the resulting fi bers.
3.10.3 Poly(dioxanone) (a polyether-ester)
The ring-opening polymerisation of p-dioxanone resulted in the fi rst clinically tested monofi lament
synthetic suture, known as PDS (marketed by Ethicon). This material has approximately 55%
crystallinity, with a glass-transition temperature of -10 to 0 °C. The polymer should be processed at
the lowest possible temperature to prevent depolymerisation back to monomer. Poly(dioxanone) has
demonstrated no acute or toxic effects on implantation. The monofi lament loses 50% of its initial
breaking strength after three weeks and is absorbed within six months, providing an advantage over
other products for slow-healing wounds.
3.10.4 Poly(lactide-co-glycolide)
Using the polyglycolide and poly(l-lactide) properties as a starting point, it is possible to co-polymerise
the two monomers to extend the range of homopolymer properties. Copolymers of glycolide with
both l-lactide and dl-lactide have been developed for both device and drug delivery applications.
It is important to note that there is not a linear relationship between the copolymer composition
and the mechanical and degradation properties of the materials. For example, a copolymer of 50%
glycolide and 50% dl-lactide degrades faster than either homopolymer. Copolymers of l-lactide with
25-70% glycolide are amorphous due to the disruption of the regularity of the polymer chain by the
other monomer. A copolymer of 90% glycolide and 10% l-lactide was developed by Ethicon as an
absorbable suture material under the trade name Vicryl. It absorbs within 3 to 4 months but has a
slightly longer strength retention time.
Nowadays, various aliphatic copolyesters based on succinate, adipate, ethylene glycol and 1,4-
butanediol are being produced. Aliphatic polyesters based on natural feedstock such lactic acid are
also being produced on a commercial scale by companies such as NatureWorks LLC.
24
Biodegradable Polymers
However, most of the aliphatic polyesters presently commercially used for biodegradable materials
exhibit serious disadvantages. Beside the relatively high price level, properties are often limited and
exclude these materials from many applications. For example, PCL has a very low melting point of
about 60 ºC.
For conventional technical applications aromatic polyesters such as polyethylene terephthalate (PET)
and polybutylene terephthalate (PBT) are widely used. But these polymers are biologically inert
and thus not directly applicable as biodegradable plastics. Combining both the excellent material
properties of aromatic polyesters and the potential biodegradability of aliphatic polyesters has led
to the development of a number of commercially available aliphatic-aromatic co-polyesters over the
last decade or so.
BASF’s Ecofl ex is based on a co-polyester from terephthalic acid, adipic acid and 1,4-butanediol.
The content of terephthalic acid in the polymer is approximately 42-45 mol% (with regard to the
dicarboxylic monomers). Modifi cation of the basic co-polyester lead to a fl exible material, which is
especially suitable for fi lm applications.
Ecofl ex reportedly processes easily and has a melting point of 110-115 °C and other properties equal
or close to those of LDPE. The F (fi lm) version imparts high elongation and dart impact and yields
clear fi lms that weld and print easily, BASF says. masterbatches can fi ne-tune the feel of Ecofl ex fi lms
from soft to HDPE-like stiffness. Ecofl ex is said to have high toughness and good cling properties.
That makes it possible for 10 micron cling fi lms to replace vinyl in vegetable, fruit, and meat wraps.
BASF claims its materials also make fi lms with 50% lower moisture vapour transmission rate (MVTR)
than other biodegradable polymers.
The biodegradation of Ecofl ex fi lm was tested under composting conditions. After 100 days in a
composting environment more than 90% of the carbon in the polymer was converted to carbon
dioxide. Tests also showed no toxic effects of degradation intermediates.
Eastar Bio (now owned by Novamont) is also based on a co-polyester composed of terephthalic
acid, adipic acid and 1,4-butanediol, but due to some special modifi cations the material properties
are different.
Degradation of Eastar Bio was tested under composting conditions: after 210 days of composting
about 80% of the polymer carbon was released as carbon dioxide.
Eastar Bio co-polyesters have a melting point of 108 °C and offer good contact clarity, adhesion,
and elongation (up to 800%). They have high moisture and grease resistance, and process much like
LDPE. Eastar Bio is used in lawn-and-garden bags, agricultural fi lms, netting, and paper coatings.
DuPont’s Biomax product is a standard PET with the addition of three aliphatic monomers to allow
degradation to take place. Comparable to PLA, the degradation mechanism is described as an initial
attack of water to the special monomers, which are sensitive to hydrolysis. Although it appears that
Biomax suffi ciently disintegrates under composting conditions, the process of decomposition of the
material was too slow to meet accepted standards.
Biomax 6962 has 1.35 g/cc density and 195 °C melting point versus 250 °C for PET, resulting in
higher service temperature capability and faster processing rates than for other biodegradables.
Mechanical properties include high stiffness and 40% to 50% elongation. DuPont has targeted fast-
food disposable packaging, as well as yard-waste bags, diaper backing, agricultural fi lm, fl owerpots
and bottles.
25
Overview of Biodegradable Polymers
EnPol from Korea’s IRe Chemicals are based on a group of aliphatic co-polyesters comprising adipic
acid, succinic acid, 1,2-ethanediol or 1,4-butanediol. EnPol polymers meet the specifi cations of the
US Food & Drug Administration for food contact applications and the USP specifi cations for medical
device applications.
The biodegradation of EnPol polymers was tested in a controlled laboratory composting test and
showed that within 45 days a carbon dioxide evolution of more than 90% of the carbon present in
the co-polyester was detected.
Partly because of their cost, biodegradable polyesters are fi nding much of their market in blends.
Synthetic biodegradable polyesters tend to complement one another’s properties, as well as those
of PLA, thermoplastic starch, and other organic materials. Eastar Bio, for instance, is fl exible and
tough, with good contact clarity and adhesion properties. Its defi cits are relatively low stiffness, poor
melt strength, and a tendency to stick in injection moulds. In contrast, NatureWorks PLA tends to
be brittle and has poor adhesion. Blends of the two are a logical way to increase the performance
envelope of both materials.
3.11 Processing Biodegradable Polymers
3.11.1 Introduction
All commercially available biodegradable polymers can be melt processed by conventional means
such as injection moulding, compression moulding, and extrusion. Special consideration needs to
be given to the exclusion of moisture from the material before melt processing to prevent hydrolytic
degradation. Care must be taken to dry the polymers before processing and to rigorously exclude
humidity during processing.
Because most biodegradable polymers have been synthesised by ring-opening polymerisation, a
thermodynamic equilibrium exists between the forward or polymerisation reaction and the reverse
reaction that results in monomer formation. Excessively high processing temperatures may result in
monomer formation during the moulding or extrusion process. The presence of excess monomer can
act as a plasticiser, changing the material’s mechanical properties, and can catalyze the hydrolysis of
the device, thus altering degradation kinetics. Therefore, these materials should be processed at the
lowest temperatures possible.
3.11.2 Film Blowing and Casting
There are two main processes used commercially for making fi lm from thermoplastics, blowing
and casting.
Blown fi lm is one of the most common methods of fi lm manufacture (also referred to as tubular fi lm
extrusion). The process involves extrusion of a plastic through a circular die, followed by ‘bubble-like’
expansion. The principal advantages of manufacturing fi lm by this process include the ability to:
• produce tubing (both fl at and gussetted) in a single operation
• regulation of fi lm width and thickness by control of the volume of air in the bubble, the output
of the extruder and the speed of the haul-off
26
Biodegradable Polymers
• eliminate end effects such as edge bead trim and non uniform temperature that can result from
fl at die fi lm extrusion
• capability of biaxial orientation (allowing uniformity of mechanical properties)
The production process for blown fi lm begins with plastic melt being extruded through an annular
slit die, usually vertically, to form a thin walled tube. Air is introduced via a hole in the centre of the
die to blow up the tube like a balloon. Mounted on top of the die, a high-speed air ring blows onto
the hot fi lm to cool it. The tube of fi lm then continues upwards, continually cooling, until it passes
through nip rolls where the tube is fl attened to create what is known as a ‘lay-fl at’ tube of fi lm. This
lay-fl at or collapsed tube is then taken back down the extrusion ‘tower’ via more rollers. On higher
output lines, the air inside the bubble is also exchanged. This is known as internal bubble cooling.
The lay-fl at fi lm is then either kept as such or the edges of the lay-fl at are slit off to produce two fl at
fi lm sheets and wound up onto reels. If kept as lay-fl at, the tube of fi lm is made into bags by sealing
across the width of fi lm and cutting or perforating to make each bag. This is done either in line with
the blown fi lm process or at a later stage.
Typically, the expansion ratio between die and blown tube of fi lm would be 1.5 to 4 times the die
diameter. The drawdown between the melt wall thickness and the cooled fi lm thickness occurs in
both radial and longitudinal directions and is easily controlled by changing the volume of air inside
the bubble and by altering the haul off speed. This gives blown fi lm a better balance of properties
than traditional cast or extruded fi lm, which is drawn down along the extrusion direction only.
Polyethylenes (HDPE, LDPE and LLDPE) are the most common resins in use, but a wide variety
of other materials can be used as blends with these resins or as single layers in a multi-layer fi lm
structure. Blown fi lm can be used either in tube form (e.g., for plastic bags and sacks) or the tube
can be slit to form a sheet. Typical applications include packaging (e.g., shrink fi lm, stretch fi lm, bag
fi lm or container liners), consumer packaging (e.g., packaging fi lm for frozen products, shrink fi lm
for transport packaging, food wrap fi lm, packaging bags, or form-fi ll-and-seal packaging fi lm).
The process for making a cast fi lm involves drawing a molten web of resin from a die onto a roll
for controlled cooling. The cast fi lm process is used to make a fi lm with gloss and sparkle. The melt
temperature in the cast fi lm process is higher than in the blown fi lm process. The higher the melt
temperature the better are the optical properties of the fi lm.
Most biodegradable polymers are suitable for fi lm blowing and casting, although modifi cations are
often necessary, and productivity may not be as high as conventional thermoplastics. For example,
starch-based Mater-Bi fi lms can be produced by fi lm blowing and casting equipment traditionally
used for LDPE with little or no modifi cation. Film production productivity is reported to be 80-90%
of LDPE. The main difference from traditional PE fi lm is the lower welding temperatures, therefore
small to medium sized production lines with good cooling capacity are the best suited for processing
starch-based fi lm.
PLA fi lms with thicknesses of 8-510 microns have been obtained from commercial fi lm casting
equipment. PLA can be diffi cult to process into a fi lm due to instability at elevated processing
temperatures. According to NatureWorks, melt stable PLA suitable for processing into fi lm can be
made by controlling the polymer composition as well as adding stabilising or catalyst-destabilising
agents. The polymer molecular weight (MW) plays a role in its processability. Also, polymer
morphology is very important. Semi-crystalline PLA is suitable for processing into fi lms with desirable
barrier properties. The desired range of compositions for semi-crystalline PLA is less than 15 wt%
meso-lactide, and the remaining weight percent being L-lactide.
27
Overview of Biodegradable Polymers
Crystallisation of a thermoplastic must occur within a few seconds for effi cient fi lm processing.
NatureWorks has patented four methods to increase the rate of PLA crystallisation:
1. Adding a plasticising agent such as dioctyl adipate.
2. Adding a nucleating agent such as talc.
3. Orientation by drawing during fi lm casting or blowing or after it has cast or blown.
4. Heat setting, which involves holding constrained oriented fi lm at temperatures above the glass
transition temperature (Tg).
3.11.3 Injection Moulding
Injection moulding is one of the prime processes for producing plastics articles. It is a fast process and
is used to produce large numbers of identical items from high precision engineering components to
disposable consumer goods. Most thermoplastics can be processed using injection moulding. Some
of the most commonly used include ABS, nylon, polypropylene, polycarbonate and polystyrene.
The injection moulding machine consists of a heated barrel equipped with a reciprocating screw
(usually driven by a hydraulic motor), which feeds the molten polymer into a temperature controlled
split mould via a channel system of gates and runners. The screw melts (plasticises) the polymer,
and also acts as a ram during the injection phase. The screw action also provides additional heating
by virtue of the shearing action on the polymer. The pressure of injection is high, dependant on the
material being processed; it can be up to one thousand atmospheres.
Most biodegradable polymers can be used for making injection moulded articles. Starch-based
polymers are used to manufacture a wide range of items such as pencil sharpeners, rulers, cartridges,
combs and toys, plant pots and bones.
One example is the processing of poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) (PHBV) into injection
moulded articles. It was found that the degree of crystallinity is a result of the processing history
during the injection moulding process. In what is known as the fountain fl ow effect, hot melt fl ows
into a cold mould and quickly forms a frozen layer on the surface of the mould while material in the
centre of the sample does not cool as quickly. The difference in cooling rate and orientation causes
a difference in the crystallisation between the material close to the surface and material closer to the
core. The degree of crystallinity of injection moulded PHBV affects both the properties of the article
as well as its biodegradability. This result is also true for many other biodegradable polymers.
PLA is a polymer that may not be well suited to injection moulding. Its rate of crystallisation is too
slow to allow cycle times typical of those for commodity thermoplastics such as polystyrene. Stress
induced crystallisation that can enhance PLA crystallisation is better suited to processes such as fi bre
spinning or biaxial orientation of fi lm.
3.11.4 Blow Moulding
Thermoplastics can be moulded into articles by injection moulding or blow moulding.
Blow moulding is the most common process for making hollow articles such as bottles. There are
two main types of blow moulding, injection blow moulding and extrusion blow moulding.
28
Biodegradable Polymers
Injection blow moulding is used for the production of hollow objects in large quantities. The main
applications are bottles, jars and other containers. The Injection blow moulding process produces bottles
of superior visual and dimensional quality compared to extrusion blow moulding. The process is ideal
for both narrow and wide-mouthed containers and produces them fully fi nished with no fl ash.
The process is divided into three stages:
1. Injection: The injection blow moulding machine is based on an extruder barrel and screw assembly
which melts the polymer. The molten polymer is fed into a manifold where it is injected through
nozzles into a hollow, heated preform mould. The preform mould forms the external shape and
is clamped around a mandrel (the core rod) which forms the internal shape of the preform. The
preform consists of a fully formed bottle/jar neck with a thick tube of polymer attached, which
will form the body.
2. Blowing: The preform mould opens and the core rod is rotated and clamped into the hollow,
chilled blow mould. The core rod opens and allows compressed air into the perform, which
infl ates into the fi nished article shape.
3. Ejection: After a cooling period the blow mould opens and the core rod is rotated to the ejection
position. The fi nished article is stripped off the core rod and leak-tested prior to packing. The
preform and blow mould can have many cavities, typically three to sixteen depending on the
article size and the required output. There are three sets of core rods, which allow concurrent
preform injection, blow moulding and ejection.
For extrusion blow moulding, the blow moulding machine is based on a standard extruder barrel
and screw assembly to plasticise the polymer. The molten polymer is led through a right angle and
through a die to emerge as a hollow (usually circular) pipe section called a parison.
When the parison has reached a suffi cient length a hollow mould is closed around it. The mould
mates closely at its bottom edge thus forming a seal. The parison is cut at the top by a knife prior to
the mould being moved sideways to a second position where air is blown into the parison to infl ate
it to the shape of the mould.
After a cooling period the mould is opened and the fi nal article is ejected. To speed production several
identical moulds may be fed in cycle by the same extruder unit. The process is not unlike that used
for producing glass bottles, in that the molten material is forced into a mould under air pressure.
3.11.5 Injection Stretch Blow Moulding
Injection stretch blow moulding (ISBM) is used for the production of high quality and high clarity
containers. PET is the most widely used polymer for injection stretch blow moulding of bottles.
During the last two years, there has been a growing interest from brand owners and retailers in the
use of PLA for manufacture of stretch blow moulded bottles for short shelf-life products such as
mineral water and milk.
The ISBM process is divided into four stages.
1. Injection: Molten polymer fl ows into the injection cavity via the hot runner block, to produce
the desired shape of the preform with a mandrel (the core pin) producing the inner diameter and
the injection cavity the outer. After a set time the injection moulds and core pins part and the
preform held in a neck carrier is rotated 90°.
29
Overview of Biodegradable Polymers
2. Conditioning: Because the preform has been cooled in the injection station quickly, it is of varying
temperatures throughout its wall thickness. To ensure a good and consistent quality of container,
the preform needs a uniform temperature. Heating is employed to achieve this conditioning.
3. Stretching: Once conditioned to the correct temperature the preform is ready for stretching and
blowing to the fi nished shape.
4. Blowing: Once the preform is within the blow mould area the moulds close, a stretch rod is
introduced to stretch the preform longitudinally and using two levels of air pressure, the preform
is blown circumferentially.
3.11.6 Thermoforming
Thermoforming has close similarities with vacuum forming, except that greater use is made of air
pressure and plug assisted forming of the softened sheet. The process is invariably automated and
faster cycle times are achieved than in the vacuum forming process. Only thermoplastic sheet can
be processed by this method.
The largest application for thermoformed articles is for food packaging. Other industries include
toiletries, pharmaceuticals and electronics.
The modern food supply chain uses many forms of thermoformed articles; meat trays, microwave
and deep freeze containers, ice cream and margarine tubs, delicatessen tubs, snack tubs, bakery
and patisserie packaging, sandwich packs and vending drink cups are just a few of the food related
applications. Other non-food applications include manufacturing collation trays, blister packaging
and point of sale display trays.
Many thermoplastics can be thermoformed, including polystyrene, polypropylene, APET, CPET,
and PVC. EVOH is commonly incorporated into a co-extrusion for its superior barrier properties in
food. Co-extrusions of these materials are commonly used to provide precise properties for specifi c
applications.
In terms of biodegradable polymers, PLA is fi nding growing use for manufacture of thermoformed
articles such as single-use disposable cups and trays, particularly for outdoor events. Starch-based
biodegradable polymers can also be thermoformed for production of trays and containers for
packaging fresh food and convenience food.
The demands of the food packaging industry are for materials which resist the passage of odours,
moisture and gases, hence the use of plastics with superior barrier properties.
The majority of thermoforming production is by roll fed machines. Sheet fed machines are used for
the smaller volume applications. Larger production units have in house sheet extrusion equipment.
Because of the complexities in synchronising sheet extrusion equipment and the thermoforming
machines, the two processes can be carried out independently of each other, the extruded sheet being
produced in advance of production schedules.
With very large volumes a fully integrated in-line, closed loop system can be justifi ed. The line is fed
with plastics raw material, with extruders feeding directly into the thermoforming machine.
The plastic sheet is softened at the heating station. It then indexes to the forming station where the
mould tools are located. The forming of the sheet is by a combination of air pressure and male core
30
Biodegradable Polymers
plugs. Certain designs of thermoforming tool facilitate the cropping of the article being formed within
the thermoforming tool. Greater accuracy of cut can be achieved by this method due to the article
being produced, and the skeletal (scrap), not having to be re-positioned. Alternatives are where the
formed sheet, including skeletal, are indexed to the cropping station.
The high volumes of articles being produced demand that a parts stacker is integrated into the forming
machine. Once stacked the fi nished articles are now packed into boxes for transportation to the end
customer. The separated skeletal is either wound onto a mandrill, for subsequent chopping, or passes
through a chopping machine which is in line with the thermoforming machine.
3.11.7 Fibre Spinning
The most commonly used commercial processes for making fi bres are melt spinning, dry spinning
and wet spinning. Melt spinning is the most economical, but can only be applied to polymers that
are stable at temperatures suffi ciently above their melting point to be extruded in the molten state
without degradation. The properties of crystalline polymers can be improved when made into fi bre
form by the process of orientation or drawing. The result is the increased strength, stiffness, and
dimensional stability associated with synthetic fi bres.
PLA is the most common type of biodegradable polymer found in fi bre form. PLA fi bre properties
compare favourably with both PET and rayon fi bres. Conditions that the polymers are subject to
during the spinning process impact on fi bre properties such as tensile strength and elongation. Polymer
degradation can take place during the melt spinning process even when using dry polymer with less
than 0.005% water content. Fibres produced by dry spinning undergo very slight degradation.
References
1. Catia Bastioli, Handbook of Biodegradable Polymers, Rapra Technology Ltd, 2003, 5.
2. Catia Bastioli, Handbook of Biodegradable Polymers, Rapra Technology Ltd, 2003, 11-13.
3. Catia Bastioli, Handbook of Biodegradable Polymers, Rapra Technology Ltd, 2003, 20-22.
4. Catia Bastioli, Handbook of Biodegradable Polymers, Rapra Technology Ltd, 2003, 257-260.
31
4
The Global Biodegradable Polymers Market
4.1 Introduction
In 2005, there were very few biodegradable polymer production plants operating on a fully commercial
scale. NatureWorks LLC, Novamont, Rodenburg Biopolymers and BASF are currently the only
major operators with signifi cant production capacity. Nevertheless, the world biopolymers market
has shown signifi cant growth during the last fi ve years or so, albeit from a very small base.
The major classes of biopolymer, starch and starch blends, polylactic acid (PLA) and aliphatic-aromatic
co-polyesters, are now being used in a wide variety of niche applications, particularly for manufacture
of rigid and fl exible packaging, bags and sacks and foodservice products. However, market volumes
for biopolymers remain extremely low compared with standard petrochemical-based plastics. For
example, biopolymer consumption accounted for just 0.14% of total thermoplastics consumption
in Western Europe for 2005.
This section reviews the major factors that are driving demand for biodegradable polymers in
Western Europe and other major world regions. These include increasing concern for environmental
protection, the encouragement of recycling and packaging waste reduction and the development of
composting infrastructures in a growing number of countries. There has also been a narrowing in
the price differential between biopolymers and standard thermoplastics in recent years, which has
encouraged some brand owners to switch in favour of biopolymers.
The section also provides an analysis of biodegradable polymer market size and growth over the
last fi ve years for the three major world regions (Western Europe, North America and Asia Pacifi c),
plus forecasts to 2010.
4.2 Market Drivers
4.2.1 Development of Framework Conditions
Biodegradable polymers can make a positive contribution to the conservation of the world’s natural
resources and protection of the environment. However, their market potential will only be fulfi lled if
the required framework conditions are put in place to ensure the necessary investment in technology
and production capacity. Framework conditions refer to the development of industry standards and
regulatory systems, certifi cation and certifi cation systems that are designed to encourage biodegradable
polymer market development.
Biodegradable polymers are one answer to the growing problem of how to dispose of domestic waste
materials. Waste management is becoming an increasingly important issue in Western Europe and most
other developed countries, especially where there are few sites left that can be used for landfi ll. Since a
high proportion of domestic waste is made of plastics, there is a growing interest in recycling plastics
and in producing plastic materials that can be safely and easily disposed of in the environment.
32
Biodegradable Polymers
Plastic recycling is a requirement of European Union countries. The European Commission Directive
94/62/EC on Packaging and Packaging Waste aims to prevent or minimise the impact of packaging
waste on the environment through recovery and recycling targets. In 2002, the EU decided that the
material-specifi c recycling quota for plastics was to be raised from 20% to 22.5%. The mechanical
recycling quota for all the different material groups taken together is to be set at a minimum of 55%
and a maximum of 80%. All participants in the supply chain, from polymer producers to retailers,
have a fi nancial obligation under the directive for meeting the recycling targets.
In December 2005, the EU proposed new legislation to modernise the 1975 Waste Framework
Directive, which should give a further boost to the development of biodegradable polymers. The
main elements of the proposals are:
• Focussing waste policy on improving the way resources are used;
• Mandatory national waste prevention programmes, which take account of the variety of national,
regional and local conditions, to be fi nalised three years after entry into force of the directive;
• Improving the recycling market by setting environmental standards that specify under which
conditions certain recycled wastes are no longer considered waste.
This long-term strategy aims to help Europe become a recycling society that seeks to avoid waste
and uses waste as a resource.
EU-wide statistics on waste treatment are available only for municipal waste, which represents about
14% of total waste produced. At present, 49% of EU municipal waste is disposed of through landfi ll,
18% is incinerated and 27% recycled or composted. There are wide discrepancies between Member
States. Some landfi ll 90% of their municipal waste, others only 10%.
The proportion of recycled municipal waste has been increasing, but this has been offset almost
completely by an increase in municipal waste generation. As a result, landfi ll is only reducing slowly.
For example, the amount of plastic waste going to landfi ll increased by 21.7% between 1990 and
2002, even though the percentage of plastic waste being landfi lled dropped from 77% to 62%.
Recycling of municipal waste nearly doubled between 1995 and 2003 and now accounts for 82.3
million tonnes per year. Incineration is slowly increasing and generates energy equivalent to 8 million
tonnes of oil.
Biodegradable materials are created specifi cally with recyclability or disposal in mind. Recycling
techniques for post-consumer biodegradable plastic products have two important features, which
distinguish them from conventional polymers: their biodegradability or compostability and the use
of renewable resources in their manufacture.
The established methods for biological waste recycling of biodegradable plastic products are composting
and biogasifi cation. Biodegradable plastics can also be used for energy recovery by incineration and, like
conventional polymers, they have a high calorifi c value. The end products of both processes are carbon
dioxide and water. Composting additionally generates biomass, which contributes to the compost’s
value as a fertiliser. Incineration generates ash and releases thermal energy. The material cycle can be
closed in both scenarios with biodegradable plastics derived from renewable resources.
The choice of recycling option depends primarily on the waste-disposal infrastructure already in
place. The choice of recycling route will differ according to product group and region. The goal
33
The Global Biodegradable Polymers Market
should always be to obtain maximum recycling effi ciency, both economically and environmentally,
in compliance with waste legislation requirements.
Composting is the most favoured method for recovery of post-consumer waste biodegradable
plastic products, since incineration requires a high calorimetric value and landfi ll is not suitable for
organic materials. Composting is already well established in some European countries, and is being
established in others. The Netherlands and Germany are leading countries in the development of a
composting infrastructure for biodegradable plastic products. In these countries, more than 95%
and 60%, respectively, of all households have access to industrial composting plants. Containers
(bio bins) are provided for the collection of organic household refuse. In the EU, organic matter
makes up 30-40% of total domestic refuse. In Germany, about 500 plants convert more than six
million tonnes of organic refuse into compost.
Biodegradable plastic products must meet stringent quality criteria if they are to be composted.
Dedicated standards and certifi cation schemes/tests have been established for verifying the
compostability of plastic products.
Compostable polymers must pass compostability test standards that are described in the harmonised
European standard EN 13432, introduced in 2000. This standard applies to ‘Packaging’ and is
virtually the same as the former DIN V 54900 standard.
The German testing institute, Din Certco, is the body responsible for testing and certifying
biodegradable and compostable polymers and products and licenses the use of the corresponding Mark
developed by the IBAW, the European Biodegradable Polymers Association and Working Groups.
Certifi cation enables compostable products to be identifi ed by a unique mark and channelled
for recovery of their constituent materials in specially developed processes. The Compostability
Mark thus conveys product information to waste-disposal plant operators and product image
to consumers.
A certifi cation can be conducted according to three standards:
• DIN V 54900 ‘Testing of the compostability of plastics’ (replaced by DIN EN 13432.
• DIN EN 13432 ‘Packaging - Requirements for packaging recoverable through composting and
biodegradation’ – Test scheme and evaluation criteria for the fi nal acceptance of packaging.
• ASTM D 6400 ’Standard Specifi cation for Compostable Plastics’.
Laboratory tests have to be performed for materials, intermediates and additives. In these tests the
chemical properties are checked, the ultimate biodegradability is verifi ed and the disintegration
properties are determined. Chemical testing serves to ensure that neither harmful organic substances,
such as polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) and dioxins, nor heavy metals, such as lead, mercury and
cadmium, pass into the soil via the compost.
The method specifi ed for the testing of biodegradability serves to verify the complete degradation
of the materials within the processing period of normal composting plants. An ecological non-
toxicity test that is also prescribed ensures that the plastics used have no adverse effect on the
quality of the compost. Additionally the maximum compostable layer thickness is determined. If
the results of the tests are in conformity with the standard(s) and/or the certifi cation scheme, the
material, intermediate or additive is registered as biodegradable and compostable.
34
Biodegradable Polymers
Products that have been manufactured from registered materials, intermediates and additives,
may be certifi ed, if they meet the maximum compostable layer thickness of the used materials or
intermediates.
Verifi cation tests are performed in order to verify that the same base materials as those declared
on application for certifi cation are being used. For this purpose, infrared spectra are recorded and
compared.
The biodegradable plastics industry initiated the development of standards to protect biodegradable
plastics suppliers from imitation products. The term ‘compostable’ could not be legally protected
and can be abused by other product suppliers. For example, manufacturers of standard polymers,
such as polyethylene, offer what they term ‘compostable grades’ for production of plastic bags.
None of the additive containing PE products has so far provided compelling proof of compostability
as set out in the stringent standards criteria.
Polymeric materials whose organic constituents undergo complete biological degradation are
termed biodegradable. Biodegradation is a process caused by biological activity that, accompanied
by changes to the chemical structure of the material, leads to naturally occurring metabolic
end products. The ambient conditions and the rate of biodegradation have to be determined in
standardised test methods.
The very fact that a material is biodegradable is not good enough on its own when it comes to
industrial processes for recycling biodegradable products. Much more important is verifi able
degradation within the typical timeframe of the method. Accordingly, the mentioned DIN standard
defi nes compostability as the property of a polymeric material to degrade during a composting
process. ‘Biologically degradable’ is therefore by no means equivalent to ‘compostable’.
Since the term ‘compostable’ could not be protected by legal means and biodegradable plastic
products cannot be distinguished from conventional polymers by their appearance, a certifi cation
and identifi cation process was created with the support of the German Ministry for Consumer
Protection, Agriculture and Forests.
The certifi cation programme for compostable biodegradable plastic products has been set up by experts
responsible for waste recycling and compost quality assurance. The members are as follows:
• Bundesgütegemeinschaft Kompost (German association for compost quality assurance)
• Bundesverband der deutschen Entsorgungswirtschaft (Association of the German waste-
management industries)
• Bundesverband Humus- und Erdenwirtschaft e.V. (German association for humus and soil
application)
• Bundesvereinigung der kommunalen Spitzenverbände (Association of German cities and
municipalities)
• Deutscher Bauernverband (German farmers association)
• Industrieverband Kunststoffverpackungen (Association for plastic packaging)
• IBAW, the European Biodegradable Plastics Association
35
The Global Biodegradable Polymers Market
Industry associations have recognised the need for quality assurance measures as a means of
counteracting the threats posed to the biodegradable plastics industry by other materials claiming to
be biodegradable and compostable. IBAW has worked alongside the Biodegradable Polymers Institute
(BPI) in the USA and the Biodegradable Polymer Society (BPS) in Japan to establish a harmonised
certifi cation and labelling system at the international level.
In 2005, the four leading European biodegradable plastics material suppliers: BASF, NatureWorks,
Novamont and Rodenburg Polymers, have also agreed to submit their packaging materials and
products for certifi cation by Din Certco under EN 13432, and label their packaging products with
the compostability logo to better inform consumers and retailers.
The biodegradable polymers industry is also slowly receiving more political support to bolster market
development.
The amended German Packaging Ordinance in December 2004, makes special provision for certifi ed
bio-packaging, i.e., packaging proven to be compostable. Up to 2012, certifi ed biodegradable plastic
packaging products need not be accepted as returns, nor are they subject to recycling quotas. The
German Federal Ministry of Consumer Protection, Food and Agriculture has also announced that
the national budget allocated to research, development and market launches of renewable materials
for 2005 has been virtually doubled to
€54 million.
In October 2005, the French National Assembly also boosted the prospects for biopolymers with a
vote to ban production and use of non-biodegradable plastic bags from 2010. Food and industrial
packaging will not be affected. The legislation is designed not only to combat littering but to provide
farmers with a new source of income, growing starch-rich maize for packaging. France’s environment
ministry estimates that some 15 billion plastic carrier bags, representing 60,000-80,000 tonnes of
polymer are circulated in the country annually and that 120 million bags are discarded rather than
being recycled.
4.2.2 Development of a Composting Infrastructure
For biodegradable polymers to achieve their full market potential, they should add greater functionality
and productivity for the end user, if the relatively high prices are to be justifi ed. So far there has been
very limited development of an infrastructure for composting and thus the true benefi ts from using
biodegradable polymers are not being realised.
Perhaps one of the biggest hurdles for the adoption of biodegradable and compostable materials has
been the lack of kerb-side collection and municipal composting facilities, particularly in the USA and
parts of Europe. Municipal composting would ‘complete the circle’ for materials such as biopolymers,
which start as natural renewable resources and degrade back to useable compost material. The wider
development of a composting infrastructure would permit a realisation of the marketing benefi ts that
seems to drive the adoption of sustainable materials.
Over the last few years, European legislation has become the key driver for national and regional
policy on composting. The targets for diverting biodegradable municipal waste from landfi ll set out
in the European Landfi ll Directive (EC/31/1999) have led to signifi cant developments in composting
infrastructures across Europe.
The landfi ll directive is one of the most important environmental directives the European Parliament
has dealt with in recent years. It marks the beginning of a major shift in waste management practice
36
Biodegradable Polymers
in Europe. For the public it represents the end of an era in which people have given very little
thought to what happens to the waste they produce. Seven countries currently landfi ll more than
half of the municipal waste they produce. These are Austria, Finland, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Spain
and the United Kingdom. For these countries in particular, this directive poses a major challenge
to the so-called ‘throwaway’ culture.
The three key features of the directive are fi rstly the promotion of the move away from landfi ll to
more environmentally acceptable alternatives. Secondly, the directive calls for the establishment
of European Union wide standards for proper management of landfi lls. Thirdly, it should result in
the discouragement of the transport of waste across frontiers by removing the disparities between
the practices and prices relating to landfi ll in the Member States.
In the UK, The Waste and Emissions Trading (WET) Act 2003 provides the framework for the
Landfi ll Allowance Trading Scheme (LATS) designed to meet the diversion targets laid down in
Article 5(2) of the Landfi ll Directive. The UK targets have been divided up between England, Wales,
Scotland and Northern Ireland, and the relevant government body in each nation is responsible
for dividing the targets between local authorities who manage disposal.
LATS is a market-based mechanism that introduces progressively tighter restrictions on the amount
of paper, food and garden waste that authorities can landfi ll. Local authorities are allocated an
annual landfi ll allowance for municipal biodegradable waste. They are under a duty not to exceed
this allowance and face punitive fi nes for every tonne landfi lled above the total amount of allowances
they hold. EU fi nes imposed on the UK for failure to meet the targets will be split between local
authorities in direct proportion to their contribution in breaching the targets.
The devolved nations have each set incremental recovery, recycling and composting targets to
improve performance in the management of household waste. The national targets are divided
between local authorities depending on individual performance. In England the aim is to achieve a
combined recycling and composting rate of 33% of household waste by 2015, in Wales the target
is 40% recycling and composting of municipal waste by 2010 (with a minimum of 15% from
composting), Scotland has set municipal waste targets of 35% recycling and 20% composting by
2020, and Northern Ireland has set a target for household waste of 25% recycling and composting
by 2010.
Against this backdrop of waste strategy targets, the Household Waste Recycling Act (2003) requires
all local authorities in England to provide kerbside collections for all householders for a minimum
of two materials by 2010. Under the Act kerbside collections of food waste as well as green waste
will count as a type of recyclable (providing the waste collection authority does not levy a charge
for green waste collections).
These national targets aim to push waste further up the waste management hierarchy. Whilst
improving the performance levels for dry recyclables will continue to be important for authorities,
the introduction of LATS together with the ‘composting’ element of the waste strategy targets is
likely to focus efforts on biodegradable municipal wastes.
In Europe, Germany and the Netherlands lead the way for separate collection of organic municipal
waste for composting. In Germany, source separation of organic residues from households, gardens
and parks (biowaste) is one of the main measures in waste management. The participation rate in
source separation of biowaste is 70-75% of all German households. In the Netherlands, over 90%
of households were involved in the separate collection system for organic waste.
37
The Global Biodegradable Polymers Market
In 2003, the Dutch regulations agreed to permit biodegradable materials in the ‘green bins’ for
professional composting. ‘Green bins’ are part of a system for separating household waste from
‘green’ or recyclable waste. As a fi rst step, only biodegradable shopping bags will be allowed in the
green bins. If the scheme proves a success, then retailers will be allowed to put products that have
passed their sell by date direct into the green bins, without separating the content of the packaging,
thus saving on costs.
4.2.3 Pricing Trends
Recent upswings in the cost and declining availability of standard petroleum-based resins have
brought biodegradable polymers to a price-competitive level versus petrochemical based polymers.
Commodity resin prices have climbed steadily since 2003 as oil and natural gas prices have surged.
During the period 2003-2005, average PP homopolymer prices and general purpose polystyrene
prices have jumped by over 31%, LDPE fi lm grade prices have gone up by 34.5% and bottle-grade
PET prices have increased by nearly 18%.
Table 4.1 shows the changes in average standard thermoplastic prices for the years 2003-2005 in
Western Europe.
Table 4.1 Average standard thermoplastic prices 2003-2005, Western Europe (
€/tonne)
2003
2004
2005
% Change
2003-2005
LDPE
851
1022
1145
34.5
PP homo
798
898
1051
31.7
PS crystal
882
1101
1157
31.2
PET bottle grade
1054
1146
1241
17.7
At the same time, prices for three major types of bio-based resins, starch-based biopolymers,
polylactic acid (PLA) and aliphatic aromatic co-polyester, have dropped considerably over the last
three years.
The price of starch-based biopolymers has come down considerably over the last three years as
production volumes have increased, more effi cient production processes have been deployed and
lower cost raw materials have been found. In 2003, the average price of starch blends was around
€3.0-5.0 per kg. In 2005, the average price range of starch blends was down to €1.5-3.5 per kg, with
an average price close to
€1.75 per kg.
Similarly, PLA biodegradable polymer prices have fallen sharply over the last fi ve years since the
polymers were fi rst commercialised. NatureWorks PLA is now available at prices between
€1.37-2.75
per kg compared to a price range of
€3.0-3.5 per kg three years ago. NatureWorks PLA has been
price competitive with PET for example over the last twelve months as PLA manufacturing scale
has increased and process improvements were made alongside the recent sustained higher levels of
PET pricing.
38
Biodegradable Polymers
The price of synthetic biopolymers has come down a little during the last three years. In 2005, the
average cost of an aliphatic aromatic co-polyester biopolymer was between
€2.75-3.65 per kg. In
2003, the average price of aliphatic aromatic co-polyesters was around
€3.5-4.0 per kg. Prices are
expected to fall further over time as production volumes increase and unit costs fall.
Historically, pricing had been the biggest barrier to biodegradable polymer market development.
However, growing volumes of production and the development of new technology should further
allow bio-based resin makers to reduce costs. Using materials such as corn stover, wheat straw and
rice straw, which remain in fi elds after crops are harvested, as resin feedstock, could also increase
productivity and economic performance.
4.2.4 Growth in Pre-Packaged Food Sales
The inexorable rise in pre-packaged disposable meals means that food manufacturers and packagers
are increasingly being targeted to improve their environmental performances.
Demographic trends are also encouraging growth in pre-packaged food sales. Datamonitor statistics
for example, show that more than one-third of European consumers live alone and are spending
€140 billion a year on food, drinks and personal care products. Single people spend 50% more per
person on consumer-packaged goods than a two adult household. Such trends underline why concern
about the environmental impact of food packaging has never been greater.
4.2.5 Consumer Preference for Sustainable Packaging
Consumers are in favour of a sustainable product development such as biodegradable plastics.
In 2001, a survey of 600 people in the town of Kassel, Germany was conducted to determine
the acceptability of biodegradable packaging to consumers. The study revealed that about 90%
considered the idea of replacing conventional plastic packaging by compostable packaging to be
either good or very good. 80% of customers using biodegradable packaging classifi ed the quality
as either good or very good, and 87% said they would buy it again.
The results of the Kassel project show that, in any event, one-third of consumers would be prepared
to pay a surcharge, as much as
€0.15 for a carrier bag, instead of the current €0.10, provided it
were compostable. For a biodegradable yoghurt tub, they would willingly pay an extra
€0.05.
However, it was found that a higher surcharge would deter sales.
Consumers also found the idea of potatoes wrapped in potato-based packaging a fascinating
concept and many consumers appreciated that it represented progress. This did not just apply to
those consumers who usually buy organic produce. There are no doubt good opportunities for
companies to differentiate their products from those of the competition.
There is also growing evidence that brand owners and retailers are favouring greater use of
sustainable packaging based on biodegradable materials rather than conventional plastics.
Sustainable packaging presents an opportunity for manufacturers and retailers to differentiate
their products and to present a more environmentally-friendly image to consumers. Biodegradable
packaging is a natural fi t with organic products, which is a fast growing market. A number
of retailers are now offering organically grown fruit and vegetables, and other produce, in
biodegradable packaging.
39
The Global Biodegradable Polymers Market
4.2.6 Product and Technology Development
During the last few years, there has been a stream of new product and technology development by leading
biodegradable polymer suppliers that have opened up new markets and potential applications.
NatureWorks is developing a new generation of PLA that can be used for microwavable packaging.
The company has also announced results of research that showed bottles could be used to package
oxygen sensitive food and beverages using barrier-enhanced PLA in the future.
Hycail announced the launch of a new PLA material which can withstand temperatures over 200 °C
without distortion. It can also be microwaved with fatty and liquid foods, without distortion or
stress cracking.
Toray Industries has developed a new technology for manufacture of PLA fl exible fi lm that has
succeeded in containing the occurrence of bleeding out when faced with changes in temperature or
pressure and displays highly stable fl exibility while not losing any of the superior features of PLA
such as transparency, heat resistance, and biodegradability. Traditionally, a low-molecular-weight
liquid plasticiser addition method has been used for achieving fl exible PLA fi lms.
In the synthetic biodegradables sector, BASF expanded its Ecofl ex-brand with Ecovio, a blend of
NatureWorks PLA and Ecofl ex.
In the starch sector for example, Stanelco is understood to be developing a new starch-based
biopolymer that it claims will undercut PET and PP prices, while offering a similar ease of processing
in both bottle blowing and thermoforming processes.
Developments in additive formulations are also helping to improve processing effi ciencies for
biodegradable polymers. PolyOne for example, introduced a new range of colour and additive
masterbatches for biodegradable resins for the European market in 2005.
4.3 Market Development and Structure
Global production capacity for biodegradable polymers has grown dramatically since the mid 1990s.
In 1995, production was mainly on a pilot-plant basis with total worldwide capacity amounting to
no more than 25-30,000 tonnes. In 2005, global capacity for biodegradable polymers was around
360,000 tonnes. Biopolymers based on renewable resources (starch and PLA and including loose-
fi ll packaging) accounted for around 300,000 tonnes with synthetic biopolymers accounting for
approximately 60,000 tonnes. Based on announced projects, total production capacity is set to almost
reach 600,000 tonnes by 2008.
Polylactide (PLA) is the leading polymer type among biodegradables with global production capacity
for this material amounting to about 250,000 tonnes per annum in 2005. Starch-based polymer
capacity is approaching 60,000 tonnes per annum.
In 2006, there are around 30 major companies worldwide that are actively involved in developing
biodegradable plastic materials. The synthetic biopolymers market is dominated by large, global
and vertically integrated chemical companies such as BASF, DuPont, and Mitsubishi Gas Chemicals.
The starch and PLA sectors contain mainly specialist biopolymer companies such as Novamont,
NatureWorks, Rodenburg Biopolymers and Biotec, which were specifi cally established purely to
develop biodegradable polymers.
40
Biodegradable Polymers
Table 4.2 shows the major biodegradable polymer suppliers by product type for 2005.
Table 4.2 World biodegradable polymers market, 2005 – major suppliers by product type
Starch
PLA
PHA
Synthetic
BASF
X
BIOP
X
Biomer
X
X
Biotec
X
Cereplast
X
Daicel Chemical
X
Dainippon
X
DuPont
X
Earth Shell
X
FkuR
X
X
Grenidea
X
Hycail
X
IRe Chemical
X
Metabolix
X
Mitsubishi Gas Chemical
X
Mitsui Chemical
X
NEC
X
NNZ
X
NatureWorks
X
Novamont
X
X
Plantic
X
Polyscience
X
Procter & Gamble
X
Rodenberg
X
SK Chemical
X
Showa
X
Solvay
X
Stanelco
X
X
Toyota
X
The leading biodegradable polymer suppliers are Novamont, NatureWorks, BASF and Rodenburg
Biopolymers, which together represent over 90% of the European market for biodegradable plastics.
41
The Global Biodegradable Polymers Market
At the moment, there are a growing number of biodegradable polymers performing well in niche
applications. Many of these materials can be even more cost competitive in the future compared to
petroleum-based resins including PET, PE, and PP as suppliers develop better material properties
that can lead to thinner fi lms or lower processing costs.
In terms of the product life cycle analysis, a new product or polymer would generally require about
thirty years from the research and development stage before becoming a commodity product when
millions of tonnes are produced annually for mainstream application. In 2005, the biodegradable
plastics industry has about fi fteen to twenty years of development time behind it and has now reached
the market introduction stage.
During the last ten years or so the main focus of research and development activity for companies
involved in the biopolymers market was on improving the technology and the products in readiness
for full commercialisation. Now, a signifi cant number of products are commercially available and
the emphasis has switched to the end user and developing markets and applications.
Brand owners and supermarkets as well as a consumer, will have a key role to play in the growth of
this industry over the next fi ve to ten years. Buyers must begin to understand the marketing value of
sustainable materials such as greater energy independence, cleaner soil, less air pollutants, and less
impact on global warming. Only then will they endorse this biopolymers’ movement and invest in
educating consumers in the value to society of these materials. It is education and awareness along
with the cost and performance improvements that will take sustainable materials out of their niche
market status and into mainstream applications.
Production costs for biopolymers still remain high because of the relatively low volumes being
produced and the profi tability of biodegradable plastics products remains low. Hence, volumes
must be increased if unit costs are to fall and profi tability is to improve. The development of new
applications will be crucial to achieving higher production volumes and generating the profi tability
needed for further investment in production capacity.
While the cost of some biodegradable plastics are currently higher than most conventional polymers,
from a marketing perspective, it is important not only to consider the material cost, but also
all associated costs, including the costs of handling and disposal, which are of course lower for
biodegradable plastics. Hence, marketing of biodegradable plastics products is most successful when
their cost savings and material advantages are exploited to the full. Also, users of biodegradable
plastics can differentiate themselves from the competition by demonstrating how innovative and
proactive they are for the benefi t of the environment.
4.4 The Global Biodegradable Polymers Market Forecast
Over the last fi ve years, global consumption of biodegradable polymers has shown strong growth.
Demand has been fuelled by growing public demand for sustainable packaging materials, growth in
composting infrastructures, the introduction of a wider variety of biodegradable polymers, product
improvements and a narrowing of the price differential between biopolymers and petrochemical-
based plastics.
In 2005, the global biodegradable plastics market tonnage is 94,800 tonnes (including loose-fi ll
packaging) compared with 28,000 tonnes in 2000. In 2010, market tonnage is forecast to reach
214,400 tonnes, which represents a compound annual growth rate of 17.7% during the period
42
Biodegradable Polymers
2005-2010. Excluding loose-fi ll packaging, which is a relatively more mature sector for starch-based
biodegradable polymers, global market tonnage in 2005 is 71,700 tonnes and the compound annual
growth rate for the period 2005-2010 is projected to be 20.3%.
Table 4.3 shows global consumption of biodegradable polymers by world region for the years 2000,
2005 and forecast for 2010.
Table 4.3 Global consumption of biodegradable polymers, 2000, 2005 and 2010 (’000 tonnes)
2000
2005
2010
% CAGR
2005-2010
Western Europe
15.5
55.7
129.4
18.4
North America
6.7
21.3
46.5
16.9
Asia Pacifi c
5.8
17.8
38.5
16.7
28.0
94.8
214.4
17.7
Western Europe is the leading market for biodegradable polymers with 59% of market volumes
in 2005, followed by North America with 22% and Asia Pacifi c with 19%. Western Europe
is also forecast to show the fastest growth rate for biodegradable polymers over the period
2005-2010.
Figure 4.1 shows percentage share of global biodegradable polymer consumption by geographic
region for 2005.
Figure 4.1
Percentage share of global biodegradable polymer consumption by geographic region for 2005
Starch-based materials represent the largest class of biodegradable polymer with 44,800 tonnes
(including loose-fi ll foam packaging) consumed in 2005. Excluding loose-fi ll, starch-based materials
amounted to 21,700 tonnes in 2005. Polylactic acid (PLA) is the second largest material class with
35,800 tonnes in 2005, followed by synthetic aliphatic-aromatic copolyesters with 14,000 tonnes.
The embryonic PHA category amounts to around 250 tonnes.
43
The Global Biodegradable Polymers Market
Figure 4.2 shows percentage share of global biodegradable polymer consumption by polymer
type for 2005.
All classes of biodegradable polymers are projected to show substantial growth during the next fi ve
years. Of the material classes with existing commercial applications, PLA will grow the fastest with
a compound annual growth rate of 20.1% for the period 2005-2010. Synthetic types will grow by
18.6% per annum and starch-based polymers will grow at 14.8% per annum. However, excluding
loose-fi ll packaging, which is growing at a lower rate than other applications, starch is forecast to
grow by 20.6% per annum over the next fi ve years. The PHA sector, which started from virtually a
zero base in 2005, is projected to grow at close to 60% per annum.
Figure 4.3 shows percentage share of global biodegradable polymer consumption by end user
sector for 2005.
Figure 4.2
Percentage share of global biodegradable polymer consumption by polymer type, 2005
Figure 4.3
Percentage share of global biodegradable polymer consumption by end user sector, 2005
44
Biodegradable Polymers
In terms of end use markets, packaging (including rigid and fl exible packaging, paper coating and
foodservice) is the largest sector with 39% of total market volumes in 2005. Loose-fi ll packaging is
the second largest sector with 24%, followed by bags and sacks with 21%. Fibres or textiles, is an
important sector for PLA, and accounts for 9% of total market volumes. Others include a wide range
of very small application areas, the most important of which are agriculture and fi shing, medical
devices, consumer products and hygiene products.
4.4.1 Western European Biodegradable Polymers Market Forecast
Western Europe is by far the biggest market for biodegradable polymers accounting for 59% of
world consumption in 2005. The Western European market for biodegradable polymers has been
driven more by regulation than other world regions such as the USA and Japan. These include the
European Union directives on packaging waste and landfi ll which aim to divert a growing amount
of packaging waste towards recycling and composting. Europe has also benefi ted from some of the
world’s leading biodegradable producers such as Novamont, Rodenburg Biopolymers and BASF
being based in the region.
Table 4.4 shows Western European biodegradable polymer consumption by polymer type for the
years 2000, 2005 and 2010.
Table 4.4 Western European biodegradable polymer consumption by polymer type,
2000, 2005 and 2010 (’000 tonnes)
2000
2005
2010
% CAGR
2005-2010
Starch
10.3
29.9
62.1
15.8
PLA
3.7
19.0
50.5
21.6
Synthetic
1.5
6.7
15.8
21.0
PHA
0.0
0.1
1.0
60.0
15.5
55.7
129.4
18.4
In 2005, Western Europe consumed 55,700 tonnes of biodegradable polymers compared with 15,500
tonnes in 2000. In 2010, Western European consumption of biodegradable polymers is forecast to
reach 129,400 tonnes, which represents a compound annual growth rate of 18.4% during the period
2005-2010.
Figure 4.4 shows the percentage share of Western European biodegradable polymer consumption
by polymer type for 2005.
Starch is the most widely used biodegradable polymer in Western Europe accounting for 54% of
market tonnage in 2005. PLA accounts for 34% with synthetics making up the remaining 12%
of market volumes. Starch, excluding loose-fi ll packaging, is projected to be the fastest growing
biopolymer in Western Europe for the period 2005-2010 with a compound annual growth rate of
45
The Global Biodegradable Polymers Market
just over 22%. PLA is also forecast to grow close to 22%, with synthetic biopolymers growing at a
slightly lower rate of 18.7% per annum.
Figure 4.5 shows percentage share of Western European biodegradable polymer consumption by
end use sector for 2005.
Figure 4.4
Percentage share of Western European biodegradable polymer consumption by polymer type, 2005
Figure 4.5
Percentage share of Western European biodegradable polymer consumption by end use sector, 2005
Packaging is the largest sector for biodegradable polymers in Western Europe accounting for
37% of market tonnage on 2005. Rigid packaging applications have been around in Europe
longer than the fi lm packaging market, which started in UK in 2001-2002, and was followed by
Italy, Switzerland, Belgium and the Netherlands. Bags and sacks is another signifi cant European
market for biopolymers representing 21% of total consumption. Biowaste collection bags are
46
Biodegradable Polymers
used in nearly all EU countries and have strong growth potential. Loose-fi ll packaging is rather
a more mature sector and future growth trends are expected to be less than 10% per annum
over the next fi ve years. Agricultural mulch fi lm is the most important sector included under the
‘others’ category. Mulch fi lm is mainly used in France, Spain, Italy and Benelux, and has strong
growth potential.
4.4.2 North American Biodegradable Polymers Market Forecast
North America has lagged well behind Western Europe in terms of biodegradable polymer market
development. Traditionally, there has not been the same degree of urgency to address the issue of
waste disposal through landfi ll in North America because of its enormous landmass. Government
and consumer attitudes towards recycling of packaging waste and environmental protection have
also militated against market development of sustainable materials.
However, attitudes are slowly changing. During the last few years there have been a number of
positive trends that are encouraging biodegradable polymer development. These include:
• Growth of the composting infrastructure with more municipalities coming on line in both the
US and Canada.
• More institutions such as schools looking at food waste diversion from landfi ll.
• Tipping fees for landfi ll are rising, especially in more populated areas of the country.
• The rising cost of petrochemical-based polymers over the last two years.
• Better understanding among foodservice suppliers that there is a market for compostable
materials.
• Major retailers and food manufacturers have opted for biodegradable packaging in 2005. For
example, Wal-Mart Stores selected NatureWorks PLA to manufacture containers for herbs
and other products, while Del Monte Fresh Produce increased its use of NatureWorks PLA for
packaging fruit.
Table 4.5 shows North American biodegradable polymer consumption by polymer type for the years
2000, 2005 and 2010.
Table 4.5 North American biodegradable polymer consumption by polymer type,
2000, 2005 and 2010 (’000 tonnes)
2000
2005
2010
% CAGR
2005-2010
Starch
2.8
8.0
14.0
11.9
PLA
2.7
9.6
22.6
18.7
Synthetic
1.2
3.6
8.4
18.4
PHA
0.0
0.1
1.5
71.0
6.7
21.3
46.5
16.9
47
The Global Biodegradable Polymers Market
In 2005, North American biodegradable polymer consumption was 21,300 tonnes against 6,700
tonnes in 2000. In 2010, biodegradable polymer consumption is projected to reach 46,500 tonnes,
which represents a compound annual growth rate of 16.9% during the period 2005-2010.
Figure 4.6 shows percentage share of North American biodegradable polymer consumption by
product type for 2005.
Figure 4.6
Percentage share of North American biodegradable polymer consumption by type, 2005
PLA, with 45% of total volume, is the most widely used biodegradable polymer in North America,
followed by starch with 38% and synthetics with the remaining 17%. PLA is also expected to show
the fastest rate of growth over the forecast period with volumes increasing at a compound annual
growth rate of 18.7%. Synthetic biodegradable polymer growth is not far behind at 18.5%.
Figure 4.7 shows percentage share of North American biodegradable polymer consumption by end
use market for 2005.
Figure 4.7
Percentage share of North American biodegradable polymer consumption by end use market, 2005
48
Biodegradable Polymers
Packaging is the largest application area for bioplastics in North America with 41% of total volumes
in 2005. Other signifi cant markets are loose-fi ll packaging foam and bags and sacks.
4.4.3 Asia Pacifi c Biodegradable Polymers Market Forecast
Japan is the largest consumer of biodegradable polymers in the Asia Pacifi c region, followed by
Australia and New Zealand, with Taiwan, South Korea, Singapore and China, some way behind in
terms of market development.
Taiwan and Japan probably offer the best prospects for growth in biodegradable plastics over the
next fi ve years.
The Taiwanese government has responded to the growing problems that are being caused to the
environment by the disposal of waste plastic items by introducing new environmental policies banning
the use of disposable plastics starting with petroleum-based plastic shopping bags and disposable
plastic tableware.
In Japan, the Biodegradable Plastics Society (BPS) was set up in 1989 to establish technology of
biodegradable plastics (GreenPla), to lead extensive, commercial use of GreenPla, to develop evaluation
methods of GreenPla and certify GreenPla products.
During the period 2003-2005, the BPS has certifi ed a large number of GreenPla products in Japan.
Tables 4.6, 4.7, 4.8 and 4.9 show certifi ed GreenPla products in the fi elds of daily use, packaging,
agriculture and horticulture and foodservice.
Table 4.6 Certifi ed GreenPla products (daily products)
Product/trade name
BDP type
Producer
“CHIKYU-MARU” drain net
PLA
Yamadai
“Nature Green” straw
PLA
WEI MON INDUSTRY
Garbage bag
PBAT
SARUKAWA
Drawstring trash bag
PBSA
Arke Planning
Calender frame
PLA
Fuji Chemicals
Case for desk calendar (sheet type)
PLA
Arke Planning
Ruler
PLA
Arke Planning
Envelope with window
PLA
Arke Planning
Clip
PLA
Arke Planning
Clear fi le
PLA
Arke Planning
Card
PLA
Arke Planning
Fan
PLA
Arke Planning
Biodegradable garbage bag
PETS
J Film
“CHIKYU-MARU” biodegradable drain net
PLA
Yamadai
Biodegradable daily bag
PBSA
Ohkura Industrial
Garbage bage for business use
PBSA
Asahi Kasei Life & Living
49
The Global Biodegradable Polymers Market
Table 4.6 Certifi ed GreenPla products (daily products) Continued
Product/trade name
BDP type
Producer
“NAMANAMA 4444” (Trash bag)
PLA
Towakako
Compost bag
PBSA
KIRA SHIKO
Biodegradable garbage bag
CL-BS copolymer
Tohcello
“NAMANAMA” (Trash bag)
PLA
Towakako
Trash bag (“ECOLOME LBS”)
PBSA
Ohkura Industrial
“PAPERMAC” compost bag CL
CL-BS copolymer
Kitamura Chemicals
Compost bag
PESA
KIRA SHIKO
Compost bag
BS-LA copolymer
KIRA SHIKO
Shoehorn
PBS
Daito Mechatronics
Biodegradable garbage bag, shopping bag
PBAT
Tohcello
Fashion bag with cotton string
PBAT
Ohkura Industrial
Garbage bag
BS-LA copolymer
Kuki-Miyashiro
“BRIGHTON” shopping bag
PLA
HORIAKI
“BRIGHTON” trash bag
PLA
HORIAKI
Bags
PCL
Green Environmental
Technology
“TERRAMAC fi lm” trash bag
PLA
Unitika Trading
“ECO&B” handy loupe
PLA
NTT Neomeit Hokuri
Biodegradable straw
PLA
Watanabe Kogyo
Pland-derived neck strap
PLA
NAX
“PEACH COAT” LR series synthetic paper
for printing
PLA
NISSINBO Industries
“TERRAMAC” trash bag JM
PLA
Unitika
Biodegradable garbage bag for business use
(GB series)
PBAT
Asahi Kasei Life & Living
Table 4.7 Certifi ed GreenPla products (packaging)
Product/trade name
BDP type
Producer
“TERRAMAC” Film
PLA
Unitika
Plant-derived opaque sheet
PLA
SEKISUI SEIKEI
String bag for booklet
PBAT
SARUKAWA
“KANEPEARL” PLA foam
(Packaging materials)
PLA
KANEKA
“KANEPEARL” PLA foam
(Container for food)
PLA
KANEKA
Shrink label for heat shrinkable cap
PLA
Dai Nippon Printing
“Nature Green” packaging bags
PBAT
WEI MON INDUSTRY
“Nature Green” fi lm
PBAT
WEI MON INDUSTRY
50
Biodegradable Polymers
Table 4.7 Certifi ed GreenPla products (packaging) Continued
Product/trade name
BDP type
Producer
“Nature Green” NCP0002 sheet
PLA
WEI MON INDUSTRY
“Nature Green” PESC101 sheet
PLA
WEI MON INDUSTRY
“BIPLA TAPE”
PBAT
Shinano kagaku
Heat shrink cap seal
PLA
Fuji Seal
Biodegradable packaging bag
PLA
Vendor service
Over wrapping fi lm for vegetables and fruits
PLA
Taiyo Kogyo
Container for vegetables and fruits
PLA
Taiyo Kogyo
Bag for vegetables and fruits
PLA
Taiyo Kogyo
Antifog bag for vegetables & fruits
(fl exible type)
PBAT
Offi ce Media
Flexible bag for electronic appliance parts
PLA
Offi ce Media
“NAI-SMELL”PLA alumina metalizing
transparent high-barrier fi lm
PLA
Offi ce Media
“NAI-SMELL” PLA aluminum metalizing
high-barrier fi lm
PLA
Offi ce Media
Nonslip clothing bag
PLA
Offi ce Media
“NAI-SMELL” PLA antifog bag for
vegetables & fruits (fl exible type)
PLA
Offi ce Media
“NAI-SMELL” PLA antifog bag for
vegetables & fruits (rigid type)
PLA
Offi ce Media
Biodegradable shopping bag
PBSA
KIRA SHIKO
Biodegradable fi lm
PLA
SEKISUI JUSHI
Tablet case
PLA
Toppan Printing
“POPURAN GREEN”
PETS
Yamato
Heat shrink label
PLA
Fuji Seal
Coating fi lm
PLA
MIKASA INDUSTRY
Over wrapping fi lm
PLA
Taiyo Kogyo
“BIOPLUS” laminate fi lm
PLA
Asahi Kasei Life & Living
“DOLON NK-A”
PLA
Aicello Chemical
Bags for foods
Starch
Dai Nippon Printing
Bags for foods
PBAT
Dai Nippon Printing
Packaging materials for newspaper &
magazine to recycle
PBSA
MATSUMOTO GOUSEI
“TERRAMAC” sheet HS
PLA
Unitika
“ECO&B” bag for calendar
CL-BS copolymer
NTT Neomeit Hokuriku
Biodegradable thin fi lm
PLA
Yao Qing Biotechnology
Biodegradable bag
PLA
Yao Qing Biotechnology
Expanded heat resistance sheet
PLA
Yao Qing Biotechnology
Heat resistance sheet
PLA
Yao Qing Biotechnology
Transparent food packaging
PLA
Yao Qing Biotechnology
51
The Global Biodegradable Polymers Market
Table 4.7 Certifi ed GreenPla products (packaging) Continued
Product/trade name
BDP type
Producer
PLA transparent sheet
PLA
Yao Qing Biotechnology
Opaque sheet
PLA
SEKISUI SEIKEI
Translucent sheet
PLA
SEKISUI SEIKEI
“KANKYO” bag B
PLA
UNITIKA FIBERS
“TERRAMAC” sheet SS
PLA
Unitika
Package for novelties
PLA
Tohcello
“PALGREEN LC” fl ower wrap
PLA
Tohcello
Package for pocket tissue paper
BS-LA copolymer
Tohcello
“MATER-FOLIO” (packaging fi lm)
Starch-based
copolyester
ASAHI SOGYO
“MATER-BAG” MF (packaging fi lm)
Starch-based
copolyester
ASAHI SOGYO
“SANN FILM-ECO-C” (PES based)
PES
Materiverpackage
“SANN FILM-ECO-B” (PLA based)
PLA
Materiverpackage
Barrier over-wrapping fi lm for food
PET copolymer
Offi ce Media
Barrier pillow type packaging fi lm for food
PET copolymer
Offi ce Media
Barrier shrinkable packaging fi lm for food
PET copolymer
Offi ce Media
“NAI-SMELL” packaging fi lm for tableware
PLA
Offi ce Media
“NAI-SMELL” shrinkable packaging fi lm for
lunchbox
PLA
Offi ce Media
“NAI-SMELL” packaging fi lm for bread
PLA
Offi ce Media
“NAI-SMELL” packaging fi lm for bun
PLA
Offi ce Media
“NAI-SMELL” packaging fi lm for rice ball
PLA
Offi ce Media
“NAI-SMELL” packaging fi lm for sandwich
PLA
Offi ce Media
“NAI-SMELL” multi-layered barrier over-
wrapping fi lm for food
PLA
Offi ce Media
“NAI-SMELL” multi-layered barrier pillow
type packaging fi lm
PLA
Offi ce Media
“NAI-SMELL” multi-layered barrier shrink
fi lm
PLA
Offi ce Media
“NAI-SMELL” over-wrapping fi lm for food
PLA
Offi ce Media
“NAI-SMELL” pillow type packaging fi lm
for food
PLA
Offi ce Media
“NAI-SMELL” shrink fi lm for food packaging PLA
Offi ce Media
Bottle
PLA
MIKASA INDUSTRY
“BIOMICRON” LT container
PLA
JSP
“BIOMICRON” C container
Starch
JSP
“BIONOLLE” bag
PBS(A)
Syowa Highpolymer
“BIONOLLE” sheet
PBS(A)
Syowa Highpolymer
“Nature Green” PESC101 sheet
PLA
Towakako
52
Biodegradable Polymers
Table 4.7 Certifi ed GreenPla products (packaging) Continued
Product/trade name
BDP type
Producer
“FLORA BAG”
PBAT
SHINWA SERVICE
Flexible container
PBS(A)
HEISEI POLYMER
Sandbag
PBS(A)
HEISEI POLYMER
“DJ STARCH” bags
PCL
KANKYO KAIHATHU
Table 4.8 Certifi ed GreenPla products (agriculture/horticulture/forestry)
Product/trade name
BDP type
Producer
“BP” marking tape
PLA
Marusho Suzuki Shoten
Biomass planter
PLA
Tokai Kasei
“AGRI” Biodegradable sheet for repellent
and weed barrier
PLA
Gifu Agrifoods
“KANEPEARL” PLA foam (Agri-/
Horticultural materials)
PLA
KANEKA
“Nature Green” nursery tray & sheet
PLA
WEI MON INDUSTRY
“Bio-Ace sheet”
PBS
THE FURUKAWA
ELECTRIC
“SB pack” series
PLA
Nishimune
Number printed tape E-type
PLA
Marusho Suzuki Shoten
Agri-biodegradable anti-glass sheet
PLA
Gifu Agrifoods
“Cornpole” net-sheet
PLA
Gifu Agrifoods
“CONTAPE”
PLA
Chubu Nozai
“UNIGREEN SAKIGAKE”
BS-LA copolymer
Unyck
“NATURA (Mulch fi lm)
PBAT
Iwatani Materials
“TOKAN” paper seeding pot (laminated)
PBS
TOKAN KOGYO
Multi sheet, fi lm
PCL
Green Environment
Technology
“KIEMARU” (sheet for fumigation)
BS-LA copolymer
Unyck
“WILLEY”
CL-BS copolymer
Shinano Kagaku
“CORNPOLE” LD tape
PLA
Gifu Agrifoods
Biodegradable wrapping fi lm for wood
PBAT
Sekisui Film
Sheet
PBS(A)
HEISEI POLYMER
“DJ STARCH” fi lm & sheet
PCL
KANKYO KAIHATHU
53
The Global Biodegradable Polymers Market
Table 4.9 Certifi ed GreenPla products (foodservice)
Product / trade name
BDP type
Producer
Tableware, Tray, Chop sticks
PLA
SEKISAKA SHIKKI
“Nature Green” NCP0005
tableware
PLA
WEI MON INDUSTRY
“Nature Green” NCP0001
food contactable serviceware
PLA
WEI MON INDUSTRY
Cup
PLA
MIKASA INDUSTRY
Cap (for food container) 2
BS-LA copolymer
MIKASA INDUSTRY
Container
PCL
Green Environment
Technology
Plant-derived food container
PLA
DIAFOODS
“Nature Green” cup, lid
PLA
Towakako
Cup
PLA
ITOCHU
Cap (for food container)
PLA
MIKASA INDUSTRY
Catering tray, Tray for snack
PLA
KUNIMUNE
Plant-derived biodegradable
food container
PLA
CP Kasei
Food container/partition
PLA
KIMURA ALUMI FOIL
“DJ STARCH” container
PCL
KANKYO KAIHATHU
Plant-derived biodegradable
lid for food container
PLA
CP Kasei
Biodegradable lunchbox
PLA
FP CORPORATION
Biodegradable container
PLA
FP CORPORATION
Lid for biodegradable
container
PLA
Tohcello
PLA is the most certifi ed biodegradable plastic type in Japan with most applications found in the
packaging sector. There have also been a signifi cant number of certifi ed products based on synthetic
biodegradable plastics such as PBSA and PBAT. Wei Mon Industry Co. Ltd, Offi ce Media Co. Ltd,
Yao Qing Biotechnology and Taiyo Kogyo are some of the leading converters of biodegradable
polymers in Asia.
Table 4.10 shows Asia Pacifi c biodegradable polymer consumption by polymer type for the years
2000, 2005 and 2010.
Consumption of biodegradable plastics increased from 5,800 tonnes in 2000 to 17,800 tonnes in
2005. During the period 2005-2010, Asia Pacifi c biodegradable plastics consumption is forecast to
grow at a compound annual growth rate of 16.7% to reach 38,500 tonnes in 2010.
Figure 4.8 shows percentage share of Asia Pacifi c biodegradable polymer consumption by polymer
type for 2005.
54
Biodegradable Polymers
Figure 4.8
Percentage share of Asia Pacifi c biodegradable polymer consumption by polymer type, 2005
Figure 4.9
Percentage share of Asia Pacifi c biodegradable polymer consumption by end use market, 2005
Table 4.10 Asia Pacifi c biodegradable polymer consumption by polymer type,
2000, 2005 and 2010 (’000 tonnes)
2000
2005
2010
% CAGR
2005-2010
Starch
2.3
6.9
13.1
13.8
PLA
2.3
7.2
16.4
18.0
Synthetic
1.2
3.7
8.6
21.1
PHA
0.0
0.1
0.4
54.0
5.8
17.9
38.5
16.7
55
The Global Biodegradable Polymers Market
PLA is the most widely used biodegradable polymer type in the Asia Pacifi c region accounting
for 40% of total consumption in 2005. Starch, mainly loose-fi ll packaging, accounts for 39% of
total consumption. Synthetic polymers account for the remaining 21% of consumption. Synthetic
biodegradable polymers are expected to show the fastest growth rate of all the established
biodegradable polymer classes over the forecast period.
Figure 4.9 shows percentage share of Asia Pacifi c biodegradable polymer consumption by end use
market for 2005.
Packaging is the largest market for biodegradable polymers in Asia Pacifi c with 44% of market volume
in 2005. Bags and sacks is the second largest market with 21% followed by loose-fi ll packaging
with 15%.
56
Biodegradable Polymers
57
5
The Starch-Based Biodegradable Polymer Market
5.1 Introduction
Walter-Lambert, the US pharmaceutical company, played a pioneering role in the development of
starch-based biodegradable polymers in the early 1990s. Walter-Lambert scientists in Switzerland
discovered starch-based polymers while they were researching injection-mouldable materials that
could replace gelatine in pharmaceutical capsules. Novon biodegradable polymers were introduced
commercially in 1990 with the construction of a large manufacturing facility in Illinois, USA. Despite
the early promise of its Novon polymers, Warner-Lambert decided to suspend production three years
later following heavy losses for the business.
Italian company Novamont has since emerged as the leading supplier of starch-based polymers.
Novamont started its research activities in 1989 as part of the Montedison group and its Mater-Bi
polymers were commercialised in 1990 with the opening of a 4,000 tonnes per annum plant at Terni
in Italy. Novamont further consolidated its leading position in starch-based polymers in 1997 with
the acquisition of worldwide patents belonging to Warner-Lambert and has continued to grow the
business very successfully since then.
According to Novamont, the performance of Mater-Bi polymers in use is similar to petrochemical-
based plastics such as polyethylene and processing performance is also similar or improved compared
with traditional plastics. The materials have a wide range of mechanical properties, from soft and tough
materials to rigid, exhibit antistatic behaviour and Mater-Bi fi lms have a wide range of permeability
to water vapour. Starch-based biodegradable polymers make a signifi cant reduction in environmental
impact, particularly with respect to carbon dioxide emissions and energy consumption, in comparison
with traditional materials and can be composted in a wide range of composting conditions from
home composting to rotary fermenting reactors.
5.2 Applications Development
Starch-based polymers fi nd use in applications where biodegradable polymers can be used in natural
environment such as agricultural and fi shery materials. They are also used for applications where
recovery and reuse are diffi cult and where composting of organic waste is effective such as food
packaging. They can also be used for applications with specifi c features, where functionality and
performance can also be completely separated from the main function. For example, Mater-Bi has
been incorporated into Goodyear Biotred tyres to reduce the roll resistance of the tyre, and hence
cuts fuel consumption while promoting good driving properties.
Historically, loose fi ll foam packaging and compost bags were the principal applications for
starch-based polymers. Nowadays, many other applications have been developed. Starch-based
biodegradable polymers are now fi nding commercial applications in loose-fi ll packaging, bags and
sacks, fl exible packaging, rigid packaging, agriculture and horticulture and various small-scale
injection moulding applications.
58
Biodegradable Polymers
Loose-fi ll packaging was one of the fi rst successful areas of application for starch-based biodegradable
polymers. Loose-fi ll starch-based foam is used for packaging consumer products as an alternative to
polystyrene and polyethylene. Following an agreement with Novamont in 1998, National Starch Co
is licensing two technologies for the production of loose-fi ll packaging, one from hydroxypropylated
high amylose starch, and a second from almost unmodifi ed starch.
Starch-based biodegradable plastics are used for manufacture of various types of bags and sacks
including, refuse sacks, shopping bags and compost bags.
Flexible packaging applications include extruded bags and nets for fresh fruit and vegetables.
Rigid packaging applications include thermoformed trays and containers for packaging fresh food
and convenience food.
Agriculture and horticulture applications include mulching fi lm, covering fi lm and plant pots.
There are various other small fi elds of application including injection moulding items such as pencil
sharpeners, rulers, cartridges, combs and toys, plant pots and bones. They are also used for hygiene
products including sanitary products and nappies.
Some examples of new applications development for starch-based biodegradable polymers are
outlined below.
Organic Farm Foods is the UK’s largest pre-packer, importer and distributor of organic fruit and
vegetables. In 2005, the company began selling a range of seasonal vegetables in 100% compostable
packaging based on fi lm made from the starch-based Mater-Bi polymer manufactured by Novamont.
The bags and their labels, both incorporating seven-colour images, are claimed to break down totally
in less than twelve weeks.
Norwegian company BioBag International is one of the world’s leading producers of environmentally
friendly packaging. Their products are based on Novamont’s Mater-Bi polymers. BioBag’s main area
is supplying biodegradable bags for waste management systems and for agricultural applications such
as mulch fi lm. Their principal product is the BioBag waste disposal bag. BioBag is the world’s largest
brand of 100% biodegradable and compostable bags and fi lms made from the renewable materials.
BioBag is making inroads into the US market. Recently, the city of San Francisco selected BioBag
to promote their residential food waste collection programme. The city is sending 100,000 rolls of
BioBags to residents within the county to help educate consumers on the importance of diverting
food and other biodegradable waste from entering landfi lls.
BioBag also supplies biodegradable and compostable fi lm products for shopping bags, food packaging
applications and for packing hygiene articles.
Fortune Plastics is one of the top fi ve plastic waste disposal bag manufacturers in the USA. In 2005,
the company introduced COMP-LETE, a biodegradable and compostable waste disposal bag made
from Novamont’s Mater-Bi polymers. COMP-LETE has been certifi ed by the US Biodegradable
Products Institute.
The Heritage Bag Company produces a biodegradable and compostable waste disposal bag under
the trade name Bio-Tuf. The product meets ASTM D 6400 specifi cations for biodegradability and
compostability.
59
The Starch-Based Biodegradable Polymer Market
California-based Biosphere Industries was established in 2002 to manufacture equipment for
biodegradable rigid packaging. The company claims that its proprietary production process can
produce packaging competitive with conventional heavy paper and plastic disposables. They have
adopted advanced aerospace engineering applied to production equipment design, combined with
their proprietary PPM (Primary Packaging Materials) which they say make effi cient and commercially
viable biodegradable rigid packaging.
Biosphere’s materials are moisture resistant and can be used in food service items as well as general
packaging including a wide range of rigid foam trays, containers and cups. Biosphere PPM materials
biodegrade in less than sixty days. They can be used for long shelf-life products, and are fully
microwavable and ovenable.
In 2006, Stanelco announced that it had developed a potentially new application area for biodegradable
polymers, a cigarette fi lm made from food grade starch that will decompose in two months.
5.3 Market Drivers
The specifi c drivers of starch-based biodegradable polymers are summarised below.
• Starch-based biopolymers are lower cost materials than some other biodegradable polymer types
such as synthetic co-polyesters and PLA. They are produced from relatively cheap agricultural
feedstock and have simpler manufacturing processes compared with synthetic biopolymers.
• The price of starch-based biopolymers has come down considerably over the last three years
as production volumes have increased, more effi cient production processes have been deployed
and lower cost raw materials have been found. In 2003, the average price of starch blends was
around
€3.0-5.0 per kg. In 2005, the average price range of starch blends was down to €1.5-3.5
per kg, with an average price close to
€1.75 per kg.
• Stanelco, along with its subsidiary business Biotec, are developing a new starch-based biopolymer
that it claims will undercut PET and PP prices, while offering a similar ease of processing in both
bottle blowing and thermoforming processes. Currently APET/PE sheet for making food trays costs
about
€2.5 per kg, while Biotec’s fi lm has a cost base of between €4-6.5 per kg. This is a cheaper
alternative to gelatine and certain other packaging materials but much more expensive than PET.
Stanelco hopes to bring the price of the Biotec packaging alternative down to about
€2.67 per kg.
• Starch-based biodegradable polymers also have a better environmental image than synthetic
biopolymers as they are based on sustainable resources, which open up marketing opportunities
for brand owners who wish to promote their products as being packaged in materials based on
sustainable resources.
• Starch blends have better physical and mechanical properties than pure plant based polymers, which
open up more application possibilities. For example, starch blends can produce fi lm with better
moisture barrier protection and higher clarity. Also in fi lm packaging made from starch blend,
the perforations that are normally required can be dispensed with because the optimum moisture
content soon establishes itself automatically, even in freshly packaged fruit and vegetables.
• Thermoformed starch sheets give better transparency compared with some other biodegradable
polymer such as PLA. The material offers good potential for home composting, which is a growing
consumer trend. This will be advantageous for starch-based biopolymers over PLA, which only
decomposes in a communal composting system.
60
Biodegradable Polymers
5.4 Market Size and Forecast
Table 5.1 shows global consumption of starch-based biodegradable polymers by major world region
for the years 2000, 2005 and 2010.
Table 5.1 Global consumption of starch-based biodegradable polymers by major world region,
2000, 2005 and 2010 (’000 tonnes)
Western Europe
North America
Asia Pacifi c
Total
2000
15.5
2.8
2.3
20.6
2005
29.9
8.0
6.9
44.8
2010
62.1
14.0
13.1
89.2
CAGR 2005-2010
15.7%
11.8%
13.7%
14.8%
Table 5.2 Global consumption of starch-based biodegradable polymers, excluding loose-fi ll,
by major world region, 2000, 2005 and 2010 (’000 tonnes)
Western Europe
North America
Asia Pacifi c
Total
2000
9.5
1.2
1.3
12.0
2005
14.1
3.3
4.3
21.7
2010
38.2
7.4
9.7
55.3
CAGR 2005-2010
22.1%
17.5%
17.7%
20.6%
In 2005, world consumption of starch-based biodegradable polymers is 44,800 tonnes against 20,600
tonnes in 2000. Excluding loose-fi ll packaging, consumption in 2005 is 21,700 tonnes. During the
period 2005-2010, total starch-based biodegradable polymer consumption is forecast to increase
at a compound annual average rate of 14.8%. Growth over the same period is forecast at 20.6%,
excluding loose-fi ll packaging.
Table 5.2 shows global consumption of starch-based biodegradable polymers, excluding loose-fi ll,
by major world region for the years 2000, 2005 and 2010.
In 2005, loose-fi ll packaging represents by far the largest sector for starch-based biopolymers with
52% of world market volumes. Bags and sacks is the next most important market accounting for
28% of total volumes. Packaging and ‘other’ sectors account for 14% and 6%, respectively. The
most important of the ‘other’ sectors include agricultural fi lm, hygiene products and a wide range
of injection moulding consumer products.
Figure 5.1 shows global consumption of starch-based biodegradable polymers by end use
sector, 2005.
61
The Starch-Based Biodegradable Polymer Market
Bags and sacks offer the best growth potential for starch-based biodegradable packaging in all three
major world regions. In Western Europe, for example, the bags and sacks market for starch-based
biopolymers is forecast to grow close to 24% per annum during the next fi ve years. Bags and sacks
will also show the strongest growth for starch-based biopolymers in North America and in Asia
Pacifi c with forecast growth rates of 18.0% and 18.8%, respectively. Packaging is another area of
strong growth potential for starch-based biopolymers with forecast growth of 20.0% per annum for
Western Europe, 19.2% for North America and 17.0% for Asia Pacifi c.
As a relatively mature market for starch-based biopolymers, loose-fi ll packaging volumes are forecast
to grow by 8.6% per annum in Western Europe, 6.8% per annum in North America and by 5.6%
per annum in Asia Pacifi c.
5.5 Major Suppliers and their Products
The major world suppliers of starch-based biodegradable polymers are described below.
5.5.1 Novamont
Novamont is the major producer of biodegradable blends based on starch and synthetic polymers with
annual production of over 20,000 tonnes and sales of over
€35m in 2005. Production capacity stands
at around 40,000 tonnes per annum. In addition to its internal production, Novamont’s sales have
been growing at an annual rate of 20-30% per annum during the period 2002-2005. The company
has benefi ted from growing consumption of biodegradable plastics in Italy due mainly to the separate
collection programme for organic waste that favours the installation of composting sites.
Following an agreement with Novamont, National Starch & Chemical Co. is licensing two technologies
for the production of starch-based biodegradable loose-fi ll foam for protective packaging applications.
One technology is based on high amylose starch and the second from almost unmodifi ed starch. In
2005, estimated annual production by licensees for starch-based biodegradable loose-fi ll packaging
was in the region of 20,000 tonnes.
Figure 5.1
Global consumption of starch-based biodegradable polymers by end use sector, 2005
62
Biodegradable Polymers
Novamont began its research activities in 1989 being then a part of the Italian chemical group
Montedison
. Since then, the company has invested over
€60m in R&D activities for its ‘Mater-Bi’
family of biodegradable plastic materials, the acquisition of patents from
Biotec GmbH & Co KG
and in the development of its latest biodegradable product, ‘Mater-Foam’.
In 2001, Novamont secured
a global agreement with
Biotec Biologische Naturverpackungen GmbH
& Co KG, E Khashoggi Industries Inc.
and affi liates, to settle all patent litigation it has with those
parties worldwide. Terms of the settlement include various cross-licensing arrangements. In particular,
Novamont is acquiring a worldwide exclusive license under Biotec’s patents in the fi lm industry. This
exclusive license will strengthen Novamont’s patent portfolio in the fi eld of starch-based materials
that includes over 800 patents and patent applications worldwide.
In September 2004, Novamont acquired the ‘Eastar Bio’ technology of Eastman Chemical for an
undisclosed sum. The deal includes all patents and technology rights but not production facilities or
distribution channels. Eastman introduced its biodegradable polymer in 1997 and since then has invested
more than
€75m in the project. The resin is used commercially for single-trip disposable packaging,
as well as for barrier fi lms and waste-bin liners. Eastman has a 15,000 tonnes per annum production
plant at Hartlepool in the UK, which was started up in 1999, for production of Eastar Bio products.
The technology acquired from Eastman will enhance the market position of Novamont in polyester
and starch-based polyester systems and will allow Novamont not only to complement its existing
portfolio but also speed up the internal development of polyesters from renewable raw materials.
In June 2005, Mater-Bi polymers were issued with the ‘OK home compost’ certifi cate from Belgium’s
AIB Vincotte international certifi cation institute meaning that it can be used in bags for the recycling
of biodegradable organic waste in home compost bins.
Under the Mater-Bi trademark, Novamont produces different classes of starch-based biodegradable
materials and blends of starch with synthetic polymers. Each class is available in several grades to
meet the needs of specifi c applications. Classes include grades for fi lm and sheet extrusion, injection
moulding and foams.
Film: Mater-Bi fi lm can be used in variety of applications, from agriculture to packaging fi nished
products. Mater-Bi polymers can be made into fi lm using the standard LPDE extrusion equipment,
with lower extrusion temperatures and with the possibility of regenerating the scraps using similar
techniques to those used for PE. Novamont offers different grades for specifi c applications such as
bags, shopping bags, mulching fi lms, fi lms for packaging and hygiene fi lms. Novamont claims the
Mater-Bi plastic is already used by over 3,500 councils in Europe, leading to improved waste quality
and claims cost savings of up to 20%.
Thermoforming: For thermoforming applications, Mater-Bi is being used to manufacture non-
transparent, hard, thermoformed trays for packaging fresh food.
Injection moulding: Mater-Bi can be injection moulded using normal injection presses, with cold runners
or hot chamber injection systems. The maximum injection temperature is less than 200 °C. Novamont
claims that about 10% of the scraps can be reused in injection moulding, which is about the same as
traditional plastics. Mater-Bi can be coloured using the Mater-Bi-based, biodegradable masterbatches.
A variety of injection moulded articles can be produced using Mater-Bi. These include pencil
sharpeners, rulers, cartridges, toys, plant pots, and bones. As an antistatic material, combs made of
Mater-Bi do not produce the electrical charge given by conventional combs.
63
The Starch-Based Biodegradable Polymer Market
Extruded articles: Mater-Bi can be extruded and rolled with water cooling. For example, it is possible
to produce completely biodegradable cotton buds of Mater-Bi on traditional extrusion lines. Other
examples include extruded nets for fruit and vegetables and sheets for thermoforming.
Foams: Wave by Mater-Bi, foamed sheet packaging is a biodegradable alternative to conventional
protective foam packaging such as polystyrene, polyurethane and polyethylene. Wave by Mater-Bi
is starch-based, and is expanded using water, extruded into sheets and then assembled into blocks
that can be cut into any shape. The foams have a robust and resilient closed-cell structure.
For loose fi ll packaging, Wave by Mater-Bi is recommended for packaging pharmaceutical products,
laboratory equipment, consumer goods, and mail order goods.
5.5.2 Rodenburg Biopolymers, BV
Rodenburg Biopolymers, BV, based in the Netherlands, is one of the largest producers of plant-
based biopolymers in Europe. In 2002, the company opened a 47,000 tonnes per annum plant for
production of Solanyl, a biopolymer based on potato peel. Initially, Rodenburg is targeting injection-
moulding applications such as fl owerpots. The company is planning to develop other markets such
as packaging in future.
The optimum processing temperature for Solanyl is lower than those of synthetic plastics. The
recommended temperature profi le ranges from about 110 °C at the fi rst heated zone to 170 °C at
the nozzle. Solanyl has excellent fl ow properties enabling low wall thickness. However, the injection
pressure is about 20-30% higher than needed for polyolefi ns. Mechanical properties are roughly in
the same order of magnitude as polyethylene and polystyrene.
Solanyl’s rate of degradation is adjustable and there are also grades available for controlled release
purposes of active ingredients such as fertilizers and fragrances.
5.5.3 EarthShell Corporation
EarthShell Corporation, California, USA, is an environmental packaging technology company.
It licenses and commercialises proprietary composite material technology for the manufacture of
EarthShell Packaging, including cups, plates, bowls, hinged-lid containers and sandwich wraps. The
products are based on a proprietary composite technology that combines organics such as starch
from potatoes and inorganic materials such as limestone.
In 2003, EarthShell Corp signed a licence agreement with the Sweetheart Cup Company whereby
Sweetheart produces and markets EarthShell packaging items such as cups, bowls and hinged-lid
sandwich containers in North America. Similar contracts have also been concluded with DuPont and
Green Earth Packaging. The DuPont deal focuses on the disposable food service market, including
plates, hinged clamshells, and hot and cold cups.
EarthShell also supplies materials for manufacture of thermoformed trays for fresh produce
and meat, as well as disposable plates, bowls, and cups. In these products, polyester is used as a
moisture-barrier over a rigid substrate made of a low-cost natural composite supplied by EarthShell
and Apack AG, Germany. The EarthShell composite consists of cellulose from paper waste, starch
from potato waste, ground limestone, and water. Apack dispenses with the limestone but adds a
polymeric ingredient. Both composites are foamed and formed with special equipment in a process
comparable to making waffl es.
64
Biodegradable Polymers
While EarthShell has had some success in terms of market development, it has failed to meet its fi nancial
targets. Indeed, the company has lost more than $300 million since it was founded 13 years ago, and
in 2005 announced that it is closing its Santa Barbara corporate offi ce and moving to Maryland.
5.5.4 Stanelco Group
The UK-based Stanelco Group of companies has brought together expertise in radio frequency (RF)
technology, RF applications and biodegradable material sciences to create an interesting range of
packaging technologies.
Stanelco offers the Starpol range of biodegradable, compostable plastic materials. Starpol 2000
is a biodegradable material consisting of PLA (polylactic acid), which can be used in place of
petroleum-based plastics. Starpol 2000 materials will completely biodegrade in an active compost
in approximately sixty days. The material is available in a range of blends and can be used in sheet
or fi lm form for products including food containers, carrier bags and shopping bags.
Following analysis and testing carried out by PIRA International, Stanelco’s Starpol 2000 PLA has
been approved for all food contact in the EU. Food contact approval has also been granted for
Starpol 2000 for fruit and vegetables in the US, with tests continuing for contact with all other food
types to meet Food and Drug Administration standards. Starpol 2000 is available in both fl exible
and rigid forms.
Other Stanelco packaging technologies include ‘Greenseal’ food tray lidding, ‘Starpol’ blends of
starch and PVA, the ‘FrogPack’ high impact, low cost packaging format and the ‘CradleWrap’ line
of biodegradable, air cushion packaging.
Stanelco use of radio frequency technology to seal plastic tray packages of perishable food was
launched in the UK in a trial partnership with the ASDA supermarket chain. In May 2005 the
company opened an offi ce in Orlando, Florida in a bid to target ASDA’s parent company, Wal-Mart,
along with Albertson’s, Kroger’s and Safeway. The second trial for the Greenseal technology with
ASDA has moved into the retail phase, having passed the shelf-life test.
In June 2005, Stanelco acquired Biotec, a German-based company that makes starch-based polymer
packaging for the food and pharmaceutical industries for
€20m from E. Khashoggi Industries. Stanelco,
which markets a method to seal plastic food-tray packages using radio frequency technology, said the
purchase would give it access to Biotec’s proprietary pharmaceutical grade fi lm, which can be used to
replace conventional polymers such as gelatine. Stanelco currently uses Biotec’s starch products for
making food trays, air pillows and edible packaging. Biotec’s fi lm has a cost base of between
€4-6.5
per kg, a cheaper alternative to gelatine and other materials.
Biotec’s product portfolio includes thermoplastic starch, which can be substituted for petrochemical
based plastic packaging. Stanelco’s radio frequency sealing technology can be used to process starch
polymers without the degradation caused by other methods such as thermal processing. The purchase
of Biotec will help the company develop alternatives to petroleum-based packaging.
Biotec has been producing its proprietary Bioplast starch blends for nearly a decade at Emmerich,
Germany. In 2005, production capacity for Bioplast was between 8,000-10,000 tonnes per annum.
Bioplast is a high performance biodegradable material and is comparable with normal thermoplastics
in terms of its properties. Bioplast granules can be processed on only slightly modifi ed machines for
thermoplastic resins and can be used in the same way as traditional synthetic plastics.
65
The Starch-Based Biodegradable Polymer Market
Historically, Biotec focused on fi lm applications. More recently the company has shifted emphasis onto
pharmaceutical packaging and injection moulding applications. So far, a wide range of applications
have been produced from Bioplast including: accessories for fl ower arrangements, bags, boxes, cups,
cutlery
, edge protectors, golf tees, horticultural fi lms, mantling for candles, nets, packaging, packaging
fi lms, packaging material for mailing, planters, planting pots, sacks, shopping bags, straws, strings,
tableware, tapes, technical fi lms, trays, wrap fi lm.
In January 2006, Stanelco made a co-operation agreement with supply chain specialist
Perseco, t
o
pursue requirements for environmentally friendly packaging. Perseco is a subsidiary of
Havi Global
Solutions,
which provides packaging and supply chain services to the food service and beverage
industries. Its clients include some of the world’s leading fast food brands in the US, including
McDonalds
and
Coca Cola
. The agreement will focus on development of Biotec’s biodegradable
thermoplastic starch products for food packaging materials. This will be the focus for production and
further development at a
€4.4m facility, which Stanelco plans to build at Blaenau Gwent in Wales.
5.5.5 Grenidea Technologies
Grenidea Technologies is a technology company that develops environmentally friendly products
based on their proprietary biodegradable AgroResin material, which have been commercial since
2003. Grenidea Technologies operates from Singapore, with international partners and joint venture
units around the world. AgroResin is a biodegradable packaging material formulated from fi brous
agricultural residues (AgroFibre). AgroResin is currently made from bi-products of the palm oil
industry. It can also be made from agricultural fi bres, such as wheat straw, that are common bi-
products of annual crops. AgroResin is also compatible with existing moulded pulp manufacturing
processes. It has received DIN Certco certifi cation for products made of compostable materials (DIN
EN 13432:2000-12). The resin is being used in bakery trays and fresh produce containers, which
biodegrade almost completely in less than three months.
5.5.6 Biopolymer Technologies
Biopolymer Technologies (Biop) offers a starch-based material containing an additive consisting of a
vinyl alcohol/vinyl acetate copolymer. In 2005, the company transferred production of its bioplastics
from The Netherlands to Schwarzheide in Germany and invested
€7m in a new plant there, increasing
its production capacity to 10,000 tonnes per annum. The announcement followed the decision earlier
in 2005 by BASF to produce its ’Ecofl ex’ biodegradable plastic, one of the components of Biop’s
Biopar resins, at the Schwarzheide site.
The main component of the Bopar production process are based on renewable resources, especially
potato starch. Development applications are packaging fi lms, carrier bags, waste bags, agricultural
applications and a range of moulded products. Biop also plans to extend its range of bioplastics and
make the products available in larger quantities. Materials can be produced to be 100% biodegradable
to DIN 13432 standard.
5.5.7 NNZ BV
Netherlands based packaging company NNZ BV offers Okopack, a biodegradable starch-based
material. Okopack is available in three varieties: Okopack C is transparent with high gloss, with
66
Biodegradable Polymers
properties similar to polypropylene, Okopack S is semi-transparent with properties similar to
polyethylene and Okopack Net for netting applications. Okopack C and S can be used for production
of fl at fi lms, sleeve fi lms and bags and sacks, which can be used for fruit and vegetable packaging.
In January 2006, Okopack fi lm and Okopack trays received full Din-Certco certifi cation for
biodegradability.
5.5.8 Plantic Technologies
Australian company Plantic Technologies has been producing starch-based biodegradable polymers
since 2003. Their Plantic R1 material is used to manufacture rigid trays and is also suitable for dry
food packaging such as biscuit and confectionery trays, blister packaging, and trays for electronic
components. The Melbourne production facility produces fl at sheet roll stock in a range of standard
colours and gauges.
In January 2006, Plantic announced a two-year collaboration programme with Amcor Australasia
plc to develop biodegradable fl exible packaging solutions for food and confectionery packaging.
In 2005, Nestle became the fi rst major user in Europe to adopt Plantic’s biodegradable starch-based
materials for manufacture of Dairy Box chocolate trays in Europe.
Since 2003, Plantic has also concluded supply deals with companies such as Cadbury Schweppes,
Lindt and Spungli and the Byron Bay Cookie Company.
67
6
The Polylactic Acid Biodegradable Polymers Market
6.1 Introduction
Polylactic acid (PLA) is a biodegradable polymer derived from lactic acid. It is a highly versatile
material and is made from 100% renewable resources such as corn, sugar beet, wheat and other
starch-rich products. PLA exhibits many properties that are equivalent to or better than many
petroleum-based plastics, which makes it suitable for a variety of applications. PLA is available
either in a rigid or fl exible form and can be co-polymerised with other materials. It is suitable for a
wide range of processing technologies including injection moulding, fi lm and sheet extrusion, blow
moulding, thermoforming and fi bre spinning.
Polylactic acid was fi rst discovered in the 1930s when a DuPont scientist, Wallace Caruthers, produced
a low molecular weight PLA product. In 1954, DuPont patented Carothers’ process. Initially the
focus was on the manufacture of medical grade applications due to the high cost of the polymer, but
advances in fermentation of glucose, which forms lactic acid, has dramatically lowered the cost of
producing lactic acid and signifi cantly increased interest in the polymer.
The formation of Cargill Dow Polymers, a joint venture between Cargill, the agricultural company,
and Dow Chemicals in 1997, was one of the most signifi cant developments in the evolution of the
biodegradable polymers market. Cargill Dow, which is now trading as NatureWorks LLC, began
commercial scale production of their NatureWorks polylactic acid (PLA) based biopolymers in Blair,
Nebraska, USA in 1997. The company has since invested in the development of a large scale 140,000
tonnes per annum facility for PLA production.
NatureWorks PLA polymers exhibit good permeability to water vapour so that moisture can pass
through fl exible and rigid fi lm thus minimising condensation. They have a good fl avour and aroma
barrier with comparable organoleptic properties to glass and PET, high clarity and gloss with less
than 5% haze, grease resistance to most oils and fats, stiffness which allows for downgauging, heat
sealability with initiation temperatures around 80 °C and heat seal strengths of greater than 2 lb/inch.
Dead-fold is 25% better than cellophane, which means less spoilage or waste from open packages
and minimal changes are necessary to existing processing equipment. The natural surface energy
of the polymer is readily acceptable for many ink formulations for good printability. There is also
a wide range of disposal options available including mechanical and chemical recycling, industrial
composting and incineration with energy.
6.2 Applications Development
PLA has potential for use in a wide range of applications, including:
• Thermoformed trays and containers for food packaging and food service applications.
• Films and labels for a wide range of applications in the fi lm market including labels, heat-seal
overlays, window fi lms, fl ow wrap, twist wrap and formulations for carrier bags.
68
Biodegradable Polymers
• Injection stretch blow moulded bottles and jars for short shelf-life applications that use cold-fi lling
techniques such as still water, fresh juices, dairy beverages and edible oil.
• Disposable serviceware: PLA can be used in the manufacturing of disposable cold drink cups,
bowls, plates, and cutlery.
• Speciality Cards: PLA can be used for a variety of cards including gift, phone, key, credit and
retail cards. Other sheet applications include folding cartons and blister packs.
• Fibres:
PLA
fi bre applications include apparel, bedding, carpet, furnishings, personal care,
nonwovens and industrial textiles. NatureWorks has built up more than 85 leading brand
owners, textile manufacturers and lifestyle partners to develop and market products under
their Ingeo brand.
Some examples of new PLA application developments are discussed below.
6.2.1 Rigid Packaging
Ex-Tech Plastics Inc. became the fi rst company to produce thermoformed sheet based on NatureWorks
PLA in 2003.
Wilkinson Industries Inc. became the fi rst US company to manufacture thermoformed food containers
and trays made from biodegradable polymers. The NaturesPLAstic product range is based on
NatureWorks PLA polymers.
In 2004, two of the world’s leading processors of rigid plastic packaging, Huhtamaki and RPC
Group, both announced new product ranges based on NatureWorks PLA.
In November 2004, Huhtamaki introduced BioWare, a new range of biodegradable and compostable
foodservice packaging including single-serve cold drinks cups, plates, cutlery and containers made
from polylactic acid produced by NatureWorks LLC. The products are designed to meet the needs
of various foodservice operators, ranging from outdoor festivals and mass events to catering and
daily food and beverage service. BioWare products are clear and sturdy, and are suited for serving
cold drinks including water, beer, soft drinks and shakes.
BioWare has already achieved some success in the marketplace. For example Alken Maes, the second
largest Belgian brewery, used the BioWare beer cups in the 2004 summer festivals, after which the
cups were composted.
In Europe, Huhtamaki’s Chinet range is an environmentally sound alternative to chinaware. Chinet
plates and bowls are made from 100% moulded fi bre and are certifi ed for compostability according
to EN 13432. Chinet plates are made from Huhtamaki’s own post-industrial paper cup cuttings in
the European manufacturing unit in Norway with a proprietary smooth-moulding process and they
are recognised for their rigidity, functionality and premium fi nish.
In 2004, RPC Bebo Nederland launched a range of biodegradable containers manufactured
in NatureWork’s PLA material.
RPC says that PLA offers excellent clarity and has an equivalent
oxygen barrier to polypropylene. For sealed packs, RPC Bebo Nederland can also supply a heat-
sealable, compostable lidding fi lm, which is manufactured from biodegradable cellulose derived
from wood pulp.
69
The Polylactic Acid Biodegradable Polymers Market
RPC’s HI-COMPOST product range of biodegradable containers have a highly transparent and glossy
fi nish which, say the company, make them aesthetically similar to clear polystyrene. Wall thickness
of the HI-COMPOST containers range from 200 to 1500 micron.
In 2005, Italian fresh food packaging company Coopbox Europe launched a PLA-based tray for
packing fresh foods such as meat. The product’s mechanical properties mean that it can be used on
normal packing lines with stretch fi lm or sealed with PLA fi lm to produce a 100% biodegradable
pack. The expanded structure also helps to absorb the liquid released by meat.
Cedap, a division of Siamp-Cedap, specialises in thermoforming polystyrene for food industry
applications. The company also offers thermoformed PLA-based single-serve cups.
Faerch Plast AS is a manufacturer of packaging for the food and retail sectors. It offers a wide variety
of plastic types, including articles based on NatureWorks PLA polymers. Target markets include fresh
foods such as meat, salad and pasta.
In 2005, Wal-Mart decided to switch from petroleum-based plastics to corn-based plastics based on
NatureWorks PLA. NatureWorks will initially supply PLA for manufacture of 114 million packages
a year for fresh strawberries, sprouts, cut fruit and herbs to Wal-Mart. Plastic gift cards, salad boxes,
deli trays, tomato packages, plastic fi lm on donut boxes, and other applications will follow.
6.2.2 Flexible Packaging
In 2004, Treofan GmbH developed a metallised version of its PLA biodegradable fi lm that reduces
permeability aromas, oxygen and water. The metallised Biophan PLA fi lm is said to be suitable for
packaging fatty foods such as butter and cheese, as well as for confectionery, where the mirror-like
fi nish adds a decorative feature to the barrier properties. The metallised fi lm meets both EU and US,
Food & Drug Administration food contact requirements.
Natura Packaging GmbH, belongs to the Eurea group of companies. The company specialises in
manufacture of biodegradable packaging products based on renewable raw materials such as polylactic
acid (PLA). Natura focuses on three main areas: fruit and vegetable packaging, waste management,
packaging and shopping bags.
Plastic Suppliers Inc., a US extruder of blown fi lm for labels and envelopes, has produced the world’s
fi rst blown fi lm from NatureWorks PLA. It was hitherto thought that PLA was unsuitable for blown
fi lm extrusion. Plastic Supplies claims that its EarthFirst fi lm is 100% compostable, has high gloss,
optimum clarity and transparency, high moisture vapour transmission rate, fl avour retention, odour
barrier, is breathable and is US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) compliant. Areas of application
for EarthFirst include window carton fi lm for food packaging, label fi lm, fl oral wrap fi lm, shrink
fi lm and envelope fi lm.
Cortec Corporation of White Bear Lake, MN, is a manufacturer of environmentally responsible
packaging and materials protection technologies. Cortec offers two families of high performance,
certifi ed biodegradable packaging technologies, Eco Film and Eco Works fi lms and bags. Cortec
completed the Din Certco application and review process for Eco Film and Eco Works products,
which meet ASTM D 6400 international standards for commercial compostability. The most common
types of Eco Film and Eco Works products are organic collection bags used by consumers for
organic waste diversion programmes. While waste collection bags are by far the largest application
of these products at the moment, the company maintains they are suitable for a wide range of other
applications including agricultural, construction and food protection fi lms.
70
Biodegradable Polymers
In 2004 it was announced that Japanese companies Kuraray Co. Ltd., The Pack Corp and Matsuura
Sangyo Co. Ltd. began offering biodegradable shopping bags made from polylactic acid to women’s
clothing stores and also to high-end supermarkets who wish to project an image of environmental
consciousness.
In 2004, Offi ce Media (Tokyo) developed a new PLA fi lm exhibiting vastly improved functionality as
a packaging material. Through combination with other biodegradable plastics, the fi lm’s transparency,
fl exibility, heat resistance and impact resistance, have been balanced in multiple dimensions, and
through adopting two-layer and three-layer structures, gas barrier properties have also been improved.
Technology to eliminate the characteristic odour of PLA developed independently by Offi ce Media,
have also been applied.
6.2.3 Blow Moulded Bottles
Amcor, one of the world’s largest manufacturers of PET bottles, is investigating the potential for
a new line of biodegradable bottles for the European markets, to be made using PLA. Amcor PET
Packaging has already designed and produced preforms and bottles made out of PLA in conjunction
with Canada-based Husky Injection Moulding Systems. The capital costs of a PLA system compared
to a PET system are very similar. The main cost component is resin, and the cost of PLA is comparable
to that of PET, and is suitable for injection stretch blow moulding. PLA can be used for non-
carbonated beverages such as water, juices, milk, as well as edible oil products. Biodegradable PLA
bottles can also be easily separated from PET bottles in the waste stream since the adoption of the
Compostability Mark.
In 2005, Husky working alongside BIOTA Brands of America, blow moulding equipment supplier
SIG Corpoplast and Cargill Dow, which supplied its NatureWorks PLA material, introduced the fi rst
biodegradable water bottle onto the US market. Husky supplied BIOTA with the 24-cavity HyPET
120 injection moulding system.
6.2.4 High Performance Applications
In 2004, Sony and Mitsubishi Plastics teamed up to develop a fl ame retardant PLA biodegradable
resin claimed to be as strong as ABS. The new material will be used in the front panel of Sony stand-
alone DVD players. The resin employs an aluminium hydroxide fl ame retardant, is rated UL94 V-2
and complies with the EU’s Restrictions on Hazardous Substances (RoHS) directive. Sony says the
use of additives and modifi cations to moulding parameters allows it to process PLA compound on
conventional injection presses in commercially viable cycle times.
Toyota Tsusho Corp., a subsidiary of Toyota Corp, and Diversifi ed Natural Products Inc, of the USA,
formed a partnership in 2004 to explore the use of PLA in automotive applications.
Pioneer Corp. of Japan has used PLA as a replacement for polycarbonate to manufacture an
optical disc.
6.3 Market Drivers
The specifi c market drivers of PLA biodegradable polymers are discussed below.
71
The Polylactic Acid Biodegradable Polymers Market
6.3.1 Better Environmental Credentials
The environmental attributes of PLA make it an attractive packaging alternative to fossil fuel based
plastics and other synthetic biodegradable packaging materials with positive consumer appeal. In
addition, packaging legislation from governments across Europe means that PLA packaging not only
helps to avoid existing and proposed taxes on packaging and packaging waste but can also in some
instances qualify for subsidies.
6.3.2 Stable Supply and More Competitive Prices
Biodegradable polymer prices are generally much higher than commodity polymers for a number
of reasons. Most biopolymers have only been commercially available for a couple of years and
production volumes are very low compared with the mass produced polyolefi ns. Initial development
costs are also very high.
PLA biodegradable polymer prices have fallen sharply over the last fi ve years since the polymers
were fi rst commercialised. NatureWorks PLA is now available at prices between
€1.37-2.75 per
kg compared to a price range of
€3.0-3.5 per kg fi ve years ago. Another factor that is encouraging
uptake is the stability of maize prices versus petroleum-based polymers. NatureWorks PLA has been
price competitive with PET for example over the last twelve months as PLA manufacturing scale
has increased and process improvements were made alongside the recent sustained higher levels of
PET pricing.
NatureWorks claims these trends are encouraging many customers to seek multi-year contracts
to ensure a more stable raw material supply and secure a predictable cost position for their own
packaging materials.
One of the cheapest biopolymers is Solanyl, produced by Rodenburg Biopolymers, which costs
between
€0.8-1.5 per kg. Solanyl prices are so low because it uses scrap potato peel, a very
cheap source of raw material. FkuR’s PLA/polyester blends, on the other hand, cost between
€2.85-3.70 per kg.
6.3.3 World’s First Greenhouse-Gas-Neutral Polymer
NatureWorks PLA claims to be the world’s fi rst greenhouse-gas-neutral polymer. This factor
is important for European customers whereby NatureWorks PLA could assist them to achieve
compliance with the greenhouse-gas-emission reduction requirements of the Kyoto Protocol that
came into effect in February 2005.
The greenhouse-gas-neutral claim is the result of the combination of renewable-resource-based
feedstock, along with the purchase of renewable energy certifi cates (RECs) backed by lifecycle
assessment data. These RECs will serve as an offset to cover all of the emissions from the energy
used for the production of NatureWorks PLA. The company will purchase certifi cates for projected
2006 production at its 140,000 tonne capacity manufacturing plant and 182,000 tonne capacity
lactic acid plant in Blair, Neb., USA, as well as at its corporate offi ces in Minnetonka, Minn., USA.
The purchase of renewable energy will allow NatureWorks to decrease its fossil fuel footprint
by 68%.
72
Biodegradable Polymers
6.3.4 Replacement of Traditional Packaging Materials
For rigid thermoformed packaging, the stiffness of PLA enables more effi cient down gauging versus
existing PET materials. PLA is also an alternative to traditional plastic fi lms such as cellophane,
cellulose acetate and glassine, as well as a low temperature heat seal layer and/or fl avour and aroma
barrier in co-extruded structures where its combination of properties allows layer simplifi cation or
replacement of specifi c layers.
PLA blow moulded bottles offer comparable organoleptic properties to glass and PET making it
suitable for a variety of short shelf-life food and beverage bottling applications.
PLA is also fi nding growing use in the manufacture of thermoformed disposable serviceware. Because
of its compostability, cups and containers made from PLA can be collected with food waste and
transported to an appropriate commercial composting facility. Cups also feature high gloss and
clarity, strength and excellent printability.
For fl exible fi lm applications such as carrier and trash bags PLA has the potential to replace LDPE and
HDPE bags when a compostable solution is desired. Furthermore, the high water vapour transmission
rate of PLA is benefi cial for fresh food applications where it is important that the water vapour
escapes quickly from the packaging. PLA also reduces fogging on the lid of the packaging.
While PLA has made good progress in fl exible fi lm applications, development of new technologies
is required to improve the fundamental qualities such as thermal properties: heat resistance,
heat shrinkage etc.) and mechanical properties (strength, ductility, etc.) for further successful
commercialisation.
Traditionally, a low-molecular-weight liquid plasticiser addition method has been used for achieving
fl exible PLA fi lms. However, the fi lm made with this method was found to be unstable against
changes in external factors such as temperature and pressure, resulting in the bleeding out of the
liquid plasticiser, which in turn would lead to defects in the fi lm characteristics such as transparency
and fl exibility, which were altered over time.
Toray Industries has developed a new technology that has succeeded in containing the occurrence
of bleeding out when faced with changes in temperature or pressure and displays highly stable
fl exibility while not losing any of the superior features of PLA such as transparency, heat resistance,
and biodegradability.
6.3.5 Speciality Cards
PLA is fi nding new applications in speciality cards such as credit, membership, retail and gift cards.
Biodegradable polymers provide retailers and brand owners with an opportunity to provide a more
responsible environmental position to traditional plastics such as PVC for these applications. The
rigid properties of PLA sheet allow it to be easily scored and PLA also exhibits an optimum surface
for printing and varnishing.
6.3.6 Source Options
NatureWorks LLC has announced a source options program, especially for European customers who
may view maize variety as an important market issue. Customers may choose their desired level of
73
The Polylactic Acid Biodegradable Polymers Market
market impact regarding the maize source of the polymer. Available programs include certifi cation
that the polymer has no genetically-modifi ed content, a source offset option (guarantees an equal
amount of non-genetically modifi ed maize is purchased and delivered) and a seed-to-fi nished product
identity-preserved grade of NatureWorks PLA.
6.3.7 New Applications
Shrink sleeve suppliers, brand owners and packaging converters are examining better performing and
more environmentally-friendly alternatives such as polylactic acid, as a replacement for traditional
shrink sleeve materials. Shrink sleeves can be made from PVC, PET, PP and oriented PS. The problems
associated with PVC, recyclability, and oriented polystyrene (OPS), restricting shrinkage level, have
resulted in a surge in use of polyethylene terephthalate glycol (PETG), but this material is not suitable
for all applications.
Wine and spirit bottles could be the fi rst target application for compostable PLA-based shrink sleeves
being developed by Gilbreth. The company is at the fi nal stages of testing a PLA material supplied from
Plastic Supplies. Gilbreth has found that the PLA-based shrink sleeve shrinks at lower temperatures
than traditional shrink sleeve material such as PETG. Another company, Decorative Sleeves, is also
in the process of testing PLA-based shrink sleeves.
Japanese electronics company Sharp has developed technology to blend PLA biopolymers with
conventional plastics recovered from scrapped consumer appliances. Petroleum-based plastics are
generally incompatible with bioplastics, and blends tend to show inferior properties such as impact
strength and heat resistance. Sharp claims to have overcome these problems with a microdispersion
technology that dramatically improves the properties of the blended material. The company expects
to use such blends in its consumer electronics products by early 2007.
Another Japanese consumer electronics company, NEC, plans to adopt PLA biopolymers for its
cellphones and personal computers in order to achieve product differentiation. Impact strength, heat
deformation resistance and durability are required for cellphones and the company has developed
a kenaf-reinforced polylactic acid that meets these requirements. Plans now call for the reinforced
resin to be given non-phosphorous, non-halogen fl ame retardancy, and then applied to notebook
personal computer housings starting in 2007.
Meanwhile, Fujitsu and Toray Industries have developed the fi rst large-scale notebook computer
housing based on polylactic acid biodegradable polymers. The housing is moulded of a specially
developed PLA/polycarbonate blend that provide the required heat and fl ame resistance.
In 2005, Japanese company Kaneka developed the fi rst beads-process, foamed resin moulded product,
which is based on polylactic acid. The new KanePearl product has the strength and shock-absorbing
properties of existing beads-process, foamed polystyrene products.
Unitika Textiles in Japan has also developed a technology to manufacture foam-moulded products
with good heat resistance using PLA.
6.3.8 Better Processing
Plastic additives manufacturer, Clariant, is running fi eld tests with packaging converters using
polylactic acid polymers for its CESA-extend masterbatch. The aim of the new additive is to improve
74
Biodegradable Polymers
the viscosity of PLA for stretch blow moulding applications, which should lead to greater production
effi ciencies and cost savings when using PLA polymers.
6.4 Market Size and Forecast
Table 6.1 shows global consumption of polylactic acid biodegradable polymers by major world
region for the years 2000, 2005 and 2010.
Table 6.1 Global consumption of polylactic acid biodegradable polymers by major world
region, 2000, 2005 and 2010 (’000 tonnes)
Western Europe
North America
Asia Pacifi c
Total
2000
3.7
2.7
2.3
8.7
2005
19.0
9.6
7.2
35.8
2010
50.5
22.6
16.4
89.5
CAGR 2005-2010
21.6%
18.7%
17.9%
20.1%
World consumption of polylactic acid biodegradable polymers has increased signifi cantly over the
last fi ve years as major suppliers such as NatureWorks have brought their 140,000 tonnes per annum
plant fully on stream. In 2005, world consumption of PLA amounted to 35,800 tonnes against 8,700
tonnes fi ve years earlier. During the period 2005-2010, PLA consumption is forecast to reach 89,500
tonnes, which represents a compound annual growth rate of 20.1%.
Western Europe is the largest market for PLA in 2005 with just over 53.0% of world PLA consumption.
North America accounts for 27.0% and Asia Pacifi c the remaining 20.0%.
Figure 6.1 shows percentage share of global PLA consumption by end use sector for 2005.
Figure 6.1
Percentage share of global PLA consumption by end use sector, 2005
75
The Polylactic Acid Biodegradable Polymers Market
Packaging, including foodservice, is easily the largest end use market for PLA with 70% of total
consumption in 2005. Textile fi bres account for an estimated 23% of total volumes. ‘Other’
applications, with just 7% of total volumes, include speciality cards and sheet, agricultural products
and a wide range of injection moulded products.
6.5 Major Suppliers and their Products
The major suppliers of biodegradable polymers based on PLA are described below.
NatureWorks LLC is the new name of Cargill Dow LLC. The company was renamed after its product,
the PLA-based biologically degradable polymer, following the Dow Chemical Company’s sale of its
50% stake to agricultural company Cargill, its former joint venture partner, in 2005.
Cargill Dow Polymers LLC started up its fi rst commercial-scale plant for polylactic acid (PLA) at
Blair, Nebraska, in the US in 2002. The unit has planned capacity to produce 136,000 tonnes per
annum. Until then, the pilot production capacity for PLA was only 4,000 tonnes per annum.
In early 2004, Cargill Dow, as the company was then known, refocused market development on
food packaging and textiles. Pricing was reduced from an original level of $1.0 per lb to $0.85 per
lb or lower, making PLA more competitive with materials such as PET. Sales rose 60% during the
fi rst nine months of 2004 compared to the same period a year earlier and the number of customers
during the same period doubled.
The company aims to secure market share as quickly as possible, particularly in the food packaging
area. Marketing activities are being focused on drinking cups, deli and produce containers and other
packaging uses where the resin can function and compete on price with established polymers such as
PET. In fi bre form, the material is also suitable for the production of textiles (garments, carpets).
NatureWorks says that NatureWorks PLA resin is competitive with petrochemical-based products.
The company claims that its PLA has a life cycle that reduces fossil fuel consumption by 50% in
its production and emissions of greenhouse gases are reduced by 15-60%. Over the next few years,
around $250m is to be invested in commercial development and technology improvement.
NatureWorks has signed cooperation agreements with a number of users including Tetra Pak, Trespaphan
GmbH, Mitsubishi Plastics, Woolmark Company Ltd and the British Autobar Group Ltd.
NatureWorks has also concluded an exclusive agreement with Taiwan’s Wei Mon Industry Cn.
Ltd (WMI) for the marketing of packaging products made of ‘NatureWorks’ PLA material. The
material is being marketed in Taiwan under the name ‘Nature Green’. In view of Taiwan’s growing
plastic waste problem, the government is working on new environmental guidelines banning the
use of disposable products made of plastics, starting with bags and tablecloths made from fossil
raw materials.
NatureWorks is achieving some success in persuading leading retailers and manufacturers to switch
to PLA packaging. In 2005, it was announced that Wal-Mart Stores Inc. would use PLA in containers
for produce such as herbs and other products. NatureWorks followed up the Wal-Mart deal with
an announcement that Del Monte Fresh Produce NA Inc. would increase its use of NatureWorks
PLA in packaging for pineapple, melons and fruit and vegetable medleys. NatureWorks’ PLA is also
being used in containers for Newman’s Own salad dressing and bottles for Biota drinking water.
76
Biodegradable Polymers
NatureWorks currently offers two biodegradable polymer brands for packaging and fi bre applications.
NatureWorks PLA is used for manufacture of food packaging and serviceware. Ingeo PLA is used
for manufacture of nonwoven textile fi bres.
NatureWorks PLA can be extruded, cast or biaxially oriented, and thermoformed using conventional
processing equipment. The company claims that NatureWorks PLA performs like traditional
petroleum-based plastics, and in some cases offers better performance characteristics, including gloss,
clarity, strength, and fl avour and aroma barrier.
In 2005, NatureWorks LLC announced that it was is developing a new generation of PLA that can
be used for microwavable packaging. The company also announced results of research that showed
bottles could be used to package oxygen sensitive food and beverages using barrier-enhanced PLA
in the future. Tests showed that multi-layer bottles, with a barrier resin middle layer and an outer
layer of PLA, had improved water and oxygen barriers.
Californian based company Cereplast Inc. is the developer and manufacturer of a proprietary
biodegradable and compostable biopolymer based on NatureWorks PLA resin. Specifi cally, Cereplast
biodegradable resins incorporate the following ingredients in their formulation: starch derived from
cornstarch, wheat starch or potato starch, polylactic acid generated from the corn dextrose and
minerals and other biodegradable components, to enhance the physical properties required for the
various applications. Cereplast bioplastics can be used to manufacture thermoformed articles such as
cups, containers and cutlery, plus extrusion coating, profi le extrusion and blow moulding grades.
In March 2006, Cereplast announced plans to double its capacity by the summer of 2006 and is investing
in new and more effi cient equipment. The company also reported that advances in nano-technology
that they have introduced into their process coupled with polymer processing advantages through
lower temperatures, support Cereplast’s confi dence in the viability of the bioplastics market.
In 2004, the Toyota Motor Corporation of Japan brought on stream a pilot plant to make bioplastics
based on polylactic acid and derived from sugar cane and other natural sources. The plant, costing
€14m, has a capacity of 1,000 tonnes per annum. Toyota has been involved in a number of programmes
aimed at promoting ‘global regeneration’ and the creation of a recycling oriented society. Bioplastics
with improved performance in terms of durability, heat resistance and other performance criteria are
used in the Toyota Raum passenger vehicle.
Japanese company NEC has developed a plant-derived bioplastic whose main component is polylactic
acid. It is said to possess the world’s best fl ame retardance for a product of this type. This has been
achieved without the use of halogenated or phosphorous fl ame retardants. NEC has applied proprietary
property-modifying additives such as inorganic heat absorbants, high fl ow modifi ers and impact
modifi ers to realise the bioplastic. The material conforms to the UL94 5V standard, which means it
can be utilised in a wide variety of electronic products, including personal computer housing.
Netherlands-based Hycail, a fully owned subsidiary of Dairy Farmers of America, manufactures
PLA biodegradable polymers for applications such as rigid packaging, electronics, fi lms, emulsions,
fl exibilisers, adhesives, binders, coatings and chewing gum base. The company has had a semi-
commercial plant operational since April 2004 and currently manufactures just a few hundred tonnes
of PLA polymers. The production plant is located in Noordhorn, the Netherlands with offi ces also
located in Noordhorn, and Turkku, Finland. Hycail products are certifi ed according to EN 13432
and safe for food contact use. The company is currently in the process of constructing its fi rst full-
scale European plant with an annual capacity of at least 25,000 tonnes per annum.
77
The Polylactic Acid Biodegradable Polymers Market
In December 2005, Hycail announced the launch of a new biodegradable material, Hycail XM 1020,
which can withstand temperatures over 200 °C without distortion. It can also be microwaved with
fatty and liquid foods, without distortion or stress cracking: cups made from the material have stood
up to microwaving with olive oil up to 205 °C for 30 minutes. Hycail claims that the increased heat
resistance has not affected other properties such as transparency, processability and strength. The
company claims that the new material is a genuine game changer in PLA technology and puts it in
the high performance thermoplastics arena.
In 2004, Toray Industries, Inc. succeeded in developing the world’s fi rst plasticiser-free fl exible PLA fi lm
using Toray’s own nano-structure control technology for biaxially oriented fi lms. This fi lm, without
losing the transparency and heat resistance features of PLA, has achieved superior fl exibility levels,
meaning it could be used as packaging fi lms such as wrapping fi lms. Toray are confi dent that the
environment-friendly features of PLA fi lm are expected to spur widespread demand in the future.
Toray plans to commercialise the PLA fi lm in areas such as soft packaging materials, fi lms for
building materials, electronic devices, and automobiles as well as for industrial material usage such
as in process fi lms.
Osaka-based Mitsui Chemicals Inc. is increasing production of its Lacea-brand PLA resin. The
bio-based material has been used in electronics packaging, envelope windows and prepaid phone
cards. Most recently, Honda Motor Co. Ltd. of Tokyo has used Lacea PLA in packaging straps
at its auto plants.
FKuR Kunststoff GmbH (FKuR) launched its biopolymer business in 2000. The company has capacity
of more than 2,700 tonnes per annum and sells in all global regions.
In collaboration with the Fraunhofer Umsicht Institute in Oberhausen, Germany, FkuR has developed
a PLA/polyester blend that reportedly processes like LDPE fi lm. Tests show that the new Bio-Flex
219F material can be processed on conventional blown fi lm lines without modifi cations to screws,
dies, and take-offs.
The company claims easy processing results from the high compatibility of the blend components.
The formulation consists of more than 10% PLA (purchased from NatureWorks LLC) plus a
biodegradable co-polyester and special additives. FKuR says a special combination of compatibilisers
permits coupling between the PLA and the co-polyester. The compound is homogeneous, which
allows the fi lm to be drawn down to 8 microns. Film up to 110 microns thick is 90% degraded after
twelve weeks in composting conditions.
Bio-Flex 219F is targeted for shopping bags, mulch fi lm, and laminates for trays. FKuR has also
developed Bio-Flex grades with higher stiffness. Grade 466F (more than 20% PLA) and grade
467F (more than 30% PLA) are for shopping bags. Grade 482F, with more than 70% PLA, is for
cast fi lm.
Another offering in FKuR’s Nature Compounds line is a modifi ed cellulose with processing
characteristics and mechanical properties similar to polystyrene. Biograde 300A can be injection
moulded for foodservice applications such as cutlery, is white in colour and produced with natural
fi llers and a special vegetable oil. It has high thermal stability and can be moulded on standard machines
with a general-purpose screw. The material is notable for its low shrinkage and virtual absence of
warpage, according to the company. Up to 20% regrind can be processed without deterioration of
properties. Biograde 300A will contain special additives that permit the material to be thermoformed
into hot cups.
78
Biodegradable Polymers
FKuR also introduced Biograde 200C in 2005, an unfi lled cellulose blend with high stiffness and
transparency for cast fi lm and injection moulding. The material can also be blow moulded into
bottles and thermoformed into cups and trays. Injection moulded Biograde 200C exhibits properties
comparable to polystyrene, but with the addition of barrier performance comparable to PLA. It
consists of 100% renewable resources, but does not contain starch.
Biomer, another German biopolymer manufacturer, is exploring new markets for its PHB and PLA
polyesters. Biomer develops micro-organisms that ferment sugar or starch syrup through a toll
manufacturing arrangement. The polyester extract is then compounded with low- and high-molecular-
weight plasticisers, nucleators, and processing aids to produce three standard injection moulding
formulations. Melt viscosity is very low, so high clamp force is not necessary to produce complex
structures. The materials are said to process like liquid-crystal polymers and have a melt fl ow rate
(MFR) above 20 g/10 min. Biomer claims that 1.2 mm thick samples of its materials degrade in a
composting environment within six weeks.
Grade P226 reportedly has mechanical properties similar to PP, is easy to mould, and offers fast cycles.
Grade P209 has properties similar to HDPE but elongation at break is signifi cantly lower because of
the material’s crystalline structure. Grade P240 is a higher impact version of P209.
Injection moulded applications include medical diagnostic tools, fi rework casings, and practice artillery
shells for the military. PHB is also extruded into multi-fi laments for woven surgical patches. Biomer
is developing PHB grades with higher melt strength for blown fi lm. Biomer also produces smaller
amounts of PLA for transparent medical diagnostic strips, which are injection moulded.
The fi rst PLA production facility in China is scheduled to start up by the second half of 2007. Uhde
Inventa-Fischer has been awarded a contract by Harbin Weilida Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd. to build a
10,000 tonnes per annum continuous polylactide plant at Harbin Heilongjiang Province, P.R. China.
79
7
The PHA Biodegradable Polymers Market
7.1 Introduction
Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) are a family of biodegradable aliphatic co-polyesters produced by
bacterial fermentation. These polymers are synthesised in the bodies of bacteria fed with glucose (e.g.,
from sugar cane) in a fermentation plant. PHA was fi rst discovered in prokaryotes as a high molecular
weight storage molecule in cytoplasmic granules. Since then over one hundred PHA compositions
have been reported, some made by genetically engineered bacterial strains. PHAs are extremely
versatile polymers as their crystallinity can be manipulated to provide a broad range of mechanical
and barrier properties, in some cases matching the performance of engineered thermoplastics.
Polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) is the most common type of PHA. In recent years there has been
growing interest in the use of PHB and PHB copolymers in the biodegradable plastics industry. The
biodegradable and non-toxic effect of PHBs also make them a strong possibility for many medical
applications, including drug release, bone regeneration, and nerve guidance.
PHA biodegradable polymers are still largely at the development stage of market development,
although there a few commercial applications available. The main candidates for commercialisation are
Biopol PHBV, being developed by Metabolix, and Nodax PHBH, marketed by Procter & Gamble.
Metabolix is the leading producer of PHA biodegradable material. The company produces PHA
through aerobic fermentation, which involves converting natural sugars or oils into PHA polymers
directly inside aerated fermentation tanks. Each fermentation consists of a growth phase, during
which empty cells (bio-factories) are grown to target concentrations, followed by a production phase,
during which the cells fi ll up with PHA.
Metabolix PHA polymers are semi-crystalline thermoplastics:
Varying the chain length and side chains can produce a broad range of physical and mechanical
properties. R can be hydrogen or hydrocarbon chains of up to around C13 in length, and x can range
from 1 to 3 or more. Varying x and R affects hydrophobicity, Tg (glass transition temperature), Tm
(melt temperature) and the level of crystallinity. The level of crystallinity can vary from around 70%
to very low, producing a range from high stiffness to elastomeric. When R is a methyl group and
x=1, the polymer is poly-(3-hydroxybutyric acid) (PHB), which is the base homopolymer in the PHA
class. Metabolix PHA polymers containing 3-hydroxy acids have a chiral centre, and are optically
active. Metabolix’ manufacturing process by its very nature means that all 3-hydroxy units have an
R confi guration.
80
Biodegradable Polymers
Metabolix offers PHA homopolymers, copolymers, and terpolymers. Copolymer grades have a
broad property spectrum, from rigid thermoplastics to thermoplastic elastomers, and grades useful
in waxes, adhesives, and binders. Metabolix can also convert its PHA copolymers into their building
blocks, which have applications as solvents and chemical intermediates. Metabolix PHA polymers
can also be produced as aqueous dispersions with glass transition temperatures (Tg) generally
below 0 °C. These dispersions are unique in that they can be made in the amorphous state, but form
semi-crystalline fi lms after drying. Hence there is no need to use traditional coalescing solvents or
plasticizers to artifi cially reduce the polymer glass transition temperature during the fi lm formation
and drying processes. These fi lms are extremely tough and show unusual scrub and scuff resistance
compared with conventional emulsion polymers.
Metabolix’s PHBV (polyhydroxybutyrate valerate) was initially developed by ICI. PHBV and related
copolymers are made in a pilot plant using different bacteria to create compositions with up to 70%
crystallinity. Elongation can be manipulated from 5% to 100%, and melting points range between
135 and 185 °C (275-365 °F).
The physical properties claimed for Metabolix PHA polymers are described below.
• Molecular
weight
- Metabolix PHA is available in molecular weights ranging from around 1,000
to over one million.
• Thermal properties - PHA natural plastics are thermally unstable above 180 °C. Attempts to
process these materials with high Tm (melting temperature) using conventional techniques can
result in a progressive reduction in molecular weight and hence mechanical properties. Metabolix
has developed techniques and formulations that allow these high Tm PHA polymers to be processed
with minimal loss in molecular weight. The heat resistance of PHA means they can be applied
to applications such as coated paper cups for hot drinks.
• Mechanical properties - Metabolix PHAs cover a broad range of physical properties and can
behave both as traditional thermoplastic polymers and as elastomers. Some polymers (polyethylene,
fl exible PVC, and thermoplastic elastomers) have high elongation at break, and yield irreversibly
at high levels of extension. Metabolix has developed elastomeric grades that have high levels
of recovery (typically >80-90%), even under high levels of deformation (e.g. > 500% ultimate
elongation at break). These materials can be used for adhesives, stretch coatings and fi bres, and
have properties similar to vulcanized rubbers.
• Gas barrier properties - Metabolix PHA polymers have lower moisture vapour transmission rates
than other biodegradable polymers. The oxygen transmission rates for unoriented PHA fi lms are
25-30 cc-mil/(100 in²-day) at 77 °C, 0% relative humidity.
• Biodegradability - Metabolix PHA offer hydrolytic stability under normal service conditions but
when exposed to microbial organisms naturally present they break down enzymatically in soil,
composting, waste treatment processes, river water and marine environments. They also rapidly
decompose to carbon dioxide and water and will degrade in anaerobic environments, unlike
some other biodegradable polymers.
• UV Stability - Metabolix PHA are aliphatic polyesters and therefore have good UV stability
compared with formulated polyolefi ns, styrenics and aromatic polyesters.
Procter & Gamble
is the other leading pioneer on the fi eld of PHA biodegradable polymers. The ‘Nodax’
biopolymers are based on the copolymer PHBH, a copolymer polyester of 3-hydroxybutyric and 3-
hydroxyhexanoic acid. The higher the 3-hydroxyhexanoic acid comonomer component, the more fl exible
81
The PHA Biodegradable Polymers Market
the copolymer becomes. Therefore, controlling the copolymerisation ratio is said to enable production
of a wide variety of grades, from rigid through to fl exible fi lm. The material is also said to differ from
degradable PLA materials in that it can be broken down by bacteria without prior hydrolysis.
It is the branched nature of Nodax PHBH copolymers that makes them distinctive. Carbon side
chains of C6 to C24 length are appended to the C4 backbone, and comonomer content can range
from 2% to 20%. Analogous to a conventional LDPE copolymer, PHBH’s long-chain branching
allows a considerable range for tailoring crystallinity, melting point, stiffness, and toughness.
PHBH comes in short-chain (C6), medium-chain (C8-10), and long-chain (C12-22) species, but
current emphasis is on the C4/C6 class. P&G recently licensed rights to make these polymers to
Kuraray in Tokyo, Japan, which brought a production plant on line in 2005.
Nodax C4/C6 is said to be ‘a natural fi t’ for injection moulding and extrusion of sheet or fi lm. The
polymer has mechanical properties similar to a polyolefi n and surface properties much like PET,
including high receptivity to printing inks and dyes. Adhesion to LDPE and PP is good enough to avoid
tie layers in multi-layer structures. Nodax’s oxygen barrier property approaches that of EVOH.
PHBH biodegrades both aerobically and anaerobically (e.g., underwater) and is alkaline digestible
and water-soluble. These characteristics open potential for lower-cost handling and disposal of
troublesome wastes. For example, medical waste containers and devices could be put in a ‘trash
digester’ (an industrial alkaline washing machine) for disposal. Furthermore, industrial stretch-
wrap fi lms used to protect automobiles during shipment might be removed and disposed of by hot
washing and fl ushing steps instead of labour-intensive fi lm handling. In recycling, it might be feasible
to alkaline digest low-value elements of a bottle recycling stream (labels and caps) while keeping the
bottles intact for reclaim.
In summary, the most important properties of Nodax polymers according to P&G are its anaerobic
and aerobic degradability, hydrolytic stability, good odour and oxygen barrier, surface properties are
ideal for printing, wide range of tailored mechanical properties and excellent miscibility with other
resins to further optimise properties.
7.2 Applications Development
Metabolix’s PHA is being targeted at potential applications in packaging, single use and disposable
items, houseware, appliances, electrical and electronics, consumer durables, agriculture and soil
stabilization, adhesives, paints and coatings, and automotive parts. To date, Metabolix has developed
formulations suitable for injection moulding, cast fi lm, cast sheet for thermoforming and melt extruded
paper and board coating.
In future, the company plans to extend the range of conversion processes to include blown fi lm, blow
moulding, fi bre and nonwovens, foam, adhesives and emulsion coatings.
Procter & Gamble claim potential applications for their Nodax polymers are as follows:
• Feminine hygiene products
Nodax has the benefi t of degradation in septic systems, which offer possibilities for application
in feminine hygiene products such as wipes and tampon applicators. These fl ushable products
may exist in the form of paper coatings, fi bres, fi lms and foams.
82
Biodegradable Polymers
• Nonwovens
Nodax properties are suitable for short life applications include medical surgical garments and
disposable wipes and also some long life applications include automotive upholstery and carpet,
where there is growing industry interest in use of degradable materials.
• Binders
The thermal and surface properties of Nodax offer potential for binding of nonwovens such
as PET. Nodax could be applied in either a solid particulate or latex form to thermally bonded
nonwovens. Nodax could also provide high wet strength to tissue and other papers, while at the
same time preserving aesthetics and disposal options.
7.2.1 Films
Nodax’ combination of odour barrier, hydrolytic stability and compostability characteristics offer
potential as compostable paper or plastic bags as well as agricultural fi lm.
7.2.2 Flexible Packaging
The combination of odour barrier, sealability and printability provides potential for Nodax in
fl exible packaging. Nodax is a soft and pliable, yet reasonably transparent polyester resin. Polyester
fi lms have better printability because of their higher surface energy. For example, a thin layer of
PET is often reverse-printed and then laminated over polypropylene. Nodax can substitute for
both the polypropylene and polyester layers, since it can be converted like a polypropylene fi lm
and is already printable.
7.2.3 Thermoformed Articles
Nodax’ properties of barrier, heat and dielectric sealability, and printability offer potential as lidding
or tub stock for thermoformed articles.
7.2.4 Coated/Corrugated Paper
The repulpability, high barrier, and excellent printability of Nodax offer opportunities in coated
linerboard and coated papers. This allows the converter to combine high quality printing and high
barrier with traditional paper recycling. Nodax is easily digestible by the same process as the de-inking
step in the recycling of used paper. High temperature, in the presence of caustics, will spontaneously
digest Nodax coating. This is especially attractive since no sticky residues will be created from the
Nodax coated recycled paper.
Nodax coating can also be applied to foodservice articles such as cups, plates, and placemats. When
it comes to disposal, Nodax is complimentary with composting of food waste. Its fast anaerobic
degradability means these materials can be disposed of in marine or other low oxygen environments.
The ideal market opportunities are found in closed loop environments such as theme park landfi lls,
cruise and navy ships.
83
The PHA Biodegradable Polymers Market
7.2.5 Synthetic Papers
There are growing opportunities for polymer-based synthetic papers for labels where the printability
and reduced environmental impact of Nodax polymers could play a role.
7.2.6 Bioresorbable Medical Devices
Nodax has superior biocompatibility compared to other bioresorbable plastics, which makes the material
suitable for some medical applications such as drug release, bone regeneration, and nerve guidance.
7.2.7 Polymer Blends
Nodax can be blended with other biodegradable polymers such as polylactic acid and thermoplastic
starch for improved processing performance.
7.3 Market Drivers
The specifi c factors driving demand for PHA-based biodegradable polymers are discussed below.
The cost of PHA-based materials is on the high side and prices will have to come down much
more for major inroads into end use markets to be made in future. For example, PHB prices range
from
€9-16 per kg, which prevents them from replacing lower-priced commodity plastics for the
time being.
Despite high prices, there are a few places where PHB is used. The US Navy opted to use PHB cups,
which can be easily thrown overboard after use and degrade in the sea. In Japan, PHB is being used
for manufacture of women’s disposable razors.
Over the longer term, PHB producers believe the material is suitable for food packaging such as
yoghurt cups and beverage bottles. However, a big obstacle is obtaining food contact approvals.
Due to the many substances present in the residual biomass, food-approval testing is prohibitively
expensive. Suppliers such as Biomer are putting food-approval effort on hold until it can secure a
commitment from a large food processor.
PHB producers expect continued progress in fermentation processes and identifi cation of lower cost
feedstock to provide more reasonable material costs for niche markets. Longer term, crop-based
production has potential to drive PHB costs to more competitive levels from improved productivity.
P&G for example, is investigating the manufacture of Nodax by plant-grown methods. The supplier
states that this method could reduce Nodax prices to between
€1.0-2.0 per kg.
Metabolix has produced PHBV for the fi rst time in a commercial-scale fermentation plant. Much
idle fermentation capacity exists in the U.S. for making animal feed such as lysine and food additives
like MSG. The supplier plans to use this on a toll basis or through a joint venture to cut the current
high costs. To further reduce PHBV costs, plans call for exploring direct or plant-grown PHBV, in
which polymer is made in the leaves or roots of a plant. Metabolix claims that switchgrass is being
investigated because it grows well on marginal land. It holds out hope of driving PHBV cost down
to below
€2.0 per kg.
84
Biodegradable Polymers
Leading suppliers such as Metabolix and Procter & Gamble have also formed collaboration
agreements with strategic partners to speed up the commercialisation of PHA biodegradable
polymers (Section 7.5).
7.4 Market Size and Forecast
The PHA-based biodegradable polymers’ market is still very much at the developmental stage with
few commercial applications in existence. In 2005, market tonnage is estimated at no more than
around 250-300 tonnes worldwide. Assuming that producers are successful in bringing down PHA
production costs and prices, and in developing niche applications, market tonnage could be around
3,000 tonnes by 2010.
7.5 Suppliers and their Products
The major suppliers of PHA-based biodegradable polymers are described below.
Metabolix Inc., is a private fi rm based in Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA, that was spun out of the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1992 and acquired biopolymer technology from Monsanto
Inc. in 2001. Metabolix began its fi rst commercial production of organic polyhydroxyalkanoate
(PHA) resin, based on corn sugar in 2005 at an undisclosed location in the Midwest. The plant was
expected to produce around 100 tonnes of material in 2005 and close to 1000 tonnes in 2006.
The fi rst commercial product using Metabolix PHA will be a soil stake used in farming. The item
was available from early 2006.
Metabolix is also exploring the use of switch grass, a common wild grass that grows in many areas of
the Midwest, as a potential feedstock. To date, Metabolix has received $10 million in federal funding
for switch grass research. The fi rm is also involved in joint ventures with agricultural processing fi rm
Archer Daniels Midland Co., which is supplying initial feedstock, and BP plc.
The two-year collaboration agreement with BP will involve research and development of grass crops
containing high levels of naturally grown polymers, which can be used to produce biodegrading
plastic materials. A co-product of the process would be advantaged biomass material, which can
be converted to energy. BP will provide fi nancial support for the programme as well as full-time
staff over the two-year period starting 14th February 2005. In addition, the companies will explore
commercial options to exploit any technology that results from the collaboration.
The strategic alliance with Archer Daniels Midland Company (ADM) has the purpose of
commercialising Metabolix PHA products. Through the alliance, the two companies are planning to
establish a state-of-the-art 50,000 tonnes per annum production facility and a 50/50 joint venture to
manufacture and market natural PHA polymers for a wide variety of applications, including coated
paper, fi lm, and moulded goods. Under the agreement, ADM will obtain exclusive manufacturing
rights and certain co-exclusive marketing rights to Metabolix proprietary PHA technology.
In 2003, Metabolix and BASF teamed up to speed the commercialisation of PHA materials in fi lm,
fi bres, moulded parts and coatings. The polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA) polyester will be produced
from sugar by Metabolix Inc using fermentation technology for the initial one-year agreement. BASF
will investigate the material’s technology and processing. PHA has been used in the medical area
85
The PHA Biodegradable Polymers Market
for biodegradable surgical threads, which is not a price sensitive area. As PHA is more expensive
than commodity plastics, it will be necessary to fi nd attractive applications for the materials in
niche markets.
In 2004, Procter & Gamble formed a joint development agreement with Japan’s Kaneka Corporation
for the commercialisation of Nodax biodegradable polymers. The companies will develop cost-
effective ways of producing Nodax through fermentation and make the polymer easier to process
so it can be used in a wider range of applications.
US speciality chemical company Polyscience Inc has introduced a new range of polyhydroxybutyrate
(PHB) biodegradable polymers that are potential candidates for drug delivery, cosmetic applications,
wrapping fragrances for food applications, and blending materials for production of biomaterials.
PHA-b-PEG block copolymers are a new family of amphiphilic block copolymers. They are
manufactured with a controlled molecular PHA block from high molecular weight bacterial PHA.
This allows the PHA block to remain optically active and the side chain length and ratio with
PEG to be varied.
German company Biomer is exploring new markets for its PHB and PLA polyesters. Biomer develops
microorganisms that ferment sugar or starch syrup through a toll manufacturing arrangement. The
polyester extract is then compounded with low and high molecular weight plasticizers, nucleators,
and processing aids to produce three standard injection moulding formulations. Melt viscosity is
very low, so high clamp force is not necessary to produce complex structures. The materials are
said to process like liquid crystal polymers and have a melt fl ow rate (MFR) above 20 g/10 min.
Biomer claims that 1.2 mm thick samples of its materials degrade in a composting environment
within six weeks.
Grade P226 reportedly has mechanical properties similar to polypropylene, is easy to mould, and
offers fast cycle times. Grade P209 has properties similar to HDPE but elongation at break is
signifi cantly lower because of the material’s crystalline structure. Grade P240 is a higher impact
version of P209.
Injection moulded applications include medical diagnostic tools, fi rework casings, and practice
artillery shells for the military. PHB is also extruded into multi-fi laments for woven surgical patches.
Biomer is developing PHB grades with higher melt strength for blown fi lm. Biomer also produces
smaller amounts of PLA for transparent medical diagnostic strips, which are injection moulded.
Biomer has experienced strong growth over the period 2004-2005, particularly in the USA.
Production capacity is believed to be several tonnes per month.
86
Biodegradable Polymers
87
8
The Synthetic Biodegradable Polymers Market
8.1 Introduction
In the past fi ve years, a broad range of synthetic biodegradable resins based on aliphatic-aromatic co-
polyesters have been commercialised by global suppliers. Synthetic biodegradable polyesters are made
in modifi ed PET polymerisation facilities from petrochemical feedstocks. Unlike other petrochemical-
based polymers that take a very long time to degrade after disposal, these polyesters break down
rapidly to CO
2
and water in appropriate conditions where they are exposed to the combined attack
of water and microbes. These products meet US, European, and Japanese composting standards,
typically breaking down in twelve weeks under aerobic conditions.
The main types of synthetic biodegradable polymer in commercial use are as follows.
• Polybutylene adipate/terephthalate (PBAT) from BASF and IRe Chemical
• Polybutylene succinate (PBS) from Showa Highpolymers
• Polybutylene succinate/adipate) (PBSA) from Showa Highpolymers and IRe Chemicals
• Polybutylene succinate/carbonate (PBSC) from Mitsubishi Gas Chemical
• Polybutylene succinate terephthalate (PBST) from DuPont
• Polytetramethylene adipate/terephthalate (PTMT) from Novamont
• Polycaprolactone (PCL) from Daicel Chemical and Solvay
Aliphatic polyesters like polycaprolactone (PCL) or polybutylene adipate (PBA) are readily
biodegradable, but because of their melting points of 60 °C are unsuitable for many applications.
On the other hand, aromatic polyesters like polyethylene terephthalate (PET) or polybutylene
terephthalate (PBT) have high melting points above 200 °C and very good material properties, but
are not biodegradable.
The solution is a combination of aliphatic polyesters and aromatic polyesters. This involves modifying
the crystalline structure of PBT by incorporating aliphatic monomer (adipic acid) in the polymer
chain in such a way that the material properties of the polymer would remain acceptable (e.g.,
melting point of the crystalline range still around 100 °C), but the polymer would also be readily
compostable/biodegradable. In this way it was possible to combine the degradability of aliphatic
polyesters with the outstanding properties of aromatic polyesters.
Synthetic biodegradable polyesters fall into two broad categories. One is highly amorphous, imparting
fl exibility and clarity comparable to a conventional LDPE copolymer. A second group of semi-
crystalline polyesters is more rigid, with properties similar to PET, PP, or PS.
The three most prominent global suppliers of synthetic biodegradable polymers are BASF, Novamont,
which acquired Eastman Chemicals Eastar Bio product portfolio in 2005, and DuPont.
88
Biodegradable Polymers
BASF’s Ecofl ex and Novamont’s Eastar Bio Ecofl ex are aromatic-aliphatic co-polyesters based on
butanediol, adipic acid, and terephthalic acid. BASF’s products contain long-chain branching while
Eastar Bio is highly linear in structure.
BASF Ecofl ex co-polyester fi lms have a property profi le similar to that of low-density polyethylene
and can be produced on existing LDPE extrusion processing lines. They have a melting point of
110-115 °C, The Ecofl ex F (fi lm) version imparts high elongation and dart impact and yields clear
fi lms that weld and print easily. Ecofl ex is said to have high toughness and good cling properties.
That makes it possible for 10-micron cling fi lms to replace vinyl in vegetable, fruit, and meat wraps.
BASF claims its materials also make fi lms with 50% lower MVTR (moisture vapour transmission
rate) than other biodegradable polymers.
Eastar Bio is offered in general-purpose and blown-fi lm grades. The aliphatic-aromatic co-polyesters
have a melting point of 108 °C and offer good contact clarity, adhesion, and elongation. They have
high moisture and grease resistance, and process much like LDPE. Eastar Bio is used in nonwovens,
lawn-and-garden bags, agricultural fi lms, netting, and paper coatings.
In the semi-crystalline category, DuPont offers a modifi ed PET incorporating three proprietary
aliphatic monomers. Biomax 6962 has 1.35 g/cc density and 195 °C melting point, versus 250 °C
for PET, resulting in higher service temperature capability and faster processing rates than for other
biodegradables. Mechanical properties include high stiffness and 40% to 500% elongation.
8.2 Applications Development
Synthetic biodegradable polyesters are used mainly as specialty materials for paper coating, fi bres,
and garbage bags and sacks. They are also showing up in thermoformed packaging as functional
adjuncts to lower-cost biodegradable materials (e.g., as moisture-barrier fi lms). Biodegradable
polyesters also generally work well in blends with PLA, starch, organic wastes, and natural-fi bre
reinforcements such as fl ax.
Bags and sacks is one of the most important market sectors for Ecofl ex. It can be used in the
manufacture of fresh fruit and vegetable bags, refuse bags and carrier bags, using either Ecofl ex on
its own, or an Ecofl ex/starch blend.
Ecofl ex co-polyester is being used by Zerust Consumer Products in Ohio, USA, to market a synthetic
biodegradable clear plastics bag for lawn and leaf applications. Zerust’s new Great Green Earth bags
can be used to replace paper bags for organic waste disposal. Great Green Earth bags are approved
by the US Biodegradable Products Institute, and are certifi ed via ASTM D6400 for their ability to
biodegrade swiftly and safely during municipal or commercial composting. The Great Green Earth bags
are manufactured using a proprietary technology developed by Northern Technologies International
(NTI), Lino Lakes, Minn. Zerust, the consumer division of NTI, also markets food waste bags and
agricultural fi lm under the Great Green Earth brand.
In packaging, Ecofl ex can be used as a coating material to make paper, cardboard or starch-based
foam tougher and protect against fat, moisture and temperature variations. These are useful properties
for hamburger boxes, coffee cups, packaging for meat, fi sh, poultry, fruit or vegetables, food dishes
and fast-food boxes.
Ecofl ex is also found in agricultural fi lms such as cover sheeting and mulch fi lm. The fi lm can be
ploughed into the fi eld and is degraded in the soil after use.
89
The Synthetic Biodegradable Polymers Market
Eastar Bio is used in nonwovens, lawn-and-garden bags, agricultural films, netting, and
paper coatings.
DuPont’s Biomax is used in a number of specialty packaging applications, injection-moulded parts,
coatings for paper, thermoformed cups and trays, and fi lms because of its superior barrier properties.
DuPont has targeted fast-food disposable packaging, as well as yard-waste bags, diaper backing,
agricultural fi lm, fl owerpots, and bottles, for particular development.
Showa’s Bionelle products are used in commodity bags, agricultural fi lms, traffi c cones, and
industrial trays.
SK Chemicals’ SkyGreen products are used in fi lms, disposable cutlery, food trays, hairbrush handles,
and paper coatings.
8.3 Market Drivers
The specifi c drivers for synthetic biodegradable polymers are discussed below.
Synthetic polymers based on polyesters and co-polyesters are some of the most expensive biopolymers.
Feedstock is expensive compared with biopolymers based on renewable resources and the production
process is more complex and costly. Synthetic types can cost up to three times the price of commodity
polymers such as polyethylene and polypropylene.
The price of synthetic biodegradable polymers has come down a little during the last three years.
In 2003, for example, the average price of Eastar Bio and BASF’s Ecofl ex was around
€3.5-4.0 per
kg. In 2005, the average cost of an aliphatic aromatic polyester biopolymer was between
€2.75-
3.65 per kg. The more specialised polymers, such as DuPont’s Biomax, cost as much as
€5-6 per kg.
Polycaprolactones cost between
€4-7 per kg. Synthetic biodegradable polymer prices are expected
to fall further over time as production volumes increase and unit costs fall further.
While, synthetic biodegradable polymers are more costly than either starch-based or PLA polymers,
they often have better physical and mechanical properties than types of biodegradable polymers
based on renewable resource. These include higher strength, better clarity, better barrier properties
and a greater ease of processing.
New product development is also playing an important role in driving the synthetic biopolymer
market. For example, the launch of the Ecovio product by BASF in 2005 is expected to boost sales
of synthetic biopolymers in fl exible fi lm applications.
8.4 Market Size and Forecast
Table 8.1 shows global consumption of synthetic biodegradable polymers by major world region for
the years 2000, 2005 and 2010.
During the period 2000 to 2005, world consumption of synthetic biodegradable polymers has increased
from 3,900 tonnes to 14,000 tonnes. In 2010, world consumption of synthetic biopolymers is projected to
reach 32,800 tonnes. This represents a compound annual growth rate of 18.6% during the period 2005-
2010. These forecasts assume that producers are successful in lowering the cost of production and that
the price differential between synthetic biopolymers and standard thermoplastics continue to narrow.
90
Biodegradable Polymers
Table 8.1 Global consumption of synthetic biodegradable polymers by major world region,
2000, 2005 and 2010 (’000 tonnes)
Western Europe
North America
Asia Pacifi c
Total
2000
1.5
1.2
1.2
3.9
2005
6.7
3.6
3.7
14.0
2010
15.8
8.4
8.6
32.8
CAGR 2005-2010
18.7%
18.5%
18.4%
18.6%
Western Europe is the leading market for synthetic biopolymers with 48% of total world consumption
in 2005. Asia Pacifi c and North America each account for around 26% of consumption.
Figure 8.1 shows percentage share of global synthetic biodegradable polymers consumption by end
use market for the year 2005.
Figure 8.1
Percentage share of global synthetic biodegradable polymers consumption by end use market, 2005
Bags and sacks represents around a half of synthetic biodegradable polymer consumption worldwide
in 2005. Packaging represents 39% of total consumption with ‘other’ applications such as agricultural
fi lm, paper coating and nonwovens representing 11% of total market volumes.
8.5 Suppliers and their Products
The major suppliers of synthetic biodegradable polymers are described below.
BASF production capacity for Ecofl ex is currently around 14,000 tonnes per annum. The fi rm added
about 6,000 tonnes of annual production of the material in early 2006 at Schwarzheide, Germany
to meet growing demand for the polymer.
91
The Synthetic Biodegradable Polymers Market
In November 2005, BASF announced that it was expanding its Ecofl ex-brand natural plastic line with
Ecovio, a blend of NatureWorks PLA and Ecofl ex, which is polyester-based. Ecovio production began
in October 2005 at an undisclosed location in Germany. The fi rst Ecovio LBX 8145 grade contains
45% by weight of PLA that is chemically bound to the Ecofl ex. BASF said the fi rst application will
be in fl exible fi lms used for shopping bags.
In Europe, Ecovio was commercially available from March 2006. It is planned to introduce Ecovio
in Asia and NAFTA during the second half of 2006. Apart from offering Ecovio to fi lm processors,
BASF will also supply the ‘basic component’ as Ecovio L, so that processors can combine it with
Ecofl ex or PLA themselves to obtain softer or harder formulations than the fi rst LBX 8145 grade or
to modify Ecovio L to make it suitable for injection moulding or deep-drawing applications.
DuPont offers a family of biodegradable polymers based on polyethylene terephthalate (PET)
technology known commercially as Biomax. Proprietary monomers are incorporated into the polymer,
creating sites that are susceptible to hydrolysis. At elevated temperatures, the large polymer molecules
are cleaved by moisture into smaller molecules, which are then consumed by naturally occurring
microbes and converted to carbon dioxide, water and biomass. Biomax can be recycled, incinerated
or landfi lled, but is designed specifi cally for disposal by composting.
Biomax is being used in a number of specialty packaging applications, injection-moulded parts,
coatings for paper, thermoformed cups and trays, and fi lms because of its superior barrier properties.
Du Pont offers three proprietary aliphatic monomers. Biomax 6962 has 1.35 g/cc density and 195
°C (383 °F) melting point, versus 250 °C (482 °F) for PET, resulting in higher service temperature
capability and faster processing rates than for other biodegradable polymers. Mechanical properties
include high stiffness and 40% to 500% elongation.
On the technology front, DuPont has stepped up its efforts in the biodegradable polymers market by
forming a joint venture with Tate & Lyle plc, an agricultural products fi rm. The joint venture DuPont
Tate & Lyle BioProducts LLC will build a manufacturing plant in Loudon, Tennessee, which is set
to open in 2006. The plant will make a grade of corn-based propanediol used to produce DuPont’s
Sorona-brand polymer, which is being marketed into clothing, textile fi bres and packaging. All of
the new plant’s output will be consumed internally by Sorona production. The plant is expected to
have an annual capacity of 45,000 tonnes per annum.
According to DuPont, the structure of the fibre molecule gives Sorona materials improved
characteristics. For example, Sorona makes a softer fi bre than either polyester or nylon while still
offering other desirable attributes like superior comfort-stretch, recovery and dyeability. The fi bre
also allows manufacturers to use up to three different dye methods to create a single fabric with
many different colors in a pattern. Sorona fi bre also enables fi bre to be dyed at lower temperatures
than either polyester or nylon.
Eastar Bio technology, which was developed and owned by Eastman Chemicals, was acquired by
Novamont in 2005. Eastman introduced its biodegradable polymer in 1997 and since then has
invested more than
€75m in the project. The resin is used commercially for single-trip disposable
packaging, as well as for barrier fi lms and waste-bin liners. Eastman has a 15,000 tonnes per annum
production plant at Hartlepool in the UK, which began production in 1999.
Japan’s Showa Highpolymers, part of the Showa Denko group, and Korea’s SK Chemicals both have
small plants producing aliphatic (polybutylene succinate) and aliphatic-aromatic (polybutyrate adipate
terephthalate) polyesters. Both fi rms also offer their resins in the USA. Showa’s Bionelle products are
used in commodity bags, agricultural fi lms, traffi c cones, and industrial trays. Some Bionolle grades
are modifi ed with diisocyanate chain extenders to improve stiffness and thermal properties.
92
Biodegradable Polymers
In 2005, Showa developed a new biodegradable formulation of polybutylene succinate (PBS), which
is fl exible but resists tearing because of its unique ‘tangled’ molecular structure.
South Korean company SK Chemicals produces SKYGREEN polybutylene succinate (PBS)
thermoplastics based on aliphatic polyester and aliphatic/aromatic co-polyesters that were developed
from SK Chemicals polyethylene terephthalate (PET) technology. SKYGREEN BDP products offer
LDPE-like properties. They are used in fi lms, disposable cutlery, food trays, hairbrush handles and
paper coatings. Aliphatic versions biodegrade more rapidly and offer better processing and tensile
properties than the aromatic-aliphatic grades, which cost less.
Japan’s IRe Chemicals also offers a polybutylene succinate product under the trade name EnPol 4000.
Mitsubishi Gas Chemicals offers a PBS based synthetic biopolymer under the Iupex trade name.
Japan’s Mitsubishi Gas Chemical (MGC) also offers a biodegradable version of polycarbonate
termed ‘polyester carbonate’ (PEC). It has a melting point of 110 °C and stiffness-toughness balance
comparable to PP homopolymer. MGC’s PEC reportedly is used in a new portable tape-cassette
player introduced by Sony Corp.
Daicel Chemicals of Japan offers Celgreen PH, biodegradable polymers based on polycaprolactone
(PCL) and Celgreen PCA based on cellulose acetate. The main applications are found in textile fi bres,
environmental fi elds, where reuse or recycling are diffi cult, and in applications that take advantage of
other Celgreen strengths, including in vivo biodegradation absorption, water retention and absorption,
oxygen barrier strength, and low melting point.
Japan’s Dainippon Ink and Chemicals (DIC) has pursued the alternate approach of combining
polyester and PLA properties into one polymer. DIC developed a biodegradable copolymer called
CPLA based on a co-polyester plus lactic acid. A higher ratio of co-polyester increases fl exibility,
while more lactic acid adds stiffness. One version of CPLA is reported to combine PS-like clarity
with PP-like physical properties.
Solvay’s CAPA products are a range of polycaprolactone homopolymers that offer a combination of
properties resulting in hard crystalline biodegradable polymers that melt at low temperatures (58-60
°C) and have very good hot melt adhesive characteristics. The polymers are terminated with primary
OH groups and can be utilised for crosslinking in applications such as reactive hot melt adhesives.
Solvay also offers premium grades such as the high clarity option (CAPA 6500C) and blown fi lm
grades (CAPA FB). The latter are available as fi lled or unfi lled versions for applications ranging from
laminating adhesives to biodegradable fi lms.
93
9
Market Opportunities for Biodegradable Polymers
9.1 Introduction
During the last three years biodegradable polymers have begun to fi nd new applications outside of
their traditional market of bags, sacks and packaging. This chapter examines where biodegradable
polymers are currently being used and assesses future market opportunities in the following areas:
• Packaging
• Bags and sacks
• Disposable
serviceware
• Agriculture and horticulture
• Medical
devices
• Consumer
electronics
• Automotive
• Speciality
cards
• Fibres
9.2 Packaging
The packaging market offers the greatest potential for biodegradable polymers. Packaging is by
far the largest market for plastics accounting for about 30% of the 40 million tonnes of plastics
consumed in the European Union. Given the growing environmental awareness of consumers and
brand owners, government concerns about the growing cost of waste disposal and the developing
compost infrastructure in various European countries, the packaging sector offers many opportunities
for biodegradable polymers in future.
This section reviews the market opportunities for manufacturers of biodegradable plastics in
packaging markets.
9.2.1 Flexible Packaging
Film, wrap and bags for food scrap, food residues and food products, destined for composting in
commercial composting facilities, holds considerable potential for biodegradable plastics. Conventional
plastics are a signifi cant contaminant in organics processing and they reduce the marketability of
the compost produced. These applications depend on the disposal environment being a commercial
composting operation, which provides the necessary conditions for the polymer to degrade.
Another application for biodegradable plastics is for plastic fi lms used in fresh food wrapping and
plastic wrap used in the catering industry. The reason that a biodegradable fi lm could be advantageous
94
Biodegradable Polymers
in these areas is that a signifi cant amount of food waste from catering companies and shopping
centres can potentially be diverted to commercial composting facilities.
Consumers are already encountering biodegradable fl exible packaging in a number of supermarkets.
In the UK, for example, supermarket chains such as Sainsbury and Tesco are using biodegradable
packaging for organic food products.
In the Netherlands, Albert Heijn has been using biodegradable packaging for a number of its fresh
organic fruit and vegetable products since 2003.
Also in the Netherlands, Eosta, a company that trades in organically grown vegetables and fruit
decided to package all their products in starch-based bioplastics.
Starch-based biodegradable plastics are used to make extruded bags and nets for fresh fruit and
vegetables. The high water vapour permeability of starch blend fi lm is an advantage and helps to
keep fruit and vegetables fresh for longer. When the shelf life has expired, the food and the packaging
can be composted effi ciently together, with little further manual input necessary.
PLA can also be used for a wide range of fi lms and label applications in the fl exible packaging market
including heat-seal overlays, window fi lms, fl ow wrap and twist wrap.
According to companies such as Mitsubishi Plastics, the fl exible packaging sector has the most
potential for NatureWorks PLA. Mitsubishi Plastics is conducting research on NatureWorks PLA-
based biaxially-oriented fi lm for high performance industrial plastic applications and believes there is
bright promise for NatureWorks PLA in composite fi lm products. They regard PLA as a product that
provides a seamless transition from PET and other petroleum-based plastics. Environmental trends,
more competitive pricing and high performance features are seen as the main growth drivers.
PLA fi lm was traditionally found to be unstable against changes in external factors such as temperature
and pressure, resulting in the bleeding out of the liquid plasticiser used for its manufacture. This
in turn led to defects in the fi lm characteristics such as transparency and fl exibility, which were
altered over time. Toray Industries has developed a new technology that contains the occurrence
of bleeding out when faced with changes in temperature or pressure, and displays highly stable
fl exibility while not losing any of the superior features of PLA such as transparency, heat resistance,
and biodegradability. This development should lead to production of improved fi lm in future, thus
opening up more opportunities for the polymer.
Product development is also playing an important role in expanding the market for biodegradable
packaging fi lm. In 2005 for example, BASF introduced Ecovio, a blend of NatureWorks PLA and
Ecofl ex, which is polyester-based. The fi rst Ecovio LBX 8145 grade contains 45% by weight of PLA
that is chemically bound to the Ecofl ex. BASF said the fi rst application will be in fl exible fi lms for
shopping bags.
9.2.2 Rigid Packaging
Biodegradable plastics are also fi nding growing interest for the manufacture of rigid packaging in
place of conventional plastics such as polypropylene, PET and polystyrene. Biodegradable plastics
have particular advantages for manufacture of disposable and single use food and beverage trays and
containers, especially for fast food restaurants and outdoor events, where commercial composting
of left over food would be feasible.
95
Market Opportunities for Biodegradable Polymers
Examples of where biodegradable plastics are being used at the moment are described below.
Starch-based biodegradable plastics are used for the manufacture of thermoformed trays and
containers for packaging fresh food and convenience food.
PLA is also used for thermoformed trays and containers. Injection stretch blow moulded bottles and
jars for short-shelf-life applications that use cold-fi lling techniques for contents such as still water,
fresh juices, dairy beverages and edible oil is also a potentially interesting market for PLA.
Dairy packaging, including tubs for yoghurt, sour cream and margarine is another growing area of
application for biodegradable polymers.
As PLA prices move closer to those of PET there may be a tendency for brand owners to switch
from PET in favour of biodegradable polymers such as PLA for injection stretch blow moulded
bottles, not only on cost grounds, but also because renewable packaging materials have marketing
advantages for the consumer.
PLA permits manufacture of varied and complex bottle shapes and sizes. Monolayer bottles of
NatureWorks PLA can be formed on the same injection moulding/stretch blow moulding equipment
used for PET, with no sacrifi ce in production rate. PET has some properties that PLA does not have and
so NatureWorks is targeting applications where it has a competitive edge such as fresh food packaging
and products that don’t require sophisticated barriers such as water, milk and juice products.
These development activities appear to be paying off with the announcement in September 2005 that
Amcor PET Packaging is working with Husky to develop a European market for compostable PLA
bottles for applications such as still mineral water, vegetable oils and dairy products. The market for
PLA bottles is attracting a lot of attention in Europe and consumers are starting to show an interest
in packaging made from renewable resources.
Husky, a strategic partner in the development, has demonstrated production of NatureWorks PLA
preforms on a HyPet 90 moulding system. Amcor is at an advanced stage of development with a
PLA bottle project for at least one major European customer. However, pricing remains an issue.
The PLA price is a bit on the high side compared with PET and polypropylene at the moment, but
as volumes pick up the price gap will narrow.
In 2005, UK mineral water brand Belu launched the UK’s fi rst biodegradable mineral water bottle
made of PLA. The company chose biodegradable plastics as a means of enhancing its environmental
credentials. The new bottle is available through outlets that already stock the brand, including the
Waitrose retail chain, London restaurants and clubs such as Nobu, Sketch and the Groucho Club.
In November 2005, Jivita became the most recent water to be bottled in NatureWorks PLA. The
brand contains natural extracts, fl owers, resins and bark, to create the world’s fi rst aromatherapeutic
water. The company says that the PLA bottle and label are a natural fi t and help strengthen the
product’s all-natural appeal.
Also in 2005, US dairy products supplier Naturally Iowa Dairy announced natural and organic milk
in bottles stretch blow moulded from NatureWorks PLA. Several varieties of PLA-bottled milk are
being offered including half-gallon ‘grip’ bottles, 1.25-2-gallon bottles, and an 11-oz single-serve PLA
bottle. The 1.25-2-gallon bottles are produced by Liquid Container/Plaxicon using stock moulds.
PLA is also fi nding that there are growing opportunities in thermoformed trays and containers for
packaging fresh food.
96
Biodegradable Polymers
In 2002, Italian supermarket chain, Iper, became one of the fi rst adopters of PLA for packaging
with the introduction of thermoformed containers for fresh fruits, vegetables, pasta and salad. Iper
selected PLA because it enabled the company to provide customers with a natural food product
protected by a natural package, which they say is an important combination that allows them to
differentiate themselves from the competition. Iper worked with European packaging suppliers
Autobar to develop thermoformed containers and with Treofan GmbH to develop the fi lm lidstock
for their containers.
In 2005, SPAR Austria started packaging organic apples, pears and tomatoes in rigid trays sealed
with a fl ow wrap fi lm made from NatureWorks PLA. Research showed that consumers perceive that
nature-based packaging enhances the appeal of fresh food, and strongly prefer products packaged
in biodegradable plastic containers.
Other retailers using PLA containers include Auchan and Wal-Mart. Auchan launched NatureWorks
PLA rigid containers for salads in April 2005 and reported six months later that sales of its PLA
packed salads had grown signifi cantly. Auchan plans to expand NatureWorks PLA to packaging its
line of pastries.
Wal-Mart began using NatureWorks PLA for fresh cut fruit, herbs, strawberries and Brussels sprouts
in 2005. It plans to expand use of nature-based packaging for items such as cut vegetables, donut
boxes, select tomato packaging and gift cards in due course.
In 2004, Del Monte Fresh Produce NA introduced NatureWorks PLA containers for fresh cut produce
in Wild Oats Markets. Del Monte estimates that 50% of its containers for fresh cut produce will be
made from NatureWorks PLA in 2006.
Also in 2004, Newman’s Own introduced a line of organic salads packaged in NatureWorks PLA
clamshell containers. Newman’s claim that the packaging helped the success of the products from
launch and generated higher sales than expected. They added that the PLA packaging fi tted neatly
with the company’s organic message and saw PLA as a way to differentiate their products from
the competition.
Product development is also playing a role in widening the application potential for PLA in rigid
packaging. For example, in 2005, Hycail announced the launch of a new biodegradable material,
Hycail XM 1020, which can withstand temperatures over 200 °C without distortion. It can also be
microwaved with fatty and liquid foods, without distortion or stress cracking. Hycail claims that the
increased heat resistance has not affected other properties such as transparency, processability and
strength. The company claims that the new material is a genuine game changer in PLA technology
and puts it in the high performance thermoplastics arena.
Synthetic biodegradable polymers are also fi nding a growing number of applications in thermoformed
packaging, usually to provide a moisture barrier layer to lower-cost biodegradable materials.
9.2.3 Paper Coating
Coated or laminated paper products represent a signifi cant potential market for biodegradable
polymers. At present, packaging such as hamburger wrapping and disposable cups, are extrusion
coated with low density polyethylene fi lm that is resistant to biodegradation. This also restricts the
biodegradation of the paper substrate since it acts as an impervious barrier.
97
Market Opportunities for Biodegradable Polymers
Synthetic biodegradable polymers such as BASF’s Ecofl ex can be used as a coating material for
paper, cardboard or starch-based foam to toughen and protect against fat, moisture and temperature
variations. These are ideal properties for hamburger boxes, coffee cups, packaging for meat, fi sh,
poultry, fruit or vegetables, food dishes and fast food boxes. Coated paper for butter and lard also
benefi t from the very high grease resistance of some synthetic bioplastics.
9.2.4 Loose-Fill Packaging
Loose-fi ll packaging was one of the fi rst successful areas of application for starch-based biodegradable
polymers. Loose-fi ll starch-based foam is used for packaging consumer products as an alternative
to polystyrene and polyethylene. While, biodegradable plastics have made some inroads into these
markets, the future prospects for their growth in loose-fi ll are not so exciting as they are in some
other areas of packaging.
9.3 Bags and Sacks
Plastic bags have a high profi le in the land waste stream as these materials are not currently accepted
in the kerbside collection and recycling systems. Biodegradable plastics present an attractive alternative
to polyethylene in these applications.
Starch-based biodegradable plastics are used for manufacture of various types of bags and sacks
including refuse sacks, shopping bags and compost bags. Bags and sacks is one of the most important
market sectors for synthetic biodegradable polymers such as BASF’s Ecofl ex. It can be used to
manufacture fresh fruit and vegetable bags, refuse bags and carrier bags, using either Ecofl ex on its
own, or an Ecofl ex/starch blend.
There is still considerable potential for biodegradable polymers in the manufacture of bags and sacks.
The development of municipal waste collection programmes and composting infrastructures around
the world offers excellent growth prospects for the use of biopolymers in refuse and composting
bags. There are opportunities for biodegradable polymers for manufacture of supermarket carrier
bags, given the growing concern by various governments about the use of plastic bags, Indeed,
the French government has voted to ban production and use of non-biodegradable plastic bags
from 2010.
9.4 Disposable Serviceware
PLA can be used in the manufacturing of disposable cold drink cups, bowls, plates, and cutlery.
Serviceware made with biodegradable polymers such as PLA is particularly valued at outdoor events
such as sports stadiums, concerts, universities, amusement parks, shopping malls and other venues
that benefi t from the disposal options available with biodegradable polymers. Over the next fi ve
years, biopolymers are expected to make further inroads into these markets.
In the summer of 2005 for example, Alken-Maes Breweries served more than 1.5 million beers in
NatureWorks PLA cups at three popular Belgian music festivals. A total of 2,940 kg of compostable
cups were recycled at those music festivals, creating 147 kg of compost, and generated a lot of
interest in Alken-Maes.
98
Biodegradable Polymers
There are also opportunities for serviceware made from biodegradable polymers through retail outlets. Co-
op Italia for example, became the fi rst retailer in Europe to offer consumers serviceware from NatureWorks
PLA in April 2005. The company reported that sales had since exceeded their expectations.
9.5 Agriculture and Horticulture
At the present time, products made from biodegradable polymers are being used in the natural
environment for applications where biological recycling makes sense. Applications include bags for
organic refuse, agricultural mulching fi lm, cemetery decorations, market-garden items such as plant
pots, seed/fertiliser tape and binding materials and fi shing lines and nets. Biopolymers are also fi nding
uses in the leisure goods sector with applications such as golf tees, disposable goods used in fi shing,
marine sports and mountain climbing.
Agricultural mulching fi lm is a particularly promising area of application for biodegradable polymers.
Mulch fi lm is utilised in some agricultural applications, such as tomato cropping, as a mulch soil
cover to inhibit weed growth and retain soil moisture. These fi lms could be made from biodegradable
plastics to eliminate the need for mechanical removal, as the mulch fi lm could be ploughed into the
soil. These fi lms could also prevent the loss of topsoil humus that could be removed along with the
waste fi lm, and also enrich the soil with additional carbon.
Starch-based biodegradable polymers will continue to experience good growth in these applications
over the next fi ve years.
9.6 Medical Devices
Biodegradable polymers for medical devices are typically made from materials that are able to dissolve
and be absorbed into the human body. There are many examples of biomedical applications for
biodegradable polymers in the medical and dental fi elds but the main applications include wound
sutures and staples, biodegradable plastic screws and rods for pinning and repairing ligaments;
devices for internal drug deposition; orthopaedic mouldings, cardiovascular and intestinal supports;
polymer tissues, sponges and mouldings.
Some of the most signifi cant commercial applications of biodegradable polymers are discussed in
more detail below.
9.6.1 Sutures
Sutures are the major area of application for biodegradable polymers in the medical devices market.
However, the sutures market is mature and is not expected to grow rapidly in the future.
There are basically two types of suture, braided and monofi lament sutures. Braided sutures are
typically more pliable than monofi lament and exhibit better knot security when the same type
of knot is used. Monofi lament sutures are more wiry and may require a more secure knot. Their
major advantage is that they exhibit less tissue drag, a characteristic that is especially important
for cardiovascular, ophthalmic, and neurological surgery. The main parameters for suture selection
are based on criteria such as tensile strength, strength retention, knot security, tissue drag, infection
potential, and ease of tying.
99
Market Opportunities for Biodegradable Polymers
9.6.2 Dental Devices
Biodegradable polymers have found use in two dental applications. Employed as a void fi ller following
tooth extraction, porous polymer particles can be packed into the cavity to aid in quicker healing.
As a guided-tissue-regeneration (GTR) membrane, fi lms of biodegradable polymer can be positioned
to exclude epithelial migration following periodontal surgery. The exclusion of epithelial cells allows
the supporting, slower-growing tissue, including connective and ligament cells, to proliferate.
9.6.3 Orthopaedic Fixation Devices
Orthopaedic fi xation devices made from synthetic biodegradable polymers have advantages over
metal implants in that they transfer stress over time to the damaged area, allowing healing of the
tissues, and eliminate the need for a subsequent operation for implant removal. The currently available
materials have not exhibited suffi cient stiffness to be used as bone plates for support of long bones,
such as the femur. Rather, they have found applications where lower-strength materials are suffi cient:
for example, as interference screws in the ankle, knee, and hand areas; as tacks and pins for ligament
attachment and meniscal repair; as suture anchors; and as rods and pins for fracture fi xation.
9.6.4 Other Applications
Biodegradable polymers have found other applications that have been commercialised or are under
investigation. Anastomosis rings have been developed as an alternative to suturing for intestinal
resection. Tissue staples have also replaced sutures in certain procedures. Other applications currently
under scrutiny include ligating clips, vascular grafts, stents, and tissue engineering scaffolds.
Most of the commercially available biodegradable devices are polyesters composed of homopolymers
or copolymers of glycolide and lactide. There are also devices made from copolymers of trimethylene
carbonate and ε-caprolactone, and a suture product made from polydioxanone.
Some of the most widely used biodegradable polymers used for biomedical applications are briefl y
described below.
Polyglycolide was used to develop the fi rst totally synthetic absorbable suture, marketed as Dexon
in the 1960s by Davis and Geck, Inc.
Polylactides have a high modulus that makes them more suitable for load bearing applications such
as in orthopaedic fi xation and sutures.
Polycaprolactone is regarded as tissue compatible and used as a biodegradable suture.
Polydioxanone was the fi rst clinically tested monofi lament synthetic suture, known as PDS and
marketed by Ethicon.
Poly(lactide-co-glycolide) copolymers have been developed for both device and drug delivery
applications.
Polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) and polyhydroxyvalerate (PHV) are also being researched for use in
medical devices. The PHB homopolymer is crystalline and brittle, whereas the copolymers of PHB
with PHV are less crystalline, more fl exible, and easier to process. These polymers typically require
100
Biodegradable Polymers
the presence of enzymes for biodegradation but can degrade in a range of environments and are
under consideration for several biomedical applications.
Procter & Gamble’s Nodax PHBH products have potential applications in the medical fi eld. Nodax
has superior biocompatibility compared to other bioplastics, which makes the material suitable for
some medical applications such as drug release, bone regeneration, and nerve guidance.
9.7 Consumer Electronics Products
A number of Japanese companies have developed biodegradable plastics for a range of consumer
electronics applications.
In 2004, Sony and Mitsubishi Plastics developed a fl ame retardant PLA biodegradable resin claimed
to be as strong as ABS. The new material will be used in the front panel of Sony stand-alone DVD
players.
Pioneer Corp of Japan has used PLA as a replacement for polycarbonate to manufacture an
optical disc.
Japanese electronics company Sharp has developed technology to blend PLA biopolymers with
conventional plastics recovered from scrapped consumer appliances. The company expects to use
such blends in its consumer electronics products by early 2007.
Fujitsu and Toray Industries have developed the fi rst large-scale notebook computer housing based
on polylactic acid biodegradable polymers. The housing is moulded of a specially developed PLA/
polycarbonate blend that provide the required heat and fl ame resistance.
Japanese consumer electronics company, NEC, plans to adopt PLA biopolymers for its cellphones and
personal computers in order to achieve product differentiation. NEC has developed a kenaf-reinforced
polylactic acid, which will be used for notebook personal computer housings starting in 2007.
9.8 Automotive
Automotive is one of the largest markets for thermoplastics, but to date few applications have been
developed for biodegradable polymers. This situation is expected to change over the next fi ve years
as more auto manufacturers examine the possibilities offered by biodegradable polymers to replace
petrochemical-based polymers.
In February 2006, Japan’s Mitsubishi Motors announced that it is to use the biopolymer, polybutylene
succinate (PBS), in the interior of its new mini-car launched next year. In conjunction with Aichi
Industrial Technology Institute, it has developed a material that uses PBS combined with bamboo
fi bre. PBS is composed of succinic acid, which is derived from fermented corn or cane sugar, and 1,4-
butanediol. Bamboo grows quickly and is seen by Mitsubishi as a sustainable resource. In lifecycle
tests, the PBS-bamboo fi bre composite achieves a 50% cut in carbon dioxide emissions compared
with polypropylene. Volatile organic compound levels are also drastically reduced, by roughly 85%,
over processed wood hardboards.
Mitsubishi said that it plans to substitute plant-based resins and quick-growing plant fi bres for materials
such as petroleum-based resins and wood hardboards used in car interiors, for environmental reasons.
101
Market Opportunities for Biodegradable Polymers
Toyota Tsusho Corp, a subsidiary of Toyota Corp, and Diversifi ed Natural Products Inc, of
the USA, formed a partnership in 2004 to explore the potential for biodegradable polymers in
automotive applications.
9.9 Speciality Cards
PLA can be used for a variety of cards including gift, phone, key, credit and retail cards. Biodegradable
plastic cards provide brand owners and retailers with an environmentally responsible alternative
to traditional plastics such as PVC. Biopolymers are expected to make further inroads into this
enormous market over the next fi ve years.
To date, biopolymers are being used by only a small number of card companies and retailers. These
include the Co-operative Bank in the UK, which uses PLA for its credit and debit cards. US company,
UV Color, also uses biopolymers for its line of transaction cards, gift cards, phone cards and other
specialty cards, which are branded Earthsource.
9.10 Fibres
PLA is the most commonly used biodegradable polymer found in fi bre form. PLA fi bre properties
compare favourably with both PET and rayon fi bres. Potential PLA fi bre applications include apparel,
bedding, carpet, furnishings, personal care, nonwovens and industrial textiles.
DuPont is stepping up its drive to develop sustainable materials with the commercialisation of its
Sorona fi bre materials, which use a corn-based propanediol feedstock. It has formed a joint venture
with Tate & Lyle plc and will open a 45,000 tonnes per annum manufacturing plant in Loudon,
Tennessee in 2006. Sorona is a softer fi bre than either polyester or nylon and is being targeted mainly
at clothing markets.
Toray is one of the biggest processors of NatureWorks Ingeo PLA fi bres in the world. The company
is initially developing Ingeo fi bre products for industrial and daily use such as carpets, bedding and
industrial materials. Ultimately, Toray plans to develop the fi bre for a broad range of applications
including clothing and interior decoration materials.
Perhaps one of the best areas of opportunity for PLA is in geotextiles for agriculture. Companies
such as Unitika believes that PLA anti-fungal properties combined with its ability to be engineered
for biodegradability makes it ideal as a landscaping fabric. Unitika sees possibilities for a total system
of geotextiles from rope and plant covers to plant pots and fertiliser bags.
102
Biodegradable Polymers
103
10
Profi les of Leading Biodegradable
Plastics
Converters
10.1 Alpha Packaging
1555 Page Industrial Blvd.
St. Louis, Missouri 63132
USA
Tel: (1) 314 427 4300
Fax: (1) 314 427 5445
www.alphap.com
Company Overview
Alpha Packaging manufactures bottles and jars made from polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and high-
density polyethylene (HDPE) for the pharmaceutical, nutritional and personal care markets. Technologies
used include injection blow moulding, injection stretch blow moulding, and extrusion blow moulding.
Alpha manufactures stock and custom containers in a variety of styles and colours.
Alpha was founded in 1969 and is based in a 210,000 square-foot headquarters in St. Louis, Missouri,
which houses injection blow moulding equipment for both PET and HDPE bottles and jars. Alpha
also has plants in Brooklyn and Salt Lake City.
Biodegradable Plastic Products
Alpha Packaging manufactures NatureWorks PLA bottles on stretch blow-moulding machines. Alpha
states that PLA is ideal for oil-based products, as well as products with fl avour and aroma attributes.
The PLA resin is FDA-approved and suitable for food contact. It is used for dairy, juice and water
bottles, as well as trays for deli meats, salads and single-serve meals.
10.2 Arkhe Planning Co.
19-1-5 Imaichi-Cho
Fukui city
J-918-8152
Japan
Tel: (81) 776 38 4547
Fax: (81) 776 38 4617
Company Overview
Arkhe Planning Co was established in 2000 to manufacture innovative textiles and agricultural products
104
Biodegradable Polymers
from PLA. The company also produces hygiene products such as cloth diapers and incontinence pads.
Arkhe Planning is a subsidiary of Arkhe Group, an international developer and distributor of high
quality pure titanium raw material and parts and accessories for the optical industry.
Biodegradable Plastic Products
Arkhe’s PLA fi bres are used to produce a range of novelty goods including calendar cases, bags,
clips, name card holders, mouse pads, cell phone straps, diary covers and stationery. They have been
certifi ed as fully biodegradable under the Japanese GreenPla system.
Arkhe PLA fi bres are also used for manufacture of biodegradable agricultural products such as nets,
nonwoven sheets, sand bags, garbage bags, anti-weed sheets and rope.
10.3 Arthur Blank & Company
225 Rivermoor Street
Boston
MA 02132
USA
Tel: (1) 617 325 9600
Fax: (1) 617 327 1235
www.abco.com
Company Overview
Arthur Blank & Company is the largest producer of private label plastic cards in North America,
printing and personalising more than 850 million plastic cards a year. Manufacturing capacity exceeds
1 billion cards. Major customers include American Airlines, American Express, Amtrak, AT&T,
Barnes & Noble, British Airways, Blue Cross Blue Shield, Costco, Exxon, Hyatt Hotels, IBM, L.L.
Bean, Pizzeria Uno, Sears and 7-Eleven.
Capabilities include colour matching, foil stamping, holograms, unusual die cuts, and high-resolution
ink jet imaging. They can also add signature panels, bar codes, encoded magnetic stripes and individual
names on each card.
Biodegradable Plastic Products
Arthur Blank introduced CornCard USA, a corn-based plastic card based on NatureWorks PLA as
an alternative to traditional petroleum-based plastic cards. CornCard USA is identical to traditional
plastic cards in look, feel, and durability while offering the same reliability and functionality. Major
national retailers and quick service restaurants are already considering alternatives to traditional
petroleum-based plastics.
Arthur Black was the fi rst volume manufacturer to offer PLA-based plastic cards, which is available
for virtually the entire product line including: gift, loyalty, debit, membership, and ID cards.
105
Profi les of Leading Biodegradable Plastics Converters
10.4 Autobar Group Ltd.
Autobar House
41-42 Kew Bridge Road
Brentford
Middlesex
TW8 0DY
United Kingdom
Tel: (44) (0) 208 326 8000
Fax: (44) (0) 208 326 8001
www.autobar.com
Company Overview
The Autobar Group is a pan-European business that manufactures a large range of packaging
products mainly for use in the food, drink, health and home and personal care sectors. The
Group has three trading businesses: Veriplast International, Autobar Rigid Packaging and
Autobar Flexible Packaging. Autobar utilises injection moulding, thermoforming, extrusion
and lamination for processing polypropylene, polyethylene, polystyrene, PET and PLA
biodegradable polymers.
Biodegradable Plastic Products
The Autobar Disposables Group is a pan-European manufacturer of disposable foodservice
products trading under the name Veriplast International. Autobar began its experimentation
with NatureWorks PLA in 1997 when it manufactured yoghurt containers for Danone, the
major European dairy products producer, for trials in the German market. While the containers
were found to be successful, the systems to segregate the compostable materials had not yet been
developed at that time.
Autobar has worked with Italian supermarket chain, Iper, on the manufacture of PLA
thermoformed trays and containers for fresh foods in place of polypropylene. The packaging
consists of 12 sizes, categorised as ‘small’, ‘medium’, ‘large’ and ‘maxi’, that offer a range of
dimensions.
At its plant in Mont-de-Marsan, France, Autobar begins the production process by creating 330
micron fi lm sheets from the NatureWorks PLA resin using a standard cast extrusion line. The
extruded sheet is then thermoformed.
By using NatureWorks PLA instead of polypropylene, Autobar was able to reduce the wall
thickness of the containers, from 460 microns down to 330 microns. The downgauging allows
Autobar to use less material, which helps reduce the production costs, without compromising
the quality of the thermoformed container.
After signifi cant input on the thermoforming of NatureWorks PLA, Autobar was recognised by
NatureWorks LLC as one of its development partners.
106
Biodegradable Polymers
10.5 Bartling GmbH & Co. KG Kunststoffe
Haller Weg 4
D-33829 Borgholzhausen
Germany
Tel: (49) 5425 94950
www.bartling-cups.com
Company Overview
Founded in 1959, Bartling is a manufacturer of tailor-made packaging for the food service industry.
Bartling is a privately owned company with more than 250 employees.
Biodegradable Plastic Products
Bartling offers a range of products made from NatureWorks PLA such as beer and juice-cups, salad-
shakers and ice cups.
10.6 Bi-Ax International
596 Cedar Ave
Wingham
Ontario N0G 2W0
Canada
Tel: (1) 519 3571818
Fax: (1) 519 3573773
www.bixinc.com
Company Overview
Bi-Ax International is a Canadian company dedicated to oriented polylactide fi lm (OPLA) and biaxially
oriented polypropylene (BOPP) fi lm. Bi-Ax International is headquartered in Wingham, Ontario,
Canada, and operates a separate manufacturing facility in Tiverton, Ontario, Canada.
Main markets for Bi-Ax products are the food packaging, pressure sensitive tape and graphics
lamination industries.
Biodegradable Plastic Products
Bi-Ax offers the Evlon line of OPLA fi lm made from NatureWorks PLA for packaging and label
applications.
Evlon EV co-extruded plain PLA fi lm is a crystal clear fi lm that can be used in many packaging
applications either plain or printed and laminated. Target applications include twist wrap, labels,
window fi lm and board lamination.
107
Profi les of Leading Biodegradable Plastics Converters
Evlon Ev HIS is a co-extruded one-side heat sealable PLA fi lm for packaging applications either plain
or printed and laminated, for horizontal and vertical packaging machines. Suggested applications
include bags, overwrap and laminations.
10.7 BioBag International AS
Hovsveien 8
N- 1831
Askim
Norway
Tel: (47) 69 888590
Fax: (47) 69 888599
www.polargruppen.com
Company Overview
BioBag is the world’s largest producer of 100% biodegradable and 100% compostable bags and fi lms
made from Novamont’s starch-based material, Mater-Bi. The company changed its name from Polar
Gruppen AS in January 2006 to better refl ect the nature of the business to its customers. BioBag’s
main manufacturing facilities are based in Norway and the company has sales offi ces throughout
Europe, as well as in the USA and Canada.
Biodegradable Plastic Products
BioBag International offers the following product range:
BioShop shopping bags
BioBag pooper bags
BioAgri agricultural fi lm
BioGarden garden waste sacks
BioPack for fresh fruit and vegetable packaging
BioTech technical fi lms and bags for industry
BioToi fi tted bags for portable toilets
BioBag products have a number of important features:
• BioBag products meet all of the international standards for biodegradability and composting
including ASTM D6400 specifi cations and EN 13432:2000.
• BioBags
are
certifi ed GMO Free.
• BioBags are DEN certifi ed for restricted use of metals in soy-based inks and dyes.
• BioBags are shelf stable and no chemical additives are used to enhance decomposition.
• BioBags ‘breathe’, which allows heat and moisture to escape or evaporate.
• BioBags will decompose in a controlled composting environment within 10-45 days.
• BioBags will decompose in a natural setting at an extended rate comparable to other naturally
biodegradable materials, such as paper and food waste.
108
Biodegradable Polymers
A notable development for BioBag was the selection of BioBag by the city of San Francisco for their
residential food waste collection programme. The city is distributing 100,000 rolls of BioBags to
residents within the county so that they can divert food and other biodegradable waste from landfi ll.
San Francisco residents can now purchase additional supplies at over 100 outlets in the bay area.
10.8 Biosphere Industries Corporation
1025 Cindy Lane
Carpinteria, CA 93013
USA
Tel: (1) 805 566 6563
Fax: (1) 805 566 6583
www.biospherecorp.com
Company Overview
Biosphere Industries is a California based engineering, research and development house that was
established in 2002 to provide equipment and proprietary technology for biodegradable rigid
packaging. The company has developed modular equipment and production sequences better suited
for high volume, low cost packaging production by utilising advanced aerospace engineering applied
to production equipment design, combined with its own PPM (Primary Packaging Materials) rigid
packaging material.
Biodegradable Plastic Products
Biosphere offers a biodegradable material for rigid packaging as an alternative to paper and standard
thermoplastics. The PPM materials are moisture resistant and can be used in food service items
such as rigid foam trays and containers as well as general packaging. PPM is made from renewable
organic resources such as starch and grass fi bres. They are biodegradable in less than sixty days. PPM
packaging products have a long shelf-life and are fully microwavable and ovenable.
10.9 BIOTA Brands of America Inc.
PO Box 2812
Tellunide
CO-81435
USA
Tel: (1) 970 728 6132
www.biotaspringwater.com
Company Overview
BIOTA is a leading US brand of natural spring water. BIOTA is sold at select natural foods and
gourmet supermarkets throughout the western United States. The company has plans to offer BIOTA
bottled water in stores across the United States in the near future.
109
Profi les of Leading Biodegradable Plastics Converters
Biodegradable Plastic Products
In 2005, BIOTA introduced NatureWorks™ PLA for packaging its natural spring water. BIOTA was
the fi rst beverage company in the world to exclusively use NatureWorks PLA to bottle its products.
BIOTA water bottles are completely compostable. They are approved and certifi ed as commercially
compostable by the Biodegradable Products Institute (BPI). Initial testing has demonstrated that a
BIOTA water bottle will degrade within 75 to 80 days in a commercial composting situation. PLA
bottles are also approved by the FDA for food and water contact.
The bottle label is also compostable but the cap is not at the moment. BIOTA is currently researching
biodegradable options for the cap.
10.10 Bomatic Inc.
Corporate Headquarters
1841 East Acacia Street
Ontario 91761
Canada
Tel: (1) 909 947 3900
Fax: (1) 909 947 5969
www.bomatic.com
Company Overview
Bomatic, Inc. has been a producer of plastic bottles and containers since 1969. The company serves
the personal care, automotive, pharmaceutical, medical, lawn and garden, food, household cleaners,
and industrial chemicals markets. Production capabilities include extrusion blow moulding and
injection moulding products made from: HDPE, PVC, LDPE, PET, PETG, polycarbonate, polystyrene,
polypropylene, and polyurethane.
Biodegradable Plastic Products
In 2004, the Ontario plant began to produces sports and energy drink bottles made from biodegradable
NatureWorks PLA resin.
10.11 Brenmar Company
8523 South 117th Street
Omaha
Nebraska 68128
USA
Tel; (1) 402 592 3303
Fax: (1) 402 592 8275
www.brenmarco.com
110
Biodegradable Polymers
Company Overview
Brenmar was founded in 1988 as a distributor of supermarket, retail store and manufacturing
supplies. Since then, Brenmar has become a nationwide leader in the foodservice supply industry.
Brenmar offers a wide range of products such as carryout bags and a broad range of packaging for
bakery, deli, meat and produce departments. Brenmar also has expanded beyond supermarkets to
include many other retail concerns, as well as food service and manufacturing companies, selling
such items as thermal printers, labels, fastener systems and packaging.
Biodegradable Plastic Products
Brenmar was one of the fi rst companies to introduce NatureWorks PLA compostable packaging
for the food service market. The Versapak product line includes containers for fruit produce and
fresh or frozen bakery products. Other Brenmar products include cold drink cups, cutlery, bowls
and hinged clamshells.
10.12 Carolex SAS
Z. Ind. F-49160
Longue Jumelles
France
Tel: (33) 2 41 52 61 82
Fax: (33) 2 41 38 80 85
www.carolex.fr
Company Overview
Carolex, established in 1978, is a manufacturer of thermoplastic fi lm and sheet. The company
has two production sites in France and belongs to the Vita Thermoplastics group. The principal
target markets for Carolex are industrial thermoforming, food, medical and cosmetic packaging,
graphic arts, screen and lithoprinting, stationery, communications and event management.
Carolex acquired Imperial Packaging in the USA, which means the company is now able to offer
an extensive range of extruded products which combine technical know-how and design with
high performance, fl exible, modern production lines. Carolex business is organised around two
main areas: packaging and graphic arts, The company offers a range of standard and special
products made from polystyrene, ABS, PET, polyethylene and polypropylene. Technologies include
lamination and multi-layer co-extrusion.
Biodegradable Plastic Products
Carolex is understood to be in the process of developing PLA for manufacture of packaging
fi lm but only relatively small quantities of the product are being offered commercially at the
moment.
111
Profi les of Leading Biodegradable Plastics Converters
10.13 Chien Fua Bio-Tech Industry Co., Ltd.
14-5 Nan Pin Di
Nan Pin Lane
Yuanlin 510-46
Taiwan
Tel: (886) 4 832 0588
Fax: (886) 4 833 3280
www.cfcup.com
Company Overview
Established in 1970, Chien Fua is one of the leading manufacturers of consumable cup and food
containers in Taiwan. The company exports throughout Asia, and also to the Middle East, Europe, North
America and Oceania. Its principal product lines are drinking cups, ice cream and food containers.
Biodegradable Plastic Products
Chien Fua offers PLA-based custom made products including clear cups, salad / fruit bowls, sushi
trays, clamshell, food containers, trays and other related products.
10.14 Coopbox Europe
Head Offi ce:
Via Gandhi 8
42100 Reggio Emilia
Italy
Tel: (39) 0522 2991
Fax: (39) 0522 287929
www.ccpl.it
Company Overview
Coopbox was established in 1972 and has grown to become a leader in the Italian market and one
of the top companies in Europe in the manufacture and sale of plastic packaging for the fresh food
industry. Coopbox has offi ces and production facilities in several of the Italian regions and is currently
increasing its presence and product range in European markets through new companies it has set up
or acquired in Spain, France and Germany. Coopbox annual sales were in excess of
€100 million in
2004 and the company has around 650 employees.
Having already established itself as a serious partner for mass market distribution supplying
polystyrene trays, Coopbox now also provides packaging for all sectors of the food industry,
electronics, construction, manufacturing and garden centres and nurseries.
Coopbox products include the ‘Drenante’ tray and the ‘Aerpack’ protected atmosphere system.
112
Biodegradable Polymers
Biodegradable Plastic Products
In 2005, Coopbox Europe produced the fi rst PLA-based tray for packing fresh foods. The product’s
mechanical properties mean that it can be used on normal packing lines with stretch fi lm or sealed
with PLA fi lm to produce a 100% biodegradable pack. The expanded structure also helps absorb
the liquid released by meat.
10.15 Cortec Corporation
4119 White Bear Parkway
St. Paul
MN-55110
USA
Tel: (1) 651 429 1100
Fax: (1) 651 429 1122
www.cortecvci.com
Company Overview
Cortec Corporation of White Bear Lake, MN, is a manufacturer of environmentally responsible
packaging, metalworking, cleaning, water treatment and metal protection technologies. Cortec
manufactures over 300 products in fi ve plants located in Minnesota, Wisconsin. It is a global supplier
of environmentally-friendly speciality chemicals, plastics and coated paper.
Biodegradable Plastic Products
Cortec offers two families of high performance, certifi ed biodegradable packaging technologies
based on polyester from corn, Eco Film and Eco Works fi lms and bags. Cortec became the fi rst
US manufacturer to complete the Din Certco application and review process for Eco Film and Eco
Works fi lm and bag products in March 2005. Eco Film and Eco Works also meet ASTM D 6400
international standards for commercial compostability.
The most common types of Eco Film and Eco Works products are organic collection bags used by
consumers for organic waste diversion programmes. While waste collection bags are by far the largest
application of these products at the moment, the company maintains they are suitable for a wide
range of other applications including agricultural, construction and food protection fi lms.
Eco Film is designed to replace non-degradable as well as starch and polyethylene-based fi lms. Eco
Film is available in standard lengths of 91.4 cm and 122 cm rolls as well as a variety of custom sizes
and forms.
Eco-Tie is a high-strength, completely biodegradable and compostable alternative to twine and
metallic/plastic ties used in agricultural and industrial markets. This proprietary technology was
developed specifi cally for vineyards where the grape plants are tied to metal wire and fences during
their growing cycle. By using Eco-Tie, wine producers are able to further minimise the environmental
impact of their production.
113
Profi les of Leading Biodegradable Plastics Converters
Eco Works is used for checkout bags, food sleeves and pouches, produce bags and display bags.
Additionally, Eco Works Compostable Bags are available in retail packs. Eco Works Biodegradable
& Compostable Films and Bags are specifi cally designed to replace LDPE, LLDPE and HDPE fi lms
used in a wide variety of applications ranging from protective industrial fi lms, retail packaging and
agricultural fi lms to high performance organic collection bags with drawstring closures.
EcoWrap is a combination of highly elastic certifi ed biodegradable polyester and cling coating.
EcoWrap is designed to replace non-biodegradable tensioning fi lms and palletising wraps. EcoWrap
has superior strength, which allows for downgauging. Eco Wrap is also suitable for masking
applications and is available with patented multi-metal corrosion inhibiting properties. It is ideally
suited for agricultural shipments.
10.16 Earthcycle Packaging Ltd.
Suite 1100 – 1166 Alberni Street
Vancouver V6E 3X3
British Columbia
Canada
Tel: (1) 604 899 0928
Fax: (1) 604 682 4133
www.earthcycle.com
Company Overview
Vancouver-based Earthcycle Packaging is a privately held company which manufactures packaging
based on sustainable resources based on palm fi bre.
Biodegradable Plastic Products
Earthcycle sustainable packaging is made from palm fi bre, a bi-product of palm fruit, which is
harvested for its oil.
Earthcycle has developed a line of packaging specifi c for fresh vegetable and fruit. The packaging
trays are water resistant and are available in two colours, natural fi bre and vanilla. Other colours
are available upon request, using vegetable dyes, so the biodegradability and compostability of the
product is not jeopardised.
Earthcycle’s line of food service trays are designed for a range of food, including sandwiches, salads,
fries, burgers and complete dinners.
Earthcycle products are certifi ed by the FDA for use in the food service industry. The take-out
containers are both oil and water-resistant and are microwaveable.
The company is currently developing a line of Earthcycle fresh meat, poultry and seafood trays. They
are also developing a line of Earthcycle garden pots for the herb and seedling market.
NatureFlex fi lm is available for lidding in a heat sealable bag or wrap format. This material is certifi ed
compostable to the European ‘OK’ Home Compost standard as well as to ASTM D6400 and by the
Biodegradable Products Institute (BPI).
114
Biodegradable Polymers
10.17 Europackaging plc
118 Amington Road
Yardley
Birmingham
UK
Tel: (44) 121 706 6181
Fax: (44) 121 706 6514
www.europackaging.co.uk
Company Overview
Europackaging is one of the leading UK paper and plastic packaging suppliers with annual sales
over
€290 million in 2004. Europackaging has manufacturing plants in the UK, Malaysia, China,
Dubai and the USA.
Principal products include paper and plastic bags and sacks, containers and trays, stationary,
tableware, tape and industrial wrap.
Biodegradable Plastic Products
In March 2004, Europackaging became the fi rst UK company to introduce a complete line of
biodegradable packaging products. The product line includes carrier bags, luxury shopping bags,
disposable cutlery, single-serve vending cups and hinged salad containers, as well as bakery fi lm, front
bags and hinged containers. Europackaging biodegradable products are based on NatureWorks PLA.
10.18 Ex-Tech Plastics, Inc.
11413 Burlington Road
Richmond
Illinois 60071
USA
Tel: (1) 815 678 2131
Fax: (1) 815 678 4248
www.extechplastics.com
Company Overview
Ex-Tech manufactures speciality thermoformed polyolefi n, polystyrene, PVC and PLA fi lm and sheet
for food applications.
Biodegradable Plastic Products
In 2003, Ex-Tech became the fi rst company in North America to introduce NatureWorks PLA sheets
for thermoforming applications. The material complies with FDA and European requirements for
food packaging.
Target markets for Ex-Tech PLA containers include food packaging, organic in-store prepared food
packaging, thermoformed hinged packaging and tray packaging.
115
Profi les of Leading Biodegradable Plastics Converters
10.19 Fabri-Kal
600 Plastics Place
Kalamazoo
MI 49001
USA
Tel: (1) 800-888-5054
Fax: (1) 269-385-0197
www.f-k.com
Company Overview
Fabri-Kal was founded in 1950 and has grown to become the sixth largest thermoformer in North
America with over 800 employees. Headquartered in Kalamazoo, Michigan, Fabri-Kal has three
manufacturing facilities throughout the US and is the largest thermoformer of polyolefi ns (PP and HDPE)
for food packaging in North America. Product lines include deli cups, drinking cups and lids.
Biodegradable Plastic Products
Fabri-Kla offers Greenware premium cold drink cups that are manufactured from NatureWorks PLA.
10.20 Faerch Plast A/S
Rasmus Færchs Vej 1
DK-7500 Holstebro
Denmark
Tel: (45) 99 101010
Fax: (45) 99 101099
www.faerchplast.com
Company Overview
Færch Plast is a manufacturer of packaging for the food industry and the retail trade. Around 80%
of production is exported, mainly to other European countries. Færch Plast is 100% owned by
Færch Holding A/S. The company has a subsidiary in the UK and a sales offi ce in Obernai, France.
In 1997, Færch Plast established Færch Plast Norden, a division which handles sales to the Nordic
countries. The company is represented in many other European countries through a network of
agents and distributors.
Færch Plast is an extruder of fi lm and thermoforms packaging. Packaging is made from PS, CPET,
APET, PP and PLA plastics. Principal end use sectors served are ready meals, fresh meat, cold food,
snacks and disposables.
In collaboration with European and American partners, Færch Plast also markets a wide range of
packaging solutions, which complement Færch Plast’s own product range. These products includes
sealing foils from Du Pont Teijin Films, absorbers from Paper Pack Inc and transparent OPS packaging
for convenience products from Inline, as well as disposable tableware.
116
Biodegradable Polymers
Biodegradable Plastic Products
Faerch Plast offers thermoformed articles based on NatureWorks PLA polymers. Target markets
include fresh foods such as meat, salad and pasta.
10.21 Farnell Packaging Ltd.
30 Ilsley Avenue
Dartmouth
Nova Scotia
Canada
Tel: (1) 902 468 3192
Fax: (1) 902 468 9378
www.farnell.co.ca
Company Overview
Farnell Packaging has been in business for over forty years as a custom manufacturer of polyethylene and
co-polyester fi lms, bags, sheets and pressure-sensitive labels. Farnell Packaging products are sold throughout
the North American market and all of its quality systems are registered under ISO9001:2000.
Biodegradable Plastic Products
Farnell Packaging manufactures all compostable, biodegradable fi lms and bags from materials
that meet industry standards for aerobic biodegradation. These products are certifi ed to use the
compostable logo of the International Biodegradable Products Institute & US Composting Council.
Biodegradable products are available in stock sizes (and custom sizes depending on quantity). Products
are marketed under the BIG BOY trade name.
10.22 Fortune Plastics
P. O. Box 637
Williams Lane
Old Saybrook
CT 06475
USA
Tel: (1) 860 3883426
Fax: (1) 860 3889930
www.fortuneplastics.com
Company Overview
Fortune Plastics was established in 1955 and has grown to become one of the top fi ve plastic bag
suppliers in the USA. The company is privately-owned and has plants in Chicago, Phoenix, Nashville,
Orlando and Old Saybrook, CT.
117
Profi les of Leading Biodegradable Plastics Converters
Biodegradable Plastic Products
In 2005, Fortune Plastics introduced COMP-LETE compostable bags. These bags are suitable
for collecting food scraps and garden trimmings for compsting. The bags, which are based on
Novamont’s Mater-Bi polymers, have been certifi ed by the US Biodegradable Polymers Institute as
fully biodegradable and compostable.
10.23 Good Flag Biotechnology Corporation
No. 51, Ting-hu Road, Dahua Tsun
Kweishan Hsiang
Taoyuan Hsien
Tao Yuan
Taiwan
Tel: (8863) 2115000
Fax: (8863) 2114567
www.goodfl ag.com.tw
Company Overview
Good Flag Biotechnology is one of the largest manufacturers of PP packaging and disposable food
containers in Asia. Established in 1974, Good Flag employs over 200 people and has annual sales
in excess of
€25 million. The company exports around a quarter of its sales to Asia, Europe and
North America.
Product lines include food packaging and biodegradable disposable tableware, plastic formed
packaging products, electronics packaging materials, PP folding colour boxes, cold drinking cups,
gift packaging boxes, cosmetic packaging and lunch boxes and inserts.
Good Flag has 42 production lines including:
• Extrusion machinery: computerised automatic transmission system
• Thermoforming
machines
• Printing: fully automatic high speed printing machine that can print up to six colours
simultaneously.
Biodegradable Plastic Products
Good Flag Biotechnology has experienced a sharp growth in demand from food manufacturers,
retailers and hotels for its 100% biodegradable packaging. The company has invested 2.5 million in
new equipment from Germany to produce environmentally friendly thermoformed cups from PLA.
The company has production capacity for 12 million items per day for both PLA and PP cups.
The principal biodegradable products are PLAR360Y, a 100% biodegradable 360cc non-toxic
disposable cup and PLA-R200Y, a PLA disposable drinking water cup sold under the Good Flag
trade name.
118
Biodegradable Polymers
10.24 Grenidea Technologies Pte Ltd.
67 Ayer Rajah Crescent
Singapore 139950
Tel: (65) 68720020
Fax: (65) 68720460
www.grenidia.com
Company Overview
Grenidea Technologies was founded in 2000 to develop environment-friendly products based
on their proprietary biodegradable AgroResin and AgriPack materials. Grenidea work with
distributors and manufacturing technology licensees to create and market innovative applications
of their technologies.
Biodegradable Plastic Products
AgroResin is a biodegradable packaging material from by-products of the palm oil industry. It can
also be made from agricultural fi bres, such as wheat straw. It is c
ompatible with existing moulded
pulp manufacturing processes.
AgroResin has received Din-Certco certifi cation for products made
of compostable materials (DIN EN 13432:2000-12).
AgriPack packaging products are the main application for AgriResin materials. They are lightweight,
moisture resistant, anti-static and have insulating properties. They are also microwavable, making them
suitable for food packaging. AgriPack products can be coloured, coated, printed and embossed.
AgroPack has been certifi ed as organic recoverable through composting and biodegradation (Din
Certco: DIN EN 13432). It also complies with the EU standard for food packaging (EU: German
Recommendation XXXVI). Currently, AgroPack products are used by Carrefour Singapore, FAMA,
and Sainsbury’s (UK) retail outlets.
10.25 The Heritage Bag Company
1648 Diplomat Boulevard
16 Brenridge
East Amherst
New York
USA
Tel; (1) 716 632 2379
Fax: (1) 716 632 2386
www.heritage-bag.com
Company Overview
The Heritage Bag Company is a privately owned business which manufactures a range of plastic
bags. Products include polyethylene trash bags, healthcare waste disposal bags and bags for food.
119
Profi les of Leading Biodegradable Plastics Converters
Biodegradable Plastic Products
Heritage offers the BioTuf compostable bags for p
re- and post-consumer food waste diversion
programmes and for municipal kerbside yard waste collection programmes. The company claims
that BioTuf bags have s
uperior strength, e
xcellent puncture and tear resistance and proven lifting
strength and load capacity. BioTuf bags meet ASTM D6400-99 specifi cations for biodegradability
and compostability. They are also photodegradable if left by the roadside.
10.26 Huhtamäki Oy
Länsituulentie 7
02100 Espoo
Finland
Tel: (358) 9 686 881
Fax: (358) 9 660 622
www.huhtamaki.com
Company Overview
Huhtamäki Oyj was established in 1920 and is now one of the world’s leading consumer packaging
companies. The company is based in Finland and is listed on Helsinki Stock Exchange. Huhtamaki
has more than 70 manufacturing and sales units and over 15,000 employees in 36 countries. Net
sales in 2004 were approximately
€2.1 billion.
The company claims world leadership in rigid thin-walled plastic and paper packaging and moulded
fi bre packaging. It is also a market leader in high-performance fl exible packaging.
Huhtamaki organises its business into six groups, consumer goods, foodservice, moulded fi bre, retail,
fi lms and special operations.
Consumer goods includes rigid packaging for ice cream, edible fats and spreads, dairy, personal
care, household care, pet food, confectionery, convenience foods, baby food as well as beverages
and fresh foods.
Foodservice packaging is aimed at restaurants and beverage vendors, institutional caterers, airline
caterers and vending machine operators.
Moulded fi bre is used for egg packaging, trays and boxes for fruit and vegetables.
Retail includes single-use tableware products such as white Chinet and Bibo and Lily coordinated
cups, plates, napkins and table-covers.
The Films division is one of the major producers of polyolefi n fi lms in Europe and an important
converter of fi lms, papers and other web form materials. The materials are mainly used for technical
applications such as label and graphic arts, adhesive tapes, building and construction, automotive
and packaging.
The special operations division includes the Flex-E-Fill automated rotary fi lling system business and
the recycling operations.
120
Biodegradable Polymers
Biodegradable Plastic Products
In November 2004, Huhtamaki introduced BioWare, a new range of biodegradable and compostable
foodservice packaging including single-serve cold drinks cups, plates, cutlery and containers, made
from polylactic acid produced by NatureWorks LLC. The products are designed to meet the needs
of various foodservice operators, ranging from outdoor festivals and mass events to catering and
daily food and beverage service.
BioWare products are clear and sturdy, and are suited for serving cold drinks including water, beer,
soft drinks and shakes.
BioWare has already achieved some success in the marketplace. For example Alken Maes, the second
largest Belgian brewery, used the BioWare beer cups in the 2004 summer festivals after which the
cups were composted.
The plates and bowls of the BioWare range are Huhtamaki’s Chinet products, made from 100%
moulded fi bre. Chinet plates are certifi ed for compostability according to European standard EN
13432. Chinet plates are made from Huhtamaki’s own post-industrial paper cup cuttings in the
European manufacturing unit in Norway with a proprietary smooth-moulding process and they are
recognised for their rigidity, functionality and premium fi nish.
In Europe, the Chinet range has been successfully introduced for households as well as institutional
caterers and casual restaurant chains looking for a convenient, cost-effective and environmentally
sound alternative to chinaware.
10.27 IBEK Verpackungshandel GmbH
Losaurach 116
D-91459 Markt Erlbach
Germany
Tel: (49) 91 6189 700
Fax: (49) 91 6189 7099
www.ibek-gmbh.de
Company Overview
IBEK Verpackungshandel GmbH, formerly trading as Apack AG, is a manufacturer of biodegradable
packaging and packaging solutions for the food and catering sector. The company has production plants
in Germany, Thailand, China and Canada and is headquartered in Markt Erlbach, Germany. In Germany,
IBEK’s production capacity amounts to approximately 150 million packaging units per annum.
Biodegradable Plastic Products
IBEK’s biodegradable plastic product range includes:
• Apack industrial food packaging for meat, fi sh, poultry, cheese, fruit and vegetables for large
packer companies and supermarkets.
121
Profi les of Leading Biodegradable Plastics Converters
• Apackmenue industrial packaging for ready-meals, canteen food and take-away meals.
• Cellis catering articles for fast food and outdoor events.
IBEK uses Eastman’s Eastar Bio co-polyesters and PLA for their bio-packaging products. Apack’s trays
are being used for organic produce by two top UK supermarket chains (including J Sainsbury’s) as a
replacement for EPS foam trays. A 2.5 mm thick Eastar Bio fi lm is laminated to the upper surface of
the Apack tray. This breathable fi lm provides moisture and grease resistance to protect the substrate
from premature degradation, but lets in air to ensure biodegradation. The fi lm also adds rigidity
and printability.
For shipping, the trays are bundled in a 15 micron Eastar Bio cling fi lm, which replaces 12 micron
PVC fi lm used with EPS trays.
Apack meat trays have a base similar to that of the produce tray. It is mated to a clear, heat sealable
PLA lidstock. PLA is an inherently poor oxygen barrier, but use of a proprietary post-extrusion step
reportedly extends shelf life by 50% to 6-9 days.
Apack’s Canadian subsidiary is promoting use of its composite in hot- and cold-drink disposable
cups to replace EPS. Apack Canada’s cups are foamed to 0.2 g/cc density, reportedly providing better
insulation than paper cups. A co-polyester coating prevents moisture penetration, permits quality
printing, and provides enough insulation (in hot cups) to dispense with costly paper sleeves. The
sprayed-on coating uses a blend of an Eastman co-polyester and a second biodegradable resin to get
a balanced viscosity.
10.28 ILIP
sede legale
Via G. Galilei n°168
41100 Modena
Italy
Tel. (39) 051 6715411
Fax (39) 051 6715413
www.ilip.it
Company Overview
Ilip is one of Europe’s largest producers of packaging for agricultural products, making a wide
range of punnets, trays and fruit inserts for fruit and vegetable packaging, and disposable tableware
for catering. In addition to NatureWorks PLA, Ilip uses PET and polypropylene for its packaging
applications.
Biodegradable Plastic Products
In 2003, Ilip introduced a NatureWorks PLA rigid container for fresh produce applications as an
environmentally sustainable alternative to traditional plastic packaging.
122
Biodegradable Polymers
10.29 Innovia Films BVBA
Sluisweg 8
B-9820
Merelbeke
Belgium
Tel: (32) 9 241 1211
Fax: (32) 9 241 1294
www.innoviafi lms.com
Company Overview
Innovia Films is the world’s leading supplier of speciality biaxially oriented polypropylene (BOPP)
and cellulose fi lms for speciality packaging, labelling and graphic arts and industrial products.
Innovia has annual sales of over
€350m and employs some 1,400 people worldwide. Total annual
fi lm capacity is more than 120,000 tonnes. The company has production sites in Belgium, UK, USA
and Australia and sales offi ces throughout Europe, the Americas and Asia.
Innovia Films formerly traded as UCB Films, which was part of the UCB Group before being sold
to an investment consortium involving Candover Partners for
€320m in 2004.
Biodegradable Plastic Products
Innovia Films offers the NatureFlex range of biodegradable polymers based on cellulose from
wood pulp, which is sourced from managed plantations. All NatureFlex fi lms are proven in both
commercial and home composting systems. They are inherently anti-static, glossy and transparent
with a naturally high gas barrier and resistance to grease, oils and fats. The fi rst area of use is for
fresh produce, where NatureFlex NE 600 fi lms provide strong but peelable seals, as well as some
degree of moisture permeability, which reduces in-pack condensation.
NatureFlex fi lms also perform well on the packing line and have a wide heat sealing range, from 70
ºC to 200 ºC. This means the packaging fi lm can be used on faster processing lines with no loss of
seal performance.
NatureFlex fi lms are also stiffer and more oriented than some other biopolymers, which make them
suitable for use on standard fl ow-wrap and form-fi ll-seal equipment.
NatureFlex is available in an uncoated form and in three different coated versions providing
moisture and gas barrier performance, and is certifi ed to EU and US standards for industrial and
home composting.
The company is also in the process of developing a metallised NatureFlex film, which is
currently undergoing independent testing in order to formally confi rm its biodegradability and
compostability.
In 2004, US organic health food producer, Raw Indulgence, began using NatureFlex packaging fi lm
for its Heavenly Whole Food Brownies and Blondies range. New York-based Raw Indulgence chose
to use the fi lm to fl ow-wrap its range of vegan Brownies because it was consistent with the ethos of
the product, the crystal clear fi lm looked good on the pack, and it is easy to use.
123
Profi les of Leading Biodegradable Plastics Converters
10.30 Liquid Container/Plaxicon
1760 Hawthorne Lane West
Chicago
Illinois 60185
USA
Tel: (1) 630) 231 0850
Fax: (1) 630 562 5858
www.liquidcontainer.com
Company Overview
Liquid Containers is one of North America’s largest blow moulders of plastic bottles with twelve
manufacturing sites in the United States. Liquid Containers serves a broad range of packaging-critical
markets including food, household and industrial chemicals, agricultural chemicals, and automotive
after-care products. Principal polymers used for manufacture of blow moulded bottles are high-density
polyethylene (HDPE) and polyethylene terephthalate (PET). The product range includes wide mouth
or narrow neck, high clarity, tinted, opaque or coloured.
Biodegradable Plastic Products
In November 2004, Naturally Iowa Dairy began using natural and organic milk in stretch blow
moulded bottles produced by Liquid Containers using NatureWorks PLA. The bottles are available
in several varieties of PLA including half-gallon ‘grip’ bottles, and 1 to 2 gallon sizes. An 11-oz single-
serve PLA bottle was later introduced. The pressure-sensitive labels will not be made of PLA.
10.31 NNZ bv
Postbus 104
9700 AC Groningen
Leonard Springerlaan 13
NL-9727 KB Groningen
The Netherlands
Tel: (31) 50 5207800
Fax: (31) 50 5207801
www.nnz.com
Company Overview
NNZ was established in 1922 as a trading house selling jute bags. This family run business has
since grown to become a major operator in the packaging sector. NNZ has branches in Europe and
the United States and holds a central position in a global network of packaging producers, research
institutes, universities and retail organisations. NNZ is active throughout the entire packaging chain,
from raw material producers to consumers.
124
Biodegradable Polymers
NNZ focuses on two main packaging sectors, agriculture and industrial.
For agricultural markets, NNZ supplies fi lm and bags, trays and containers, transit packaging, net
packaging, paper and cardboard packaging and jute sacks.
For industrial markets, NNZ supplies industrial bulk containers, polyethylene packaging,
polypropylene sacks, transit packaging and paper bags.
Biodegradable Plastic Products
NNZ offers Ökopack, a biodegradable starch-based material. Ökopack is available in several
varieties:
• Ökopack Film C is transparent with high gloss, with properties similar to polypropylene.
• Ökopack Film S is semi-transparent with properties similar to polyethylene. Ökopack C and S
can be used for production of fl at fi lms, sleeve fi lms and bags and sacks, which can be used for
fruit and vegetable packaging.
• Ökopack Tray C is a PET-like transparent, black, high gloss tray based on sugar.
• Ökopack Tray F is a foam tray made from starch. It is offered in green and black and can be embossed.
Okopack Tray F is similar to foamed PS and useful for food protection applications.
• Ökopack Tray W is a water-soluble tray made from starch. It can be transparent, coloured in
yellow and purple, and can also be embossed. Applications include fl ower bulb trays.
• Ökopack Tray P is a fi bre-based tray based on palm oil. It is available in a natural colour, green,
brown, red and yellow and can also be embossed.
• Ökopack Net for netting applications.
In January 2006, Ökopack fi lm and Ökopack trays received full Din-Certco certifi cation for
biodegradability.
10.32 Natura Verpackungs GmbH
Industriestr. 55-57
D- 48432 Rheine
Germany
Tel: (49) 5975 303-57
Fax: (49) 5975 303-42
www.naturapackaging.com
Company Overview
natura packaging belongs to the Eurea group of companies. It offers a wide range of biodegradable
packaging products for fruit and vegetables, waste management and shopping bags based on
125
Profi les of Leading Biodegradable Plastics Converters
NatureWorks PLA material. Natura products are all 100% biodegradable, are produced using the
highest possible amount of sustainable renewable resources, are certifi ed in accordance with the
European EN 13432 standard (German DIN 54900) and have a very high degree of permeability.
Biodegradable Plastic Products
natura’s biodegradable fruit and vegetable packaging solutions offer the same possibilities as
conventional plastic packaging but less energy is expended during production. The required sealing
temperature is 25% below that of traditional materials. In addition, the products’ shelf life is increased
by the high permeability of the packaging. This permeability causes an ‘anti-fog’ effect. As a result,
products remain clearly visible, even after several days in-store.
Examples of natura fruit and vegetable packaging include knitted netting, extruded nets, potato and
carrot bags, t
rays on a sugar cane base, fl ow pack a
vailable in two varieties (PLA or cellulose)
and PLA
trays.
In the fi eld of waste management, natura supplies biodegradable waste bags in many different shapes
and sizes, from 8 to 240 litres. The bags are used for kitchen and garden waste bins and compost
easily after use.
natura also offers a wide range of shopping bags in many different shapes and sizes. These bags are
based on a starch biodegradable polymer and are fully compostable.
10.33 NVYRO
Unit 10, George Business Park
Cemetery Road
Southport PR8 5EF
United Kingdom
Tel: (44) 1704 536600
www.nvyro.com
Company Overview
Nvyro was established to produce cassava (tapioca) starch based packaging solutions. Tapioca is one
of the cheapest sources of raw materials for manufacture of starch based biodegradable polymers.
Biodegradable Plastic Products
The Nvyro disposable food packaging product range covers soup bowls, plates, cups, lunch boxes,
trays and lunch plates. Products are being targeted at ready to eat food, and take away food for fast
food centres, canteens, catering, hospitals, stadiums, exhibitions and conferences and shows. The
products are suitable for a wide range of foods, including dry, semi-liquid, liquid, cold and hot, and
fatty foods.
The products are all based on cassava starch plant fi bre and have foam-like structure and rigidity.
126
Biodegradable Polymers
They are light in colour and exhibit a mild odour. They have low water absorbency, and soften
slightly when in contact with liquid, but are still stable in service. They disintegrate into fragments
within one week after being immersed in still water.
10.34 Plastic Suppliers Inc.
Head Offi ce
2400 Marilyn Lane
Columbus
Ohio 43219
USA
Tel: (1) 614 475 8010
Fax: (1) 614 475 0264
www.plasticsuppliers.com
Company Overview
Plastic Suppliers is one of the largest manufacturers and distributors of plastic fi lms producing
for the fl exible packaging, folding carton, shrink fi lm, thermoforming, envelopes and printing
markets.
In the USA, the company has
two manufacturing plants located in Columbus, OH, and fi ve
distribution sites located in Marietta, GA, IL; Fullerton, CA; Dallas, TX ; and Mt. Laurel, NJ,
respectively. It also has a manufacturing plant in Gentbrugge, Belgium and another distribution site
in Northampton, UK. The corporate offi ce is located in Columbus, Ohio.
Plastic Suppliers’ manufacturing division is known as Polyfl ex and is also located in Columbus, Ohio.
The company operates two separate plastic fi lm and sheet manufacturing facilities in Columbus.
Plastic Suppliers is among the world’s leading manufacturers of biaxially oriented polystyrene. Polyfl ex
and Labelfl ex fi lms have been manufactured in Columbus, Ohio since the 1970s and at the Sidaplax
subsidiary in Gentbrugge, Belgium, since 1957.
Plastic Suppliers’ fi lms are marketed under the trade names of EarthFirst, Polyfl ex, Freezfl ex, Mattefl ex
and Labelfl ex.
Biodegradable Plastic Products
In 2005, Plastic Supplies produced the world’s fi rst blown fi lm from NatureWorks PLA. It was hitherto
thought that PLA was unsuitable for blown fi lm extrusion. Plastic Supplies claims that its EarthFirst
fi lm is 100% compostable, has high gloss, optimum clarity and transparency, high moisture vapour
transmission rate, fl avour retention, odour barrier, is breathable and is FDA compliant. Areas of
application for EarthFirst include window carton fi lm for food packaging, label fi lm, fl oral wrap
fi lm, shrink fi lm and envelope fi lm.
EarthFirst PLA packaging fi lm is available in clear, matte and white grades.
127
Profi les of Leading Biodegradable Plastics Converters
For window carton applications, the company claims that EarthFirst fi lm is environmentally friendly
and its properties are just as good as comparable fi lms.
For food contact applications, EarthFirst PLA fi lm has a good fl avour and aroma barrier and air
can move freely through the EarthFirst PLA fi lm to prevent fogging on windows and promote swift
adhesive drying. Also, EarthFirst PLA fi lm in food applications extends the products’ freshness and
results in a longer shelf-life.
EarthFirst PLA fi lm for labelling applications is offered in white and clear and can be used in cut
and stack or pressure sensitive applications. This fi lm is suited to applications that require a modern,
no-label look because of its clarity and gloss.
EarthFirst fi lm for packaging fl owers or herbs is amenable to ink and has a high natural dyne level
making fl oral sleeves more colourful and presentable.
EarthFirst fi lm for envelope windows comes in clear and matte fi lm. The USPS standard for haze is
met and exceeded with EarthFirst PLA fi lm and readability is not compromised as it also meets the
USPS Optical Character Recognition Machine standards.
10.35 RPC Group plc
Head Offi ce
Lakeside House
Higham Ferrers
Northamptonshire NW10 8RP
UK
Tel: (44) 1933 410064
Fax: (44) 1933 410083
www.rpc-group.com
Company Overview
The RPC Group is Europe’s leading supplier of rigid packaging with turnover of
€445 million in 2005.
The company manufactures a full range of blow moulding, injection moulding and thermoforming
rigid packaging applications for many different markets including industrial, chemical and household
packaging, health and beauty packaging, food and drink packaging, caps, dispensers and corks,
plastic sheet and presentation packaging, plus vending disposables and catering products.
RPC Bebo manufactures sterilisable multiplayer and monolayer pots, trays and tubs.
RPC Containers manufactures bottles, jars and tubs.
RPC Tedeco-Gizeh manufactures plastic cups, disposables and dairy packaging.
RPC Bramlage-Wiko manufactures cosmetic, pharmaceutical and food dispensers.
RPC Cobelplast manufactures formable plastic sheet.
128
Biodegradable Polymers
Biodegradable Plastic Products
In 2004, RPC Bebo Nederland launched HI-COMPOST, a range of biodegradable containers
manufactured in NatureWorks PLA material. The company says the new range is in response to
increasing packaging legislation from governments across Europe. PLA containers not only help
to avoid existing and proposed taxes on packaging and packaging waste but can also in some
instances qualify for subsidies. RPC says that PLA offers excellent clarity and has an equivalent
oxygen barrier to polypropylene. For sealed packs, RPC Bebo Nederland can also supply a heat-
sealable, compostable lidding fi lm, which is manufactured from biodegradable cellulose derived
from wood pulp.
The HI-COMPOST product range of biodegradable containers has a highly transparent and glossy
fi nish which, say the company, makes them aesthetically similar to clear polystyrene. The wall
thickness of the HI-COMPOST containers ranges from 200 to 1500 micron.
10.36 Siamp-Cedap
Head offi ce
4, Quai Antoine 1
er
BP 219 – 98007
Monaco
France
Tel: (33) 377 93 155375
Fax: (33) 377 9205 7104
www.siamp.com
Company Overview
Cedap, (European Consortium of Plastic Applications), was established in 1963 in Monaco. Its
main activity is the production of polystyrene sheet for food packaging. Cedap is a division of
Siamp-Cedap.
Cedap specialises in ‘Form Fill Seal’ (FFS) applications for dairy product packaging. It offers bi-
colour, striped and laminated PS sheet.
Cedap has a production plant in France and a production site in Belgium, which opened in 1998.
Cedap Mexico was established in 2001 to serve the American market. Cedap also formed a strategic
agreement in Europe with the Huhtamaki group (Finland).
Biodegradable Plastic Products
In 2005, Cedap introduced thermoformed PLA-based single-serve drinking cups.
129
Profi les of Leading Biodegradable Plastics Converters
10.37 Sidaplax
Kerkstraat 24
B-9050
Gentbrugge
Belgium
Tel: (32) 9210 8010
Fax: (32) 9210 8019
www.sidaplax.com
Company Overview
Belgium based company Sidaplax has been a subsidiary of Plastics Suppliers Inc since 1988.
Sidaplast is a leading producer and distributor of biaxially oriented plastic fi lms, registered under
such trademarks as ‘Polyfl ex’, ‘Labelfl ex’ and ‘TMOPS’.
Sidaplax operates in more than 40 countries operating in a range of markets such as the food
processing, packaging, healthcare, communications and stationery, consumer goods and converting
industries.
Biodegradable Plastic Products
Sidaplax has added Plastic Supplies’ EarthFirst PLA fi lm to its product range. EarthFirst is used in
label face stock, shrink sleeve, wrap around shrink, fl oral and over wrap, window carton, packaging
and envelope window fi lm applications.
10.38 Signum NZ Ltd.
PO Box 58294
Greenmount
Auckland
New Zealand
Tel: (64) 9274 4433
Fax: (64) 9274 4429
www.signum.co.nz
Company Overview
Signum is a privately-owned company established in 1936 and is now a leading manufacturer of
thermoformed plastic packaging. Signum has manufacturing facilities in Melbourne, Sydney and
Auckland, New Zealand. The company has grown organically and, through a series of acquisitions,
in the design, tooling, extrusion and moulding areas.
Signum is committed to the development of environmentally-friendly packaging and offers a large
proprietary range of produce, deli, bakery and food service containers. Signum is a sole or major
130
Biodegradable Polymers
supplier of rigid thermoformed packaging products to Campbell’s, Danone, MasterFoods, Sara
Lee, SC Johnson, Simplot and Qantus. It has quality management systems in place, which comply
with the requirements of ISO 9002 and CODEX HACCP standards.
Biodegradable Plastic Products
Signum is known to be developing the use of PLA for their range of food service containers and trays.
10.39 Spartech Corp.
120 South Central Avenue, Suite 1700
Clayton
Missouri 63105-1705
USA
Tel: (1) 314 721 4242
Fax: (1) 314 721 1447
www.spartech.com
Company Overview
Spartech Corporation is a leading producer of extruded thermoplastic sheet and roll stock, polymeric
compounds, and custom engineered plastic products. The company has 43 manufacturing facilities
located throughout the United States, Canada, Mexico, and Europe, with annual production capacity
of more than 635,000 tonnes, sales of approximately
€1.0 billion and has 3700 employees. The
main markets for Spartech plastic products include packaging, transportation, recreation, building
and construction, sign and graphics markets.
Biodegradable Plastic Products
Spartech has introduced a Green Initiative to provide environmentally-friendly solutions for
customer, shareholders, employees and the environment. Their Green mission states that Spartech
will aggressively and proactively pursue material solutions and production practices that minimise
the effect on the environment.
As part of the company’s Green Initiative, Spartech introduced the new Rejuven8 family of
biodegradable polymer materials in February 2006. Rejuven8 is designed specifically for
thermoforming applications and is made from 99% NatureWorks PLA. It is being applied to a
wide variety of packaging applications as well as the graphic arts industry.
Rejueven8Plus is made from 95% NatureWorks PLA and was specifi cally developed for printed
applications. This alloy material has enhanced characteristics over standard PLA that makes it
similar to PET. Secondary processing criteria further raise its heat resistance properties to well
over 150 °F, which is much higher than the standard PLA maximum temperature range of about
105-120 °F.
131
Profi les of Leading Biodegradable Plastics Converters
10.40 Sunway Household Ltd.
777 Xin Ji Road
Qingpu Industrial Zone
Shanghai 201707
China
Tel: (86) 21 59703435
Fax: (86) 21 59703776
www.sunwaypak.com
Company Overview
Founded in 1997, Sunway has developed into one of the main PE bag suppliers in mainland China.
They manufacture food, freezer and sandwich bags, swing bin/pedal bin liners, checkout bags and
refuse sacks. The company is exporting over 95% of sales to Western Europe, the USA, Australia
and Japan. Sunway has annual sales of over 12 million, employs over 300 staff and has annual
production capacity approaching 20,000 tonnes.
Biodegradable Plastic Products
Sunway offers disposable tableware made of biodegradable materials. The product range includes
cups, plates, dishes, cutlery, drinking straws and decorations.
10.41 Toray Industries Inc.
Head Offi ce
2-1, Chigusa-Kaigan
Ichihara
Chiba 299-0196
Japan
Tel: (81) 436 23 0750
Fax: (81) 436 24 5299
www.toray.com
Company Overview
Toray is a diversifi ed and multinational group of companies with operations in 18 countries and
regions. Toray’s core businesses are in fi bres and textiles, and plastics and chemicals. The company
also has businesses in the fi elds of information and telecommunications, housing and engineering,
pharmaceuticals and medical products, and advanced composite materials.
Toray processes a diverse range of high performance resins, including Amilan (nylon), Toyolac (ABS),
Toraycon (PBT), and Torelina (PPS), for use in electronic components, automotive parts and a number
of other industrial products. The company has established production and processing bases in the
US, Southeast Asia and China, as well as Japan, and is now pursuing further global development and
business expansion by taking its focus beyond raw materials to include plastics processing.
132
Biodegradable Polymers
In plastic fi lms, Toray is a major world producer of BOPP fi lm sold under the Torayfan trade name.
In addition Toray offers Lumirror (polyester) fi lm, Torelina (PPS) and Mictron (aramid).
In textiles, product lines include synthetic fi bre (Toray Nylon), polyester (Toray Tetoron), and acrylic
(Toray Toraylon).
Toray is implementing its ‘Project New Toray 21’ programme, comprising business reforms geared
to ‘A New Toray for the 21st Century’. Toray has located promising business areas covering the
environment, safety, and amenities, and its policy is to develop these into major earnings’ sources by
2010. The development of materials based on renewable resources such as biodegradable polymers,
is a key component of the new strategy.
Biodegradable Plastic Products
As part of the company’s new strategic vision to develop more environmentally-friendly businesses,
Toray is expanding its capability in biodegradable polymers based on NatureWorks PLA in both
textiles and fi lm sectors.
In 2003, Toray reached an agreement with NatureWorks LLC, covering brands, technology licenses
and PLA chip supply, to manufacture and sell INGEO fi bre products made from NatureWorks
PLA. Toray manufactures the fi bre in Japan, Korea, Thailand, Indonesia and Malaysia. Toray also
manufactures textiles in countries around the world including Japan, other parts of Asia, and Europe.
In addition to licensing the NatureWorks INGEO brand, Toray is also authorised to develop and
use its own sub-brand ‘ECODEAR’ in communicating Toray’s products derived from PLA in textile
markets and consumer products markets.
Toray is initially developing INGEO fi bre products for industrial and daily use such as carpets,
bedding and industrial materials. Ultimately, Toray plans to develop the fi bre to a broad range of
applications including clothing and interior decoration materials.
In 2004, Toray developed the world’s fi rst plasticiser-free fl exible PLA fi lm using Toray’s own nano-
structure control technology for biaxially oriented fi lms. This fi lm, without losing the transparency
and heat resistance features of PLA, has achieved superior fl exibility levels, meaning it could be used
in packaging fi lms such as wrapping fi lms. Toray are confi dent that the environment-friendly features
of PLA fi lm will spur widespread demand in the future.
Toray plans to commercialise the PLA fi lm in areas such as soft packaging materials, fi lms for
building materials, electronic devices, and automobiles as well as for industrial material usage such
as in process fi lms.
10.42 Toray Saehan Inc.
LG Mapo Bldg. 275
Gongduk-dong
Mapo-gu
Seoul
South Korea
Tel: (82) 23279 1000
www.toraysaehan.co.kr
133
Profi les of Leading Biodegradable Plastics Converters
Company Overview
Toray Saehan is a synthetic fi bre business, which started operations in 1999. The company is a joint
venture between Japan’s Toray and South Korea’s Saehan companies. Toray Saehan has three major
business areas: polyester base fi lm and fi lm processing, polyester fi lament and polypropylene and
polyester spunbond, nonwoven fabric.
• Polyester
base
fi lm used in audio and video packaging, electromagnetic, condenser, thermal
transfer ribbon (TTR), graphic, and laminating applications.
• Polyester
fi lament for weaving and knitting applications.
• Toray Saehan is a world leader in production of spunbound materials. Polypropylene spunbond
and polyester spunbond for applications including hygienic products, household goods,
bedding, furniture, clothing, industrial materials, medical goods, and farming. With an annual
manufacturing capacity of 30,000 tonnes of polypropylene spunbond and 4,000 tonnes of
polyester spunbond.
Biodegradable Plastic Products
Toray Saehan is supplying high quality environmentally-friendly biodegradable resin and sheet based
on NatureWorks PLA.
10.43 Treofan Group
Head Offi ce
Am Prime Parc 17
65479 Raunheim
Germany
Tel: (49) 6142 2000
Fax: (49) 6142 200 3299
www.treofan.com
Company Overview
The Treofan Group is a manufacturer of biaxial oriented polypropylene fi lm (BOPP) and cast
polypropylene fi lm under the brand name Treofan. The company also manufactures PLA fi lm under
the brand name Biophan.
Treofan is a global business with seven manufacturing sites around the world and sales operations
in more than 20 countries. Treofan produces around 280,000 tonnes of fi lm per annum and has
worldwide manufacturing capabilities including 22 BOPP lines, 10 cast lines, 6 metallisers, 2 pilot
lines, 1 coater line and one PLA line.
Treofan has four main business groups, packaging, labelling, tobacco packaging and technical fi lms.
The company offers a wide range of PP fi lms including standard and cast fi lms, transparent, white,
opaque, cavitated, metallised and high-barrier metallised.
134
Biodegradable Polymers
Biodegradable Plastic Products
In June 2004, Treofan introduced its new biodegradable and compostable Biophan fi lm made
from polylactic acid supplied by NatureWorks LLC. According to the company, Biophan offers
exceptional transparency and gloss, the ability to transmit water vapour, and outstanding sealing
properties. Biophan is also printable, resistant to oil, fat and alcohol, and is thermoformable.
Biophan disintegrates completely into water and carbon dioxide within 45 days.
The material is suitable for packaging fruits, vegetables, salads and other consumer products.
One of the fi rst applications for Biophan was a salad bag for French organic food company Mont
Blanc Primeurs.
In November 2004, Treofan introduced labels made from Biophan for beverages and
consumer products. The Biophan labels can be used in combination with bottles produced by
NatureWorks PLA so that the labels may be composted together with the bottle in an industrial
composting plant.
In February 2006, Treofan announced that it is to move production of its Biophan biodegradable
PLA packaging fi lms from France to its plant in Neukirchen, Germany, saying that production at
the German plant will be more effi cient. The move follows the earlier announcement that Treofan’s
site in Mantes-la-Ville, France, had been sold to Polyfi lms, and that the site would continue toll
manufacturing Biophan fi lm for Treofan.
Treofan said that with sales having doubled in 2005, Biophan is now receiving even greater
importance in the group’s product strategy. A new generation of PLA fi lm with ‘excellent properties’
is at the pilot development stage. To further underline the importance of PLA to Treofan, the
company has strengthened the management team with the appointment of new commercial and
technical managers.
10.44 Vertex Pacifi c Limited
Unity Drive
North Harbour Industrial Park
Albany
PO Box 228
Auckland
New Zealand
Tel: (64) 9 415 7015
Fax: (64) 9 415 6317
www.vertex-pacifi c.co.nz
Company Overview
Vertex is the leading supplier of plastics-based packaging products in New Zealand and is rapidly
establishing a strong market presence in Australia.
The business has been in existence since 1941 when it originally manufactured children’s toys and
shoe soles.
135
Profi les of Leading Biodegradable Plastics Converters
Vertex has manufacturing facilities in Auckland, Hamilton, Wellington and Hastings, and a sales
offi ce in Sydney, Australia. Sales are in excess of NZ $90 million, of which the company exports
around two-thirds. Vertex employs about 400 people in New Zealand and Australia.
The Hamilton facility in New Zealand also features a product design and tooling operation.
Manufacturing processes include: blow moulding, injection moulding, injection stretch blow moulding,
extrusion and thermoforming. Vertex also runs a number of decoration processes from fl exographic
and offset printing, to adhesive and in-mould labelling.
In 2000, senior management bought the assets of Carter Holt Harvey Plastics Products together with
Pacifi c Equity Partners to form Vertex Pacifi c Ltd.
Vertex Pacifi c’s parent company Vertex Holdings was listed on the New Zealand Stock Exchange
in 2002.
Vertex business is divided into six categories: Technical Components, Dairy, Industrial Containers,
Household Products, Food Trays and Securefresh. Processes include rigid blow-moulded containers
for industrial, household, chemical and agricultural products; extruded sheet and thermoformed
containers for food manufacturers, kiwifruit and horticultural products; disposable and point-of-
sale packaging for the food service sector and injection-moulded components for human and animal
health products.
Biodegradable Plastic Products
Vertex is actively involved in the commercialisation of biodegradable polymers and uses NatureWorks
PLA material. The company initiated a development project to ascertain the technical and commercial
viability of PLA in 2003, which has resulted in a decision to supply various stock products made
from PLA. These include: disposable cups, fresh food containers including deli containers and salad
bowls, bakery containers including sandwich wedges, bottles, food trays and extruded sheet for
further processing.
Examples of applications for Vertex PLA products include beer cups for the Hokitika Wildfoods
Festival in New Zealand and drink cups for the HSBC Round the Bays Run.
10.45 Wei Mon Industry Co. Ltd.
2F, No 57, Shing Jung Road
Nei Hu Chu
Taipei 114
Taiwan
www.weimon.com.tw
Company Overview
Wei Mon Industry Co. was established in 1987 to manufacturing concrete piping materials as well as
contracting major civil infrastructure projects such as water supply pipelines, sewerage systems, and
land developments. Since 1996, Wei Mon started to research and develop natural and environmentally-
friendly products, including Biodegradable Plastic Products.
136
Biodegradable Polymers
Biodegradable Plastic Products
Wei Mon has an agreement with NatureWorks LLC to promote and distribute packaging articles
made in Taiwan from NatureWorks PLA. The biodegradable plastics products are being marketed
in Taiwan as Nature Green, In addition to promoting and distributing Nature Green, the company
is manufacturing end-use packaging products for the Taiwan market.
10.46 Wentus Kunststoff GmbH
Postbox 10 06 53
Eugen-Diesel-Straße 12
D-37656 Höxter
Germany
Tel: (49) 5271 6890
Fax (49) 5271 689219
www.wentus.de
Company Overview
Flexible packaging supplier, Wentus, was founded in 1965 and is now part of the Clondalkin Group.
The company employs over 400 people and has a production capacity in excess of 45,000 tonnes/
year. It is one of the largest producers of speciality polyolefi n fi lms and packaging in Germany and
is certifi ed according to quality standard DIN ISO 9001.
The main products offered by Wentus include:
• Food and consumer goods packaging fi lms
• Customised
barrier
fi lms
• Flowers and plant packaging fi lm
• Lamination
fi lms
• Medical
fi lms
• Wrapping and covering fi lm
• Inliners and special fi lms
• Shrink
fi lms
• Household
fi lms and bags
• Industrial sacks and bags
Biodegradable Plastic Products
Wemterra blown fi lms are starch-based biodegradable and compostable materials. They are certifi ed in
accordance with DIN V 54900 (Germany) ‘OK Compost’ and ‘VGS-Label’ (including OK-Compost-
Label, Belgium). Wenterra fi lm is used for manufacture of bio-waste disposal bags and sacks.
137
Profi les of Leading Biodegradable Plastics Converters
10.47 Wilkinson Industries Inc.
12th and Madison Street
PO Box 490
Fort Calhoun
Nebraska 68023
USA
Tel: (1) 402 468 5511
Fax: (1) 402 468 5518
www.wilkinsonindustries.com
Company Overview
Wilkinson Industries manufactures foodservice packaging products including aluminum foil, OPS
clear containers, roll foil and foil pop-ups, and the new natural plastic packaging, NaturesPLAstic,
made from NatureWorks PLA. Wilkinson extrudes OPS sheet, thermoform containers and domes,
aluminum foil containers and converts roll stock into foodservice foil products.
Some of Wilkinson’s most famous product offerings over the years have included the tamper-evident
clear container, JustFresh, the improved clear hinged container, SeaShell, and its aluminum steamtable,
PerformancePak, which set the standard for aluminium pans in the industry.
In April 2004, Wilkinson Industries was acquired by the private investment company Mid Oaks
Investments LLC.
Biodegradable Plastic Products
In 2003, Wilkinson Industries introduced NaturesPLAsticin, which says the company, was the fi rst-ever
thermoformed plastic food container made from NatureWorks PLA. NaturesPLAstic is completely
recyclable under composting conditions in 45 days using commercial composting facilities.
NaturesPLAstic has shown good performance qualities with Wilkinson’s initial research showing
NaturesPLAstic displaying similar characteristics to PET packaging, but with less clarity than OPS
packaging.
The Fresh Performance line is a two-piece rectangular container designed for fresh-cut produce.
Small, medium and large family sizes are available in NaturesPLAstic (PLA) and in PET.
HerbShell is Wilkinson’s hinged natural (PLA) container with hanging tabs for ease of display for
fresh, organic and natural herbs.
JustFresh are clear tamper-safe plastic containers in bowls and tubs designed for fresh cored pineapples.
Another new product line in the JustFresh range are bowls with new easy-open lids. These products
are available in PLA or OPS.
VersaPak is Wilkinson’s two-piece delicatessen packaging for salads and mixed deli items which is
also available in PLA as well as OPS.
SeaShell is a clamshell container for deli and bakery items and is now available in PLA and OPS.
138
Biodegradable Polymers
139
11
Database of Major Biodegradable
Polymer
Suppliers
BASF Aktiengesselschaft
D-67056, Ludwigshafen, Germany
Tel: (49) 621600
Fax: (49) 621 6042525
www.basf.de
Biotec Biologische Naturverpackungen GmbH & Co. KG
Werner-Heisenberg-Str. 32, Postfach 100220, D-46422 Emmerich, Germany
Tel: (49) 2822 92510
Fax: (49) 2822 51840
www.biotec.de
BIOP Biopolymer Technologies AG
Gostritzer Str. 61-63, D- 01217 Dresden, Germany
Tel: (49) 351 8718146
Fax: (49) 351 8718447
www.biopag.de
Biomer Biopolyesters
Forst-Kasten-Str. 15, D-82152 Krailling, Germany
Tel: (49) 8985 72665
Fax: (49) 89/85 72792
www.biomer.de
Cereplast
Corporate offi ce: 3421-3433 West El Segundo Boulevard, Hawthorne CA 90250, USA
Tel: (1) 310 676 5000
Fax: (1) 310 676 5003
www.cereplast.com
140
Biodegradable Polymers
Daicel Chemical Industries Ltd
Head Offi ce: 1, Teppo-cho, Sakai-shi, Osaka 590-8501, Japan
Tel: (81) 72 227 3111
Fax: (81) 72 227 3000
www.daicel.co.jp
Dainippon Ink & Chemicals Inc.
Corporate Headquarters: DIC Building, 7-20, Nihonbashi 3-chome, Chuo-ku, Tokyo 103-8233
Japan
Tel: (81) 3 3272 4511
Fax: (81) 3 3278 8558
www.dic.co.jp
DuPont
2 Chemin du Pavillon, PO Box 50, CH-1218 Grand Sacconex, Geneva, Switzerland
Tel: (41) 22 717 5111
Fax: (41) 22 717 4200
www.dupont.com
Eastman Chemical Company
PO Box 3263 Hertizentrum, CH-6300 Zug, Switzerland
Tel: (41) 41 726 6100
Fax: (41) 41 726 6200
www.eastman.com
EarthShell Corporation
1301 York Road, Suite 200, Lutherville, Maryland 21093, USA
Tel: (1) 410 847 9420
Fax: (1) 410 847 9431
www.earthshell.com
FkuR Kunststoff GmbH
Siemensring 79, D- 47877 Willich, Germany
Tel: (49) 2154 9251 26
Fax: (49) 2154 9251 51
www.fkur.de
141
Database of Major Biodegradable Polymer Suppliers
Grenidea Technologies PTE Ltd.
67 Ayer Rajah Crescent 02-07/08/09, SGP-139950, Singapore
Tel: (65) 68720020
Fax: (65) 68720460
www.grenidea.com
Hycail BV
Industrieweg 24-1, NL- 9804 TG, Noordhorn, The Netherlands
Tel: (31) 594 505769
Fax: (31) 594 506253
www.hycail.com
Metabolix, Inc.
21 Erie Street, Cambridge, MA 02139-4260, USA
Tel: (1) 617 492 0505
Fax: (1) 617 492 1996
www.metabolix.com
Mitsubishi Corporation
6-3, Marunouchi 2-chome, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 100-8086, Japan
Tel: (81) 3 3210 2121
Fax: (81) 3 3210 8935
www.mitsubishicorp.co.jp
Mitsui Chemicals Europe GmbH
Oststraße 10, D-40211 Düsseldorf, Germany
Tel: (49) 211 173320
Fax: (49) 211 323486
www.mitsui-chem.co.jp
NEC Electronics Corp.
Head Offi ce: 1753 Shimonumabe Nakahara, Ku Kawasaki, Kanagawa 211-8668, Japan
Tel: (81) 44435 5111
Fax: (81) 44435 1667
www.necel.com
142
Biodegradable Polymers
NNZ BV
Postbus 104, NL- 9700 AC, Groningen, The Netherlands
Tel: (31) 50 5207844
Fax: (31) 50 5207801
www.nnz.nl
NatureWorks LLC
15305 Minnetonka Boulevard, Minnetonka 55345, Minnesota, USA
Tel: (1) 952 742 0400
Fax: (1) 952 984 3430
www.natureworksllc.com
Novamont SpA
Via Fauser 8, I- 28100, Novara, Italy
Tel: (39) 0321 699655
Fax: (39) 0321 699600
www.materbi.com
Plantic
Head Offi ce: Unit 2, Angliss Park Estate, 227-231 Fitzgerald Road, Laverton North, Victoria 3026,
Australia
Tel: (61) 3 9353 7900
Fax: (61) 3 9353 7901
www.plantic.com.au
Polysciences,
Inc.
400 Valley Road, Warrington, PA 18976, USA
Tel: (1)
215 343 6484
Fax: (1) 215 343 0214
www.polyscience.com
Procter & Gamble
The Heights, Brooklands, Weybridge, Surrey KT13 0XP, United Kingdom
Tel: (44) 1932 896492
Fax: (44) 1932 896499
www.pg.com
143
Database of Major Biodegradable Polymer Suppliers
Rodenburg Biopolymers BV
Denariusstraat 19, NL- 4903 RC, Oosterhout, The Netherlands
Tel: (31) 162 497 040
Fax: (31) 162 497 041
www.biopolymers.nl
SK Chemicals Co. Ltd.
948-1,Taechi3-Dong, Gangnam-gu, Seoul 135-283, Republic of South Korea
Tel: (82) 2 2008 2008
Fax: (82) 2 2008 2009
www.skchemicals.com
Showa Highpolymer Co. Ltd.
Nerima-Ku 179-0075, Tokyo, Japan
Tel: (81) 3 399 99268
Fax: (81) 3 399 99633
www.shp.co.jp
Solvay SA
Headquarters: Rue du Prince Albert 33, B-1050, Brussels, Belgium
Tel: (32) 2 509 61 11
Fax: (32) 2 509 66 17
www.solvay.com
Stanelco plc
Starpol Technology Centre, North Road, Marchwood Industrial Park, Southampton SO40 4BL,
United Kingdom
Tel: (44) 2380 867 100
Fax: (44) 2380 867 070
www.stanelco.co.uk
Toyota Motor Corp
1, Toyotacho, Toyota 471-8571, Aichi, Japan
Tel: (81) 5 6528 2121
Fax: (81) 5 6580 1116
www.toyota.com
144
Biodegradable Polymers
145
12
Glossary of Terms
Abiotic disintegration
The disintegration of plastic materials by means other than by the
biological process such as dissolving, heat ageing or ultraviolet
ageing.
Additives
Materials that are added to a base polymer to produce a desired change
on properties or characteristics.
Adipic acid aliphatic copolyesters
Biodegradable polyester used in degradable plastic
products.
Adipic acid aromatic copolyesters
Biodegradable polyester used in degradable plastic
products.
Aerobic degradation
Degradation in the presence of air. Composting is a way of aerobic
degradation.
Amorphous
Devoid of crystallinity, no defi nite order. At processing temperatures,
the plastic is normally in the amorphous state.
Anaerobic degradation
Degradation in the absence of air, as occurs in dry landfi lls. Anaerobic
degradation is also called biomethanisation.
Assimilation
The conversion of nutrients into living tissue; constructive
metabolism.
Aromatic hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons derived from or characterized by the presence of
unsaturated resonant ring structures.
Binder
In a reinforced plastic, the continuous phase which holds together the
reinforcement.
Biodegradable plastic
a degradable plastic in which the degradation results from the action
of naturally occurring microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi and
algae.
Bioerodable
Polymers that exhibit controlled degradation through the incorporation
of prodegradant additive masterbatches or concentrates. Such polymers
oxidise and embrittle in the environment and erode under the infl uence
of weathering.
Biomass
The weight of all the organisms in a given population.
Blends & alloys
Combinations of two or more different polymers mechanically entangled
rather than chemically bonded.
146
Biodegradable Polymers
Block copolymer
An essentially linear copolymer in which there are repeated sequences
of polymeric segments of different chemical structure.
Blow moulding
A method of fabrication in which a parison (hollow tube) is forced
into the shape of the mould cavity by internal air pressure.
Branched
In molecular structure of polymers (as opposed to Linear), refers to side
chains attached to the main chain. Side chains may be long or short.
Calendering To
prepare sheets of material by pressure between two or more counter-
rotating rolls.
Cast
To form a plastic object by pouring a fl uid monomer-polymer solution
into an open mould where it fi nishes polymerising. Forming plastic
fi lm and sheet by pouring the liquid resin onto a moving belt or by
precipitation in a chemical bath.
Catalyst
A substance which markedly speeds up the cure of a compound when
added in minor quantity as compared to the amounts of primary
reactants.
Cellulose A
natural high polymeric carbohydrate found in most plants; the
main constituent of dried woods, jute, fl ax, hemp, ramie, etc. Cotton
is almost pure cellulose.
Co-moulding
A plastic processing technique to produce multi-layered objects of
different plastic types.
Compostable
Compostable materials are capable of undergoing biological
decomposition in a compost site, to the extent that they are not visually
distinguishable and break down to carbon dioxide, water, inorganic
compounds, and biomass, at a rate consistent with known compostable
materials (e.g. cellulose).
Compostable plastic
A polymer is ‘compostable’ when it is biodegradable under composting
conditions. The polymer must meet the following criteria:
• Break down under the action of microorganisms (bacteria, fungi,
and algae).
• Total mineralisation is obtained (conversion into CO
2
, H
2
O,
inorganic compounds and biomass under aerobic conditions).
• The mineralisation rate is compatible with the composting process
and consistent with known compostable materials (e.g. cellulose).
Composting A
managed process that controls the biological decomposition of
biodegradable materials into a humus-like substance called compost
The aerobic and mesophilic and thermophilic degradation of organic
matter to make compost; the transformation of biologically
decomposable materials through a controlled process of bio-oxidation
147
Glossary of Terms
that proceeds through mesophilic and thermophilic phases and results
in the production of carbon dioxide, water, minerals and stabilised
organic matter (compost or humus).
Compound A
base polymer plus plastic additives that are selected to achieve certain
desired properties.
Compression strength
Crushing load at the failure of a specimen divided by the original
sectional area of the specimen.
Crosslinking
The forming of strong covalent bonds in a polymer chain that can only
be broken at high temperatures.
Crystallinity
A state of molecular structure in some resins which denotes uniformity
and compactness of the molecular chains forming the polymer.
Normally can be attributed to the formation of solid crystals having
a defi nite geometric form.
Cure
To change the properties of a polymeric system into a more stable,
usable condition by the use of heat, radiation, or reaction with chemical
additives. Note - Cure may be accomplished, for example, by removal
of solvent or crosslinking.
Cycle
The complete, repeating sequence of operations in a process or part of
a process. In moulding, the cycle time is the period, or elapsed time,
between a certain point in one cycle and the same point in the next.
Decomposer organism
An organism, usually a bacterium or a fungus, that breaks down organic
material into simple chemical components, thereby returning nutrients
to the environment.
Degradable
Degradable materials break down, by bacterial (biodegradable), thermal
(oxidative) or ultraviolet (photodegradable) action. When degradation
is caused by biological activity, especially by the enzymatic action of
microorganisms, it is called ‘biodegradation’.
Density
Weight per unit volume of a substance, expressed in grams per cubic
centimetre, pounds per cubic foot, etc.
Dielectric strength
The electric voltage gradient at which an insulating material is broken
down or ‘arced through,’ in volts per mil of thickness.
Dimensional stability
Ability of a plastic part to retain the precise shape in which it was
moulded, fabricated, or cast.
Dimensional strength
The electric voltage gradient at which an insulating material is broken
down or ‘arced through,’ in volts per mil of thickness.
Ecotoxicity
Ecotoxicity refers to the potential environmental toxicity of
residues, leachate, or volatile gases produced by the plastics during
biodegradation or composting.
148
Biodegradable Polymers
Elastomer
A material which at room temperature stretches under low stress to at
least twice its length and snaps back to the original length upon release
of stress.
Elongation
The fractional increase in length of a material stressed in tension.
Embossing
Techniques used to create depressions of a specifi c pattern in plastics
fi lm and sheeting.
Ester
The reaction product of an alcohol and an acid.
Extrusion
A plastic processing technique to produce pipe, fi lm or sheeting. The
plastic is fed through a fl at or preformed annular die, which gives the
object its defi nitive shape.
Fibre
This term usually refers to relatively short lengths of very small cross-
sections of various materials. Fibres can be made by chopping fi laments
(converting).
Filler
A cheap, inert substance added to a plastic to make it less costly. Fillers
may also improve physical properties, particularly hardness, stiffness,
and impact strength. The particles are usually small, in contrast to those
of reinforcements but there is some overlap between the function of
the two.
Flame retardant
A chemical substance added to the base polymer to signifi cantly reduce
the propagation of fi re.
Flexural modulus
A measure of the strain imposed in the outermost fi bres of a bent
specimen.
Flexural strength
The strength of a material in bending, expressed as the tensile stress of
the outermost fi bres of a bent test sample at the instant of failure. With
plastics, this value is usually higher than the straight tensile strength.
Foamed starch
Starch can be blown by environmentally-friendly means into a foamed
material using water steam. Foamed starch is antistatic, insulating
and shock absorbing, therefore constituting a good replacement for
polystyrene foam.
Glass transition
The reversible change in an amorphous polymer or in amorphous
regions of a partially crystalline polymer from (or to) a viscous or
rubbery condition to (or from) a hard and relatively brittle one.
Note - The glass transition generally occurs over a relatively narrow
temperature region and is similar to the solidifi cation of a liquid to
a glassy state: it is not a phase transition. Not only do hardness and
brittleness undergo rapid changes in this temperature region but other
properties, such as thermal expansion and specifi c heat also change
rapidly. This phenomenon has been called second order transition,
rubber transition and rubbery transition. The word transformation has
also been used instead of transition. Where more than one amorphous
149
Glossary of Terms
transition occurs in a polymer, the one associated with segmental
motions of the polymer backbone chain or accompanied by the largest
change in properties is usually considered to be the glass transition.
Glass Transition Temperature (Tg)
The approximate midpoint of the temperature range over
which the glass transition takes place.
Gloss
The shine or luster of the surface of a material.
Graft copolymers
A chain of one type of polymer to which side chains of a different
type are attached or grafted (i.e., polymerising butadiene and styrene
monomer at the same time).
Hardness
The resistance of a plastic material to compression and indentation.
Among the most important methods of testing this property are Brinell
hardness, Rockwell hardness and Shore hardness.
Heat defl ection temperature The temperature at which a standard test bar (ASTM D648) defl ects
0.010 in., under a stated load of either 66 or 264 psi.
Heat sealing
A method of joining plastic fi lms by simultaneous application of heat
and pressure to areas in contact. Heat may be supplied conductively
or dielectrically.
Homopolymer
Polymers that are made of one single repeated base unit or
monomer.
Humus
The solid organic substance that results from decay of plant or animal
matter. Biodegradable plastics can form humus as they decompose.
Humus in soil provides a healthy structure within which air, water
and organisms can combine.
Hydrocarbon plastics
Plastics based on resins made by the polymerization of monomers
composed of carbon and hydrogen only.
Hydrogenation
Chemical process whereby hydrogen is introduced into a compound.
Hydrolysis
Chemical decomposition of a substance involving the addition of
water.
Hygroscopic
Tending to absorb moisture.
Impact resistance
Relative susceptibility of plastics to fracture by shock, e.g., as indicated
by the energy expended by a standard pendulum type impact machine
in breaking a standard specimen in one blow.
Impact strength
The ability of a material to withstand shock loading. The work done in
fracturing, under shock loading, a specifi ed test specimen in a specifi ed
manner.
Injection blow moulding
A blow moulding process in which the parison to be blown is formed
by injection molding.
150
Biodegradable Polymers
Injection moulding
A plastic processing technique to produce solid parts with a high degree
of precision. The material is injected into a mould by a plunger, and
a press keeps the mould closed while the material cools. At the end of
the process, the mould is released and the part ejected.
International Standard
A standard published by the International Organisation for
Standardisation and commencing with ISO (e.g., ISO 16929). Note
for electrical products the International Electrotechnical Commission
(IEC) is the main international standardisation body.
Laminate
A product made by bonding together two or more layers of material
or materials.
Life Cycle Analysis
A procedure which involves assessing the impact of a product or
material throughout its life cycle – i.e., from raw material extraction
or production through manufacture and use, to disposal or recovery.
Also called Life Cycle Assessment.
Masterbatch A
plastics compound which includes a high concentration of
an additive or additives. Masterbatches are designed for use in
appropriate quantities with the basic resin or mix so that the correct
end concentration is achieved. For example, colour masterbatches for
a variety of plastics are extensively used as they provide a clean and
convenient method of obtaining accurate colour shades.
Mineralisation
Conversion of a biodegradable plastic to CO
2
, H
2
O, inorganic
compounds and biomass. For instance the carbon atoms in a
biodegradable plastic are transformed to CO
2
, which can then reenter
the global carbon cycle.
Melt fl ow
The fl ow rate obtained from extrusion of a molten resin through a die
of specifi ed length and diameter under prescribed conditions of time,
temperature and load as set forth in ASTM D1238.
Melt temperature
The temperature of the molten plastic just prior to entering the mould
or extruded through the die.
Metallising
Applying a thin coating of metal to a non-metallic surface. May be
done by chemical deposition or by exposing the surface to vaporised
metal in a vacuum chamber.
Modulus of elasticity
The ratio of stress to strain in a material that is elastically deformed.
Moisture Vapour Transmission
The rate at which water vapour permeates through a plastic
fi lm or wall at a specifi ed temperature and relative humidity.
Monomer
A relatively simple compound which can react to form a polymer.
Mould
To shape plastic parts or fi nished articles by heat and pressure. The
cavity or matrix into which the plastic composition is placed and from
which it takes its form. The assembly of all the parts that function
collectively in the moulding process.
151
Glossary of Terms
Moulding shrinkage
The difference in dimensions, expressed in inches per inch, between
a moulding and the mould cavity in which it was moulded, both the
mould and the moulding being at normal room temperature when
measured.
Organic recycling
Organic recycling is either the aerobic (i.e., composting) or anaerobic
(bio-methanisation) treatment of biodegradable materials under
controlled conditions, using microorganisms to produce stabilised
organic residues, methane and carbon dioxide.
Orientation
The alignment of the crystalline structure in polymeric materials so as
to produce a highly uniform structure. Can be accomplished by cold
drawing or stretching during fabrication.
Parison The
hollow plastic tube from which a container, toy, etc. is blow
moulded.
Photo-biodegradation
Degradation of the polymer is triggered by UV light and assisted by
the presence of UV sensitisers. In this process the polymer is converted
to low molecular weight material and in a second step converted to
carbon dioxide and water by bacterial action.
Photodegradable
A process where ultraviolet radiation degrades the chemical bond or
link in the polymer or chemical structure of a plastic.
Plasticizer
Chemical agent added to plastic compositions to make them softer
and more fl exible.
Polymer A
high-molecular-weight organic compound, natural or synthetic,
whose structure can be represented by a repeated small unit, the mer;
e.g., polyethylene, rubber, cellulose. Synthetic polymers are formed by
addition or condensation polymerisation of monomers. If two or more
monomers are involved, a copolymer is obtained. Some polymers are
elastomers, some plastics.
Polymerisation
The process of converting a mixture of monomers into a polymer.
Polyamide A
polymer in which the structural units are linked by amide or thioamide
groupings. Many polyamides are fi bre forming.
Polybutylene A
polymer prepared by the polymerization of butene as the sole
monomer.
Polyester
A resin formed by the reaction between a dibasic acid and a dihydroxy
alcohol, both organic. Modifi cation with multi-functional acids and/or
bases and some unsaturated reactants permit crosslinking to thermosetting
resins. Polyesters modifi ed with fatty acids are called alkyds.
Polyethylene
A thermoplastic material composed by mers of ethylene. It is normally
a translucent, tough, waxy solid which is unaffected by water and by
a large range of chemicals.
152
Biodegradable Polymers
Polyhydroxyalkanoates
Linear aliphatic polyesters produced in nature by bacterial fermentation
of sugar or lipids.
Polyhydroxybutyrate
Biodegradable polyester used in degradable plastic products.
Polyhydroxybutyrate-valerate copolymer
Biodegradable polyester used in degradable plastic
products.
Polylactic acid
Biodegradable polyester used in degradable plastic products.
Polyolefi n
A polymer prepared by the polymerisation of an olefi n(s) as the sole
monomer(s).
Polypropylene
A tough, lightweight rigid plastic made by the polymerization of high-
purity propylene gas in the presence of an organometallic catalyst at
relatively low pressures and temperatures.
Polystyrene A
water-white thermoplastic produced by the polymerization of styrene
(vinyl benzene). The electrical insulating properties of polystyrene
are outstandingly good and the material is relatively unaffected by
moisture.
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
A thermoplastic material composed of polymers of vinyl chloride;
a colorless solid with outstanding resistance to water, alcohols, and
concentrated acids and alkalis. It is obtainable in the form of granules,
solutions, lattices, and pastes. Compounded with plasticizers it yields
a fl exible material superior to rubber in ageing properties. It is widely
used for cable and wire coverings, in chemical plants, and in the
manufacture of protective garments.
Preform
A compressed tablet or biscuit of plastic composition used for effi ciency
in handling and accuracy in weighing materials. (v.) To make plastic
molding powder into pellets or tablets.
Reinforced plastics
A plastic with high strength fi llers embedded in the composition,
resulting in some mechanical properties superior to those of the base
resin.
Resin
Any of a class of solid or semi-solid organic product of natural or
synthetic origin, generally of high molecular weight with no defi nite
melting point. Most resins are polymers.
Shore hardness
A method of determining the hardness of a plastic material using a
durometer.
Shrink wrapping
A technique of packaging in which the strains in a plastic fi lm are
released by raising the temperature of the fi lm thus causing it to shrink
over the package. These shrink characteristics are built into the fi lm
during its manufacture by stretching it under controlled temperatures
to produce orientation of the molecules. Upon cooling, the fi lm retains
its stretched condition, but reverts toward its original dimensions when
153
Glossary of Terms
it is heated. Shrink fi lm gives good protection to the products packaged
and has excellent clarity.
Specifi c gravity
The density (mass per unit volume) of any material divided by that of
water at a standard temperature, usually 4 °C. Since water’s density
is nearly 1.00 g/cc, density in g/cc and specifi c gravity are numerically
nearly equal.
Spinning
Process of making fi bers by forcing plastic melt through a spinneret.
Thermal conductivity
Ability of a material to conduct heat; physical constant for quantity of
heat that passes through a unit cube of a substance in a unit of time
when the difference in temperature of two faces is 1 degree.
Thermal expansion coeffi cient
The fractional change in length (sometimes volume, specifi ed) of
a material for a unit change in temperature. Values for plastics
range from 0.01 to 0.2 mil/in.
Thermoforming
Any process of forming thermoplastic sheet which consists of heating
the sheet and pulling it down onto a mould surface.
Thermoplastic
A polymeric material or plastic that becomes soft or formable when
heated and rigid when cooled.
Tensile strength
The pulling stress, in psi, required to break a given specimen. Area used
in computing strength is usually the original, rather than the necked-
down area.
Thermoset
A polymeric material that undergoes irreversible chemical changes
when cured with heat, catalysts or ultraviolet light.
Transparent
Descriptive of a material or substance capable of a high degree of
light transmission, e.g., glass. Some polypropylene fi lms and acrylic
mouldings are outstanding in this respect.
UV stabilizer
Any chemical compound which, when mixed with a thermoplastic
resin, selectively absorbs UV rays.
Vacuum forming
Method of sheet forming in which the plastic sheet is clamped in a
stationary frame, heated, and drawn down by a vacuum into a mould.
In a loose sense, it is sometimes used to refer to all sheet forming
techniques, including Drape Forming involving the use of vacuum and
stationary moulds.
Viscosity
Internal friction or resistance to fl ow of a liquid. The constant ratio
of shearing stress to rate of shear. In liquids for which this ratio
is a function of stress, the term ‘apparent viscosity’ is defi ned as
the ratio.
Warpage
Dimensional distortion in a plastic object after moulding.
154
Biodegradable Polymers
155
13
Abbreviations and Acronyms
ABS acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene
terpolymers
ADM
Archer Daniels Midland Company
APET amorphous
polyethylene
terephthalate
ASTM
American Society for Testing and Materials
ATP adenosine
triphosphate
BOPP
biaxially oriented polypropylene
BPI Biodegradable
Products
Institute
BPS Biodegradable
Polymer
Society
BS butylene
succinate
CAGR
cumulative annual growth rate
CEN European
Committee
for
Standardization
CL caprolactone
CPET
crystallised polyethylene terephthalate
DLPLA poly(dl-lactide)
EU European
Union
EVOH
ethylene-vinyl alcohol copolymer
FDA
US Food & Drug Administration
FFS form-fi ll-seal
GRAS
generally recognised as safe
GTR guided-tissue-regeneration
HDPE
high density polyethylene
IBAW
International Biodegradable Polymers Association & Working Groups
IEC International
Electrotechnical
Commission
ISBM
Injection stretch blow moulding
ISO International
Standards
Organization
LA lactic
acid
LCP
liquid crystal polymers
LDPE
low density polyethylene
LLDPE
linear low density polyethylene
LPLA
l-lactide
156
Biodegradable Polymers
MFR melt
fl ow rate
MGC Mitsubishi
Gas
Chemical
MVTR
moisture vapour transmission rate
MW molecular
weight
NAFTA
North American Free Trade Area
NTI Northern
Technologies
International
OPLA
oriented polylactide fi lm
OPS oriented
polystyrene
PA polyamide
PBAT polybutylene
adipate-terephthalate
PBS polybutylene
succinate
PBSA polybutylene
succinate-adipate
PBSC polybutylene
succinate-carbonate
PBST polybutylene
succinate-terephthalate
PBT polybutylene
terephthalate
PC polycarbonate
PCB polychlorinated
biphenyl
PCL polycaprolactone
PDS polydioxanone
PE polyethylene
PEC polyester
carbonate
PET polyethylene
terephthalate
PETG
polyethylene terephthalate glycol
PGA polyglycolide
PHA polyhydroxyalkanoate
PHB polyhydroxybutyrate
PHBH
poly(3-hydroxybutyric acid-co-3-hydroxyhexanoic acid)
P(3HB-3HV) poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate)
PHBV polyhydroxybutyrate
valerate
PHV polyhydroxyvalerate
PLA polylactic
acid
PP polypropylene
PPM
primary packaging materials
PPS polyphenylene
sulfi de
PS polystyrene
157
Abbreviations and Acronyms
PTMT polytetramethylene
adipate-terephthalate
PVA polyvinyl
alcohol
PVC polyvinyl
chloride
REC renewable
energy
certifi cate
RoHS
Restriction on Hazardous Substances
RF radio
frequency
Tg glass
transition
temperature
Tm melt
temperature
TTR thermal
transfer
ribbon
USP United
States
Pharmacopeia
UV ultraviolet
light
WMI
Wei Mon Industry Cn. Ltd
158
Biodegradable Polymers
Smithers Rapra Limited
Smithers Rapra Limited is a leading international
organisation with over 80 years of experience
providing technology, information and consultancy
on all aspects of rubbers and plastics. Smithers Rapra
Limited was formed in 2006 when Rapra Technology
became part of The Smithers Group.
Rapra has extensive processing, analytical and
testing laboratory facilities and expertise, and
produces a range of engineering and data
management software products, and computerised
knowledge-based systems.
Rapra also publishes books, technical journals,
reports, technological and business surveys,
conference proceedings and trade directories.
These publishing activities are supported by an
Information Centre which maintains and develops
the world’s most comprehensive database
of commercial and technical information on
rubbers and plastics.
Shawbury, Shrewsbury, Shropshire SY4 4NR, UK
Telephone: +44 (0)1939 250383 Fax: +44 (0)1939 251118
http://www.rapra.net
ISBN: 1-85957-519-6
Document Outline
- Contents
- 1 Introduction
- 2 Executive Summary
- 3 Overview of Biodegradable Polymers
- 3.1 Introduction
- 3.2 Definitions of Biodegradable Polymers
- 3.3 Mechanisms of Polymer Degradation
- 3.4 Measuring Biodegradability of Polymers
- 3.5 Factors Affecting Biodegradability
- 3.6 Biodegradable Polymer Classes
- 3.7 Starch-Based Biodegradable Polymers
- 3.8 Polyhydroxyalkanoates
- 3.9 Polylactic Acid Polyesters
- 3.10 Synthetic Biodegradable Polymers
- 3.11 Processing Biodegradable Polymers
- 4 The Global Biodegradable Polymers Market
- 5 The Starch-Based Biodegradable Polymer Market
- 6 The Polylactic Acid Biodegradable Polymers Market
- 7 The PHA Biodegradable Polymers Market
- 8 The Synthetic Biodegradable Polymers Market
- 9 Market Opportunities for Biodegradable Polymers
- 10 Profiles of Leading Biodegradable Plastics Converters
- 10.1 Alpha Packaging
- 10.2 Arkhe Planning Co.
- 10.3 Arthur Blank & Company
- 10.4 Autobar Group Ltd.
- 10.5 Bartling GmbH & Co. KG Kunststoffe
- 10.6 Bi-Ax International
- 10.7 BioBag International AS
- 10.8 Biosphere Industries Corporation
- 10.9 BIOTA Brands of America Inc.
- 10.10 Bomatic Inc.
- 10.11 Brenmar Company
- 10.12 Carolex SAS
- 10.13 Chien Fua Bio-Tech Industry Co., Ltd.
- 10.14 Coopbox Europe
- 10.15 Cortec Corporation
- 10.16 Earthcycle Packaging Ltd.
- 10.17 Europackaging plc
- 10.18 Ex-Tech Plastics, Inc.
- 10.19 Fabri-Kal
- 10.20 Faerch Plast A/S
- 10.21 Farnell Packaging Ltd.
- 10.22 Fortune Plastics
- 10.23 Good Flag Biotechnology Corporation
- 10.24 Grenidea Technologies Pte Ltd.
- 10.25 The Heritage Bag Company
- 10.26 Huhtamäki Oy
- 10.27 IBEK Verpackungshandel GmbH
- 10.28 ILIP
- 10.29 Innovia Films BVBA
- 10.30 Liquid Container/Plaxicon
- 10.31 NNZ bv
- 10.32 Natura Verpackungs GmbH
- 10.33 NVYRO
- 10.34 Plastic Suppliers Inc.
- 10.35 RPC Group plc
- 10.36 Siamp-Cedap
- 10.37 Sidaplax
- 10.38 Signum NZ Ltd.
- 10.39 Spartech Corp.
- 10.40 Sunway Household Ltd.
- 10.41 Toray Industries Inc.
- 10.42 Toray Saehan Inc.
- 10.43 Treofan Group
- 10.44 Vertex Pacific Limited
- 10.45 Wei Mon Industry Co. Ltd.
- 10.46 Wentus Kunststoff GmbH
- 10.47 Wilkinson Industries Inc.
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