Jakość usług gastronomicznych

Dining in a table-service restaurant is a multilayered following types of clues to judge a restaurant expe-experience that involves at least three types of clues.

rience: functional—the technical quality of the food Although food quality is basic, the ambience and ser-and service; mechanic—the ambience and other vice performance greatly influence a customer’s eval-design and technical elements; and humanic—

uation of a particular establishment. Diners use the the performance, behavior, and appearance of the FEBRUARY 2007

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employees. While customers’ perceptions

any, the use of paper or cloth napkins and of mechanic clues are positively related to their texture, and the cleanliness of the table.

their expectations of the service, humanic That assessment is then combined with reac-clues dominate the influence of mechanic tions to the presentation of the meal and the clues. Ideally, managers should orches-food itself.

trate both humanic and mechanic clues to Berry, Carbone, and Haeckel (2002)

deliver a consistent service message.

discussed three categories of clues present in the service experience: functional clues, Keywords:

restaurant service; customer

satisfaction; service clues

mechanic clues, and humanic clues. Func-

tional clues concern the technical quality of the service, particularly relating to whether Beyond food quality,a key question the service is performed competently. In a in managing a restaurant is, “What

restaurant, this category refers to the food is more important to customers—

itself and the accuracy or efficiency of the the behavior of employees or the environ-service. For example, the taste and freshness ment where they perform the service?”

of a restaurant’s shrimp scampi is a func-While extensive research examines the sep-tional clue, as is the appropriate pacing of arate effects of these two important influ-the meal. Mechanic clues are nonhuman ele-ences on customers’ perception of service ments in the service environment consisting quality, few studies address their combined of design and ambient factors, including effects (among those who have examined

equipment, facility layout, lighting, and the combined effects are Baker, Grewal,

color. For example, tile-top tables, copper and Voss 2002). This would seem to be an pot lamps, and photos of chili cook-off

important area of inquiry, given that restau-events serve as mechanic clues in Chili’s rant customers commonly experience both

restaurants. Humanic clues consist of the employees and the facility simultaneously.

behavior of service employees, including Consequently, our objective in this article body language, tone of voice, and level of is to examine the combined effects of

enthusiasm. For example, the warm, friendly the physical environment and the behavior smile and sincere greeting of a restaurant of employees on customers’ perceptions of hostess illustrate humanic clues.

restaurant service quality. After discussing Functional clues are the basis of a restau-the theoretical basis for the research, we rant’s success. Few managers would dis-describe a study designed to test those

agree that tasteful, wholesome food served effects. We discuss the study’s conclusions, at an appropriate temperature is a essential managerial implications, and suggest future to a positive dining experience. While func-research in the final section.

tional clues are the foundation of the dining experience, however, functionality consti-The Clues of Service

tutes only part of that experience. For

In choosing and using restaurant services, example, a rude, bored, or aloof server can customers frequently behave like detectives effectively ruin a customer’s restaurant as they search for information and organize experience even if the meal was prepared their perceptions into a set of feelings properly. This is consistent with the findings about the service (Berry, Wall, and Carbone of Parsa et al. (2005), who found that while 2006). For example, everything on a restau-food quality was critical to restaurant suc-rant table potentially communicates to cus-cess, excellent food alone did not guarantee tomers, including the table covering used, if success. Because differentiating the service 60

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typically relies on mechanic and humanic distinctive through design, color, motion, or clues, our study focuses on the combined sound. In the Hard Rock Cafe, for example, effects of those clues on customers. (We customers are surrounded by authentic rock prefer the term “clues” over the similar term and roll memorabilia, such as a guitar signed

“cues” to better convey the service cus-

by John Lennon or a leather jacket worn by tomer’s active processing of stimuli that can Elvis Presley, hung on the walls. These

help inform their choices and influence their mechanic clues help to establish the Hard feelings about the experience.)

Rock brand. As a message-creating medium, the atmosphere provides discriminative

The Effect of Mechanic Clues

stimuli to buyers that enable them to recog-During the dining experience, customers

nize a restaurant’s differences as a basis for are affected by a variety of mechanic clues, choosing that restaurant. For example, the as indicated by research in environmen-soft lighting, snowy white linen tablecloths, tal psychology and marketing. Research in and crystal chandeliers of an upscale restau-environmental psychology draws from the

rant communicate to customers the type

stimulus-organism-response (SOR) para-

of food and level of service that make up a digm in psychology (Mehrabian and Russell fine-dining experience. Finally, as an affect-1974; Spangenberg, Crowley, and Henderson creating medium, atmospheric elements

1996) and generally finds that the physi-such as color, smell, sound, and texture cal environment can powerfully influence evoke visceral reactions that influence pur-people’s cognition, emotions, and behavior.1

chase probability. At Walt Disney World in People rely on the environment for meaning Orlando, for example, the smell of chocolate about their world and for behavioral guid-chip cookies baking is piped from the under-ance (Genereaux, Ward, and Russell 1983; ground to the park’s Main Street inside the Ittelson et al. 1974; Kaplan 1987; Rapoport front gate to greet guests, create warm feel-1982; Russell, Ward, and Pratt 1981; Russell ings, and whet their appetite for a treat.

and Pratt 1980; Russell and Ward 1982). In Much of the empirical research in atmos-addition, an environment can influence feel-pherics has focused on the effects on cus-ings, which may among other reactions

tomers of specific ambient factors, which are encourage people to remain in the environ-background conditions such as lighting or ment or to leave it (Mehrabian and Russell music that affect the senses, often subcon-1974).

sciously (Baker and Cameron 1996). Music Research in marketing draws from theo-has been one of the most commonly studied ries in environmental psychology to examine ambient elements. For example, Smith and the effects of the environment on customers’

Curnow (1966) found that shoppers spent

affect, attitudes, service evaluation, and less time in a store when music was played behavior—and, ultimately, sales. In the con-loudly, but they found no effect on sales per text of retailing, Kotler (1973) defined customer. Milliman (1986, 1982) found that atmospherics as the conscious design of space music volume and tempo influenced the

to create certain effects in buyers to enhance amount of time and money consumers spent purchase likelihood. According to Kotler, in retail and restaurant establishments.

atmosphere can affect purchase behavior in Research in services marketing has

three ways. As an attention-creating medium, shown that in inseparable services where atmosphere can make a store or restaurant both the customer and service provider

1. The term “environment” has multiple meanings. In this article, our use of the term refers to the physical facility in which the service is performed.

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must be present, such as those found in

hotels and airplanes. The more time cus-

restaurants and hotels, the physical environ-tomers spend in a service facility, the

ment where the service is performed influ-greater the opportunity they have to be

ences customers’ perception of service

influenced by mechanic clues. Such tangi-quality (Baker, Grewal, and Parasuraman

bles are salient to value creation. In addi-1994; Bitner 1990). For example, Bitner

tion to their impact on customers during the (1990) found that travel agency customers dining experience, mechanic clues also

were less likely to attribute service failures have the ability to influence customers

to the companies when employees had

before they experience either functional or clean, organized desks.

humanic clues. The next section examines Mechanic clues are especially important

how this influence works.

in services marketing because the intangi-bility of the offering leads customers to rely Mechanic Clues and

on tangibles to evaluate the experience. The Expectations

mechanic clues in the service environment Customers’ perceptions of service qual-assist customers in understanding and inter-ity are subjective evaluations of a service preting the service (Carbone and Haeckel experience, and customers’ expectations

1994). This principle is inherent in the inte-are the standards against which such ser-rior of a fast-food restaurant, where the cus-vice experiences are judged (Zeithaml,

tomer queues communicate the quick-serve Berry, and Parasuraman 1993). Bitner

nature of the experience.

(1990) proposed that the “servicescape”

In a study of the influence of environ-

can influence customers through its effects ment on quality inferences and store image, not only on perceived performance but also Baker, Grewal, and Parasuraman (1994)

on expectations. Thus, an important func-found that ambient elements of the store tion of mechanic clues is their influence on environment provide information that con-customer expectations. Along with price, sumers use to infer quality. Studies of the tangibles or mechanic clues have been

relative importance of intrinsic and extrin-found to function as implicit service

sic factors have shown that extrinsic factors promises that lead to inferences about what become more important to consumers in

the service should be like (Zeithaml, Berry, judging quality when intrinsic factors are and Parasuraman 1993). Research indicates not available or when evaluation of intrinsic that customers often use price and tangibles factors is difficult (Hartline and Jones 1996; as surrogates for quality (Zeithaml, Berry, Zeithaml 1988). Mechanic clues influence and Parasuraman 1993). For example, a

customers’ service perceptions because

customer would expect a higher level of

these clues are part of the experience.

personal service at a luxurious, expensive Uncomfortable seats in a movie theater,

hotel than at a budget hotel with basic

offensive signs in a retail store (e.g., “break facilities. This is consistent with Sharma it and you’ve bought it”), and tables too and Stafford (2000), who suggested that

close together in a restaurant directly

environment-based perceptions of a retail detract from customers’ experiences. We

store can influence customers’ beliefs about believe mechanic clues are especially influ-the people who work there, and that nicer ential in affecting quality perceptions for environments are generally associated with services in which customers experience the more credible service providers. As a result, facilities for an extended time, such as it is expected that customers’ perceptions of 62

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mechanic clues will be positively related to ratings from customers than a restaurant that their expectations of the service.

is strong in one but not both of these clue categories. Important though the role of The Effect of Humanic Clues

mechanic clues can play in influencing cus-In addition to mechanic clues, employ-

tomers’ expectations and perceptions of ser-ees’ behavior during a service also provide vice, however, humanic clues typically have powerful clues that contribute to customers’

even stronger effects. In a study of the perceptions of service quality (Berry and sources of services’ brand strength, Berry Bendapudi 2003; Bitner 1990; Bitner,

and Lampo (2004) found that employee

Booms, and Mohr 1994; Bitner, Booms, and behavior was, by far, the most influential Tetreault 1990; Bowen and Schneider 1985; factor in shaping customers’ perceptions of Zeithaml, Berry, and Parasuraman 1993;

their high- and low-preference brands. Thus, Zeithaml, Parasuraman, and Berry 1985).

we expect that humanic clues moderate the Customers’ assessment of employees’ effort effect of mechanic clues. In other words, the and service performance has been found to effect of humanic clues on perceived service have a strong effect on satisfaction and cus-quality will be stronger when mechanic

tomers’ switching behavior (Keaveney

clues are positive than when mechanic clues 1995; Mohr and Bitner 1995). Berry and

are negative.

Lampo (2004) argued that labor-intensive service brands can be only as strong as the Study Methods and Procedures

customers’ satisfaction with the people per-We tested the combined effect of

forming the service, because customers’

mechanic clues and humanic clues on cus-

actual service experiences are most influen-tomers’ perception of service quality with a tial in establishing brand meaning. A

2 × 2 experiment in a casual-dining restau-server’s pacing in serving a meal and atten-rant. This setting was chosen as being repre-tion to customers’ readiness for the next sentative of a labor-intensive, interactive course should influence perceptions of ser-service context.

vice quality. Thus, while mechanic clues can set the stage by influencing customers’

Subjects

expectations, humanic clues typically play a prominent role in delivering on the promise Similarly, the sample was chosen to be

through the service provider’s performance.

representative of the dining public in a col-Companies seek to deliver service that

lege town. As such, it was drawn from

meets or, even better, exceeds customer ser-student and community groups representing vice expectations (Zeithaml, Berry, and

a wide range of ages and backgrounds.

Parasuraman 1985). Since mechanic clues

Students, representing 26 percent of the influence customers’ expectations of service sample, were drawn from undergradu-performance and humanic clues directly

ate business classes, and the community

reflect service performance, it would seem groups were from local church and charita-critical that these two types of clues be ble organizations. Seventy-one percent of viewed as consistent for the customer to the respondents reported dining out once a determine that the firm delivers excellent week or more. Because a final sample of 45

service. A comfortable, beautifully deco-subjects per cell was considered to be opti-rated restaurant that delivers excellent ser-mal (Cohen 1988), we set a goal of 50 sub-vice by courteous, well-dressed employees jects per cell, or 200 total subjects, to allow is likely to receive higher service quality for nonresponse. Final completed responses FEBRUARY 2007

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totaled 181, with approximately 45 responses Exhibit 1:

per cell. Community groups were offered an Subject Profile

honorarium and students were offered extra Sample

class credit for participating in the study.

Community group

134

Exhibit 1 summarizes the composition of

Students

the sample.

Total

181

Gender

Female

102

Stimuli

Male

One challenge in environment-behavior

Total

181

Age

research is achieving experiential realism—

18-24

the use of realistic stimuli within subjects’

25-34

experience that maintain fidelity to the vari-35-49

ables and settings with which the research is 50-65

concerned (Bateson and Hui 1992). Pictures Older than 65

have been used as stimuli in such environ-Total

181

mental studies (Bitner 1990). We also used Marital status

video as a stimulus because of its ability Single

to capture not only the visual and auditory Married

elements of the restaurant’s physical environ-Divorced

ment but also the behavior of employees, No response

thus enhancing experiential realism. The use Total

181

Education

of video in such studies has been determined High school or less

to be representative of the environment, and High school grad

video has been used in environment-behavior Some college

studies in marketing (Bateson and Hui 1992; College grad

and Carpman, Grant, and Simmons 1985).

Graduate school

The stimuli used in the experiment were

Total

181

photographs and videotape of the restaurant.

Income

Four brief videos were developed with the Below 20K

cooperation of a seafood restaurant chain.

20-40K

The videos were filmed in two of the chain’s 41-60K

restaurants; one location was a new proto-61-100K

type (positive environment condition), and More than 100K

No response

the other was the oldest format in the chain Total

181

(negative environment condition). The loca-Frequency of dining out

tions were chosen on the basis of company Once a week or more

129

data indicating positive customer response Less than once a

to the prototype and negative response to the week, but more

old location. Pretests using photographs of than once a month

each location confirmed these customer

Once a month or less

responses. The old restaurant had rough-

Total

181

hewn wood panels and dark, heavy wood

furnishings. Décor consisted of authentic fishnets and oars hanging on the walls, with and small and lighting was low, resulting in an old rowboat hanging from the ceiling in a dark restaurant interior. Conversely, the the main dining room. Windows were few

prototype was bright, with ivory stucco

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walls and waist-to-ceiling windows on three Parasuraman (1988). Items were adapted to of the exterior walls. The lobby included a fit the restaurant environment and service.

skylight and contemporary furnishings, with To ensure content validity, care was taken light-colored wood and upholstered chairs.

to ensure realism through interviews with Décor consisted of a large metal fish sculp-restaurant management, service employees ture over a centrally located bar. In addition, (servers and hosts or hostesses), and cus-modern-style vertical live fish tanks were tomers. Refinements were made as a result situated throughout the restaurant.

of the interviews to ensure the items gener-Two different service scenarios were

ated reflected the measures’ content. Items shot at each location: one portraying posi-and administration procedures were further tive ervice behavior and the other portray-refined in the pretests described previously.

ing negative service behavior. Scripts for The survey instrument consisted of a four-these two scenarios were developed based section questionnaire.

on the company’s customer-service stan-

Respondents were randomly assigned to

dards. The script for the positive service one of the four treatments, namely, (1) pos-scenario showed employees greeting cus-

itive mechanic clues and positive humanic tomers promptly, seating them at clean

clues, (2) negative mechanic clues and pos-tables, and frequently checking on customers itive humanic clues, (3) positive mechanic throughout the dining experience. The neg-clues and negative humanic clues, or (4) ative script showed employees ignoring

negative mechanic clues and negative

customers as they enter the restaurant, dis-humanic clues. Respondents viewed pic-

playing poor product knowledge, and failing tures of their assigned restaurant and indi-to attend to customers while dining. Prices cated the extent to which they agreed with were not visible to respondents, and the the statement, “Customers could expect

same menus were used in all scenarios.

good service in this restaurant.” When all Pictures of both of the restaurants and the respondents were finished evaluating the scripts were pretested with a small sample of still photos, they were shown the selected subjects prior to filming the videos to verify video and completed section two of the sur-that the experimental design would perform vey, which asked for their opinions about as expected. In the pretests, subjects viewed the service they had just viewed. After fill-the restaurant pictures and answered ques-ing out this section, subjects were asked to tions on a questionnaire concerning their complete section three of the survey, in perceptions of mechanic clues. Then they which they were instructed to take both still read a script of a service scenario and

pictures and video into consideration and answered additional questions concerning provide their impressions of overall service their perceptions of the humanic clues and quality by indicating the extent to which the combination of mechanic and humanic

they agreed with the sentence, “The service clues. Once manipulations were verified, the quality of this restaurant is good.” Finally, four videos were filmed for data collection.

in section four, respondents provided

demographic data, which can be found in

Instrument and Procedures

Exhibit 1.

Respondents rated their reaction to the

Analysis and Results

restaurant’s environment and the service Customer expectations of restaurant ser-employees’ behavior using 7-point Likert-vice were found to be significantly higher type scales based on Baker, Berry, and

when mechanic clues were positive than

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Exhibit 2:

Analysis of Variance Results

Source of Variation

Sums of Square

Mean Square

η2

Corrected model

906.129

302.043

601.902

.000

.911

Intercept

2,893.192

5,765.461

.000

.970

Mechanic clues

0.103

0.205

.651

.001

Humanic clues

891.548

1,776.649

.000

.909

Mechanic ×

8.793

17.522

.000

.090

Humanic clues

Error

88.821

177

0.502

Adjusted R2 = .909

N = 181

when they were negative.2 As suggested

Exhibit 3:

above, mechanic clues seem to set the stage Means of Perceived Service Quality

for what customers expect of a service.

However, humanic clues are more impor-

tant than mechanic clues in determining the customer’s final assessment of the restaurant’s service. To assess this relationship we conducted a 2 × 2 analysis of variance (ANOVA) consisting of the positive and

negative mechanic clues and the positive and negative humanic clues, with customers’

perception of service quality as the dependent variable. The ANOVA showed a significant main effect of behavior (humanic

clues) on perception of service quality with a large effect size and a statistically insignificant main effect of mechanic clues on perception of service quality with a small effect size. In addition, the results indicate a significant interaction effect of mechanic clues and humanic clues with a large effect size.

The insignificant effect of mechanic clues on service quality perception suggests the

unequal influence of mechanic and humanic clues on service quality when customers

positive humanic clues. Perceptions of ser-experience them both in a restaurant. The vice quality were lowest when mechanic

ANOVA results are presented in Exhibit 2.

clues were positive but humanic clues

Customer mean ratings of service qual-

were negative, and slightly higher when

ity were highest when both mechanic

both mechanic clues and humanic clues

clues and humanic clues were positive,

were negative. A diagram of the results is followed by negative mechanic clues with presented in Exhibit 3.

2. X

= 5.26; X

= 4.67; p = .001.

mean pos

mean neg

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Discussion

industry—restaurants—and one company

Customers’ expectations of service were

within that industry. Replication of the significantly higher when mechanic clues research in other restaurants or service sec-were positive than when they were nega-

tors is needed to extend the generalizability tive. This finding supports the conceptual-of the findings. Also, although efforts were ization of the restaurant environment as an made to ensure that the subjects were repre-implicit service promise, with the potential sentative of the market’s restaurant patrons, to influence customers’ expectations of ser-and the subjects were randomly assigned to vice (Zeithaml, Berry, and Parasuraman

the treatment conditions, probability sam-1993). This is consistent with Parsa et al.

pling was not used. In addition, subjects (2005), who found that successful restau-were not prescreened for having dined at rants had a clear and consistent concept.

this type of restaurant before, which may In effect, customers look for tangible clues also have had an effect on our results.

to help inform their expectations of a ser-Moreover, we made no effort to identify the vice. Thus, managers may improve percep-relative influence of specific stimuli within tions of restaurant service by orchestrating mechanic and humanic clues, since that was mechanic clues.

beyond our study’s scope. Functional clues, Regardless of the information imparted

such as food quality, were likewise beyond by mechanic clues, however, humanic clues the scope of our study.

dominate mechanic clues in influencing

Even with those limitations, this research service quality perceptions for this casual-goes beyond examining the individual

dining restaurant. This is why restaurants effects of mechanic and humanic clues to that have excellent food and service but investigating their combined effects, and poor ambience can be successful. Ideally, thus the findings are more representative of both humanic and mechanic clues should

the customer’s actual experience. As such, deliver a consistent message to customers, the study lends empirical support to the ser-but when inconsistency occurs, it is best to vices marketing literature on experience be strong in humanic clues.

engineering, which suggests that functional, Our findings strengthen our conviction

mechanic, and humanic clues must be man-

that consistent application of mechanic

aged in a consistent way to enhance the cus-and humanic clues is the ideal. However, tomer’s service experience (Berry and

we recognize that this does not always

Bendapudi 2003; Carbone and Haeckel

occur in labor-intensive, interactive ser-1994; Haeckel, Carbone, and Berry 2003).

vices. Our findings, therefore, suggest the Much remains to be learned in this

essential importance of positive humanic area of inquiry. Replicating our study in clues. Negative humanic clues cannot over-other types of restaurants and other service come positive mechanic clues, but positive sectors may reveal differing importance

humanic clues can—to a degree—overcome

levels of the clues, as suggested earlier. For negative mechanic clues. However, mechanic example, we would not be surprised to find clues were also found to be associated with humanic clues playing a less dominant role customer expectations, and they also are in quick-service restaurants, where cus-important.

tomer interaction with service providers Readers should bear in mind several

is limited to counter service or the drive-limitations of this research in considering through. Moreover, we see orchestrating

the findings. First, the empirical conclu-mechanic clues to manage expectations

sions are based on the study of one service as an underexplored concept in services

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marketing. In particular, examination of the Bitner, M. J., B. H. Booms, and L. A. Mohr. 1994. Critical effects of specific types of clues on cus-service encounters: The employee viewpoint. Journal of Marketing 58 (4): 95-106.

tomers or employees would be beneficial.

Bitner, M. J., B. H. Booms, and M. S. Tetreault. 1990. The By the same token, we need further explo-service encounter: Diagnosing favorable and unfavorable incidents. Journal of Marketing 54:71-84.

ration of humanic clues. That is, what specif-Bowen, D. E., and B. Schneider. 1985. Boundary-spanning ically about employee behavior is important role employees and the service encounter: Some guide-to customers? For example, is a greeter’s lines for management and research. in The service encounter: Managing employee/customer interaction smile when a customer enters the restaurant in service businesses, ed. J. A. Czepiel, M. R. Solomon, a key determinant of customers’ service-and C. F. Surprenant, 7-27. Lexington, MA: Lexington quality perceptions? Even more valuable

Books.

Carbone, L. P., and S. H. Haeckel. 1994. Engineering cus-would be a study that goes beyond the effect tomer experiences. Marketing Management 3 (3): 9-19.

of mechanic and humanic clues on satisfac-Carpman, J. R., M. A. Grant, and D. A. Simmons. 1985.

Hospital design and wayfinding: A simulation study.

tion to their effect on customers’ commit-Environment and Behavior 17:296-314.

ment to a restaurant. Finally, a future study Cohen, J. 1988. Statistical power for the behavioral should include the interaction of functional sciences. 2nd ed. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Genereaux, R. L., L. M. Ward, and J. A. Russell. 1983. The clues in addition to mechanic and humanic behavioral component in the meaning of places.

clues for a more complete picture of the ser-Journal of Environmental Psychology 3:43-55.

vice experience.

Haeckel, S. H., L. P. Carbone, and L. L. Berry. 2003. How to lead the customer experience. Marketing Management 12 (1): 18-23.

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Eileen A. Wall, Ph.D., previously a professional consumer marketing practitioner, is an assistant professor of marketing in the Bill Greehey School of Business at St. Mary’s University of Texas (ewall@stmarytx.edu).

Leonard L. Berry, Ph.D., is a distinguished professor of marketing and holds the M.B. Zale Chair in Retailing and Marketing Leadership in the Mays Business School at Texas A&M University, where he also is professor of humanities in medicine (BerryLe@tamu.edu).

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