Learning Strategies
Metacognitive: advance organizers, direct attention, selective attention, self-management, functional planning, self-monitoring, delayed production, self-evaluation Cognitive: repetition, resourcing, translation, grouping, note-taking, deduction, recombination, imagery, auditory representation, keyword, contextualization, elaboration, transfer, inferencig, Socioaffective: cooperation, questions for clarification,
Communication strategies:
Avoidance startegies: message avoidance, topic avoidance Compensatory strategies: circulocution, approximation, all purpose words, prefabricated patterns, nonlinguistic signals, literal translation, foreignizing, code switching, appeal for help, time gaining activities “I mean”
Learner training-startegies-based instruction 1) administer a learning style checklist, 2) give hints about successful learning 3) build strategic techniques Techniques 1) which help to reflect on learning (questionnaire), 2) activities which train strategies 3) which encourage learners to monitor and check progress
Developing autonomy 1) learner training in dictionary skillks 2) raising awareness of learning styles 3) developing learning strategies 4) negotiating syllabus etc. 5) self/peer assessment 6) self access, additional materials 6) group work 7) project work 8) open ended activities 9) student generated materials
Features of coursebooks developing autonomy 1) learner training 2) self-assessment 3) progess tests 4) revision sections 5) reference sections 6) supplementary materials (workbook) 7) optional tasks 8) open ended activities 9) project work 10) key 11) aims of the book
Discipline - disruptive behaviour Discipline (learning is taking place, quiet, teacher in control, smooth cooperation, motivated students, according to the plan, same objectives for Ss and T, T's charismatic authority
Causes of disruptive behaviour: the teacher, the student (time of day, attitude, a desire to be noticed, company of others) OR: the family, the education, self-esteem, boredom, external factors (wind etc.)
Things you can't do to keep discipline 1) extreme negativity (believe me I can make your life difficult), 2) authoritarian climate 3) overreacting 4) mass punishment 5) blaming 6) lack of clear instructions 7) dealing with 1 student too long 8) lack of recognition of ability level
Don't: go unprepared, be inconsistent, issue threats, raise your voice, give boring classes, be unfair, have a negative atitude, break the code, overuse Polish,
Do: Start by being firm, get silence before you start, know and use students' names, start with sth interesting, be mobile-walk, speak clearly, make instructions clear, have extra materials, look at the class when speaking, use proper words, develop effective question techniques, develop timing lessons, vary techniques, avoid confusion, clarify rules, show yourself as a supporter, use humour constructively, choose topics which will activate students, be punctual, avoid anger, avoid overfamiliarity, focus attention, don't humiliate, be confident and well organised
Harmer: Act immediately, focus on behaviour, take things forward, keep calm, use colleagues & institution, punish not verbally, resist the student, assign punishment (extra task), write a nte to parents, contact parents or head master
Good language learner (Harmer):
A willingness to: a) listen b) experiment c) ask questions d) think about how to learn e) accept correction
Testing reading skills
Vocabulary: multiple choice, matching items, completing items Reading tests: multiple choice, true/false, completion, cloze
Testing listening skills
dictation, completing pictures, following instruction, short answers, table completion, diagrams/maps/pictures, listing, true/false, multiple choice, sequencing texts/pictures, text completion, problem solving
Testing speaking skills
Pronunciation: words in isolation, minimal pairs, words in sentences, reading aloud, re-telling stories, using pictures (description, comparison, sequences of pictures, maps), oral interviews (asking questions, testing students in pairs), grading oral ability
Testing writing skills
guided writing, broken sentences, punctuation, summary, note-taking, dictation, combined (read&write), form-filling, notes and diaries, essay questions, using pictures for writing, compositions,
Testing vocabulary sets (associated words), matching items, word formation, synonyms, opposites, rearranging letters, definitions, completion
Testing grammar: multiple choice items, error recognition, rearrangement&ordering, putting words in the correct form, transformation, completion, changing words (passive-active),
Types of tests PLACEMENT TESTS, PROGRESS/ACHIEVEMENT TESTS, PROFICIENCY TESTS
Format of tests: INDIRECT vs DIRECT, GLOBAL vs DISCRETE POINT, SUBJECTIVE (essay) vs. OBJECTIVE (multiple choice)
A good test: (features) validity (tests what it is to test), reliability (does it measure real knowledge), practicality (easy to administer and check?),
The stages of progress testing: 1) planning (syllabus objectives-->assessment programme a) weighing skills b) timetable for assessment) 2) Construction (test format --> test construction -->writing/editing a test) 3) Administration (a) test conditions b) answer sheets c) marking scheme/criteria 4) Results (student scores-->conclusion a) students' progress, b) information for evaluation of a course
Test preparation: A GOOD TEST SHOULD DISCRIMINATE BETWEEN GOOD AND BAD STUDENTS 1) Task selecion and design (level of difficulty, discrimination, appropriate sample, clarity of task, timing, layout, checking) 2) scoring (clear information, marking scheme-weighing of items), standarisation
Checking tests: Is there more than 1 possible anwer? Is there no correct answer? Is there enough context to provide a correct answer? could a testwise studen guess? does it test what it is to test? does it test the ability to solve puzzles or IQ rather than lg? Does it test imagination rather than lg ability? does it test real skills or content knowledge of other areas/general knowledge of the world/cultural knowledge? are instructions clear? are the instructions more difficult than the test itself? will it be time consuming to mark? are there typing errors?
Washback - the effect that a test has on teaching and learning
Assessment : a) FORMATIVE (at the beginning of a programme or during it, to improve the quality of learning) b) SUMMATIVE (at the end of a programme)
ECTS European Credits, 5% of the best students get the highest grade, 5% of worst students - worst grade
Culture (man-made part of environment) Big C (history, art, institutions) and little C (behaviour, lifestyle, food, leisure, habits)
Zadania szkoły 1) Nauczanie-przekazywanie wiedzy (rozumienie, nie uczenie pamięciowe) 2) Kształcenie umiejętności 3) Wychowawcze wspomaganie rozwoju osobowego
Program nauczania jęz.ang. 1) opis, wstęp, założenia 2) Cele edukacyjne (szczegółowe) -dlaczego? 3) treści nauczania (co?) 4) Realizacja programu (jak?) 5) Ocenianie Plany wynikowe --> szczegółowy rozkład nauczania (co robi nauczyciel, co potrafią uczniowie etc.)
Heterogeneous classes Differ in: lg learning ability, lg knowledge, cultural background, learning style, attitud to lg, mother tongue, intelligence, word knowledge, learning experience, knowledge of other lgs, age/maturity, gender, personality, confidence, motivation, interests, independence, self-discipline, educational level Solution Vary topics/methods/texts, make activities interesting, encourage collaboration, individualize, personalize, use compulsory + optional materials, use open ended activities According to J.Tice: grading tasks, self-access, content reading, activities with different responses, open ended activities, dealing with different learning speeds, assessment, project work
Communicative competence (Del Hymes): linguistic + communicative competence (that aspect which helps us convey, interpret, negotiate meanings) COMPONENTS: grammatical competence, discourse competence, sociolinguistic competence, strategic competence
Conversation analysis: 1) attention getting 2) topic nomination 3) topic development (mainenance: turn taking, clarification, shifting, avoidance, interruption 4) topic termination
Nonverbal communication: 1) gestures (kinesics), 2) eye contact 3) proexemics 4) artefacts-dress, clothes 5) olfactory (smell)
Language functions (Micheal Halliday) : INSTRUMENTAL (to make sth happen: get set go!) , REGULATORY (controlling events), REPRESENTATIONAL (describe the world), INTERACTIONAL (jokes, interaction, contact), PERSONAL (feelings, emotions), HEURISTIC (to learn), IMAGINATIVE (creativity, inventing)
Program: 1) opis-wstęp-założenia 2) cele (edukacyjne, szczegółowe) 3) treści nauczania, 4) realizacja programu 5) ocenianie
Syllabuses (characteristics): 1) consists of a list of CONTENT ITEMS and PROCESS ITEMS, 2) it is ordered from easier to more difficult 3) has explicit objectives 4) it is public 5) may have a time schedule 5)may indicate preferred methodology or approach 6) may recommend materials Determining goals & objectives of the course --> Conceptualizing content (what to include) --> Selecting and developing materials & activities --> organisation of content & activity --> Evaluation (how?) --> Conisderation of resources and constraints
Types of syllabuses: 1) grammatical 2) lexical 3) situational (at a restaurant etc.) 4) topic-based 5) notional 6) functional=notional (past, future) 7) multi-strand, mixed
Functional syllabuses: Introducing self& othe people, exchanging personal info, asking how to spell sb's name, giving commands, apologizing&thanking, identifying, describing people, asking for info, invitation, refusing
Styles and registers: (Martin Joag?) oratorical (frozen, prepared), deliberative (smaller group, a lecture), consultative (dialogue, still formal, patient-doctor), casual, intimate
Common European Framework A-Basic, B-Independent, C-Proficient
European language portfolio (document in which learners can record and reflect on their learning) 1) cultural experiences 2) lg passport 3) lg competencies (A1, A2 etc.), 4) detailed biography Language Biography - to facilitate learner's involvement, planning, reflecting upon and assessing his/her learning process and progress, it encourages to say what a learner can do, include info about education etc. Dossier offers the learner the opportunity to select materials to document/illustrate achievements and experiences (certificates etc.)
Needs assessment: what are my students' needs? need English for? ASK STUDENTS
Forms of assessment Continuous assesmment, Self assesment, Informal assessment (attitude, cooperativeness, independence, creativity and presentation)
Stosunek do nauki Ilosc nieobecnosci, odrabianie prac domowych, przynoszenie podrecznikow, prowadzenie zeszytu/slownika, aktywnosc, zapal do nauki
Postępy w nauce wymowa, znajomość słownictwa, rozumienie ze słuchu, czytanie, mówienie, pisanie, opanowanie gramatyki
Rozwój zawodowy nauczyciela (pre-service training-studia podyplomowe-nadają prawo do uczenia nowego przedmiotu, udoskonalają wykwalifikowanych, in-service training publishers, journals) warsztaty, automonitorowanie, grupy wsparcia, prowadzenie dziennika, obserwacje koleżeńskie, portfolio, analizowanie sytuacji krytycznych, studium przypadku, trening koleżeński, uczenie zespołowe, badanie w działaniu
Awans zawodowy nauczyciela faza kształcenia zawodowego-praktyka w szkole, studia nauczycielskie--> Faza adaptacji zaw. (stażysta 9 mies. --> kontraktowy 2 lata 9 mies.)--> Faza dojrzałości zawodowej (Nauczyciel mianowany)-->Faza mistrzostwa (Nauczyciel dyplomowany)
Procedura awansu : zatrudnienie w szkole, opiekun stażu przydzielony, opracowanie planu rozwojowego, zatwierdzenie planu rozw. przez dyrektora, relizacja planu rozw., sprawozdanie z realizacji planu, opinia rady rodziców, projekt oceny dorobku zawod., ocena dyrektora (można się odwołać), wniosek o podjęcie postępowania kwalifikacyjnego, rozmowa kwalifikacyjna, akceptacja
Nauczyciel stażysta : poznaj szkołę, dokumentację, przepisy dot, warunków pracy, obserwuj zajęcia opiekuna i innych nauczycieli, prowadź zajęcia obserwowane przez opiekuna/dyrektora, uczestnicz w doskonaleniu w ramach wewnątrzszkolnego doskonalenia nauczycieli, dokumentuj edukację planu rozwoju
Nauczyciel stażysta otacza się wokół: dyrektora, doradcy metodycznego, przewodniczącego zespołów szkolnych, innych nauczycieli, pedagoga, nauczyciela konsultanta Inne osoby: wizytator, radni, samorząd uczniowski, rada rodziców, doradca/konsultant
Types of tests :
- placement test- placing new students in the right class in a school
- diagnostic test- expose students difficulties, gaps in their knowledge
- progress or achievement tests- measure SS knowledge in relation to the syllabus they have been following; contain only item types which SS are familiar with
- proficiency tests- general picture of SS knowledge and abilities
Characteristic of a good test:
- validity- test what t its supposed to test
- reliability- give consistent results; make the test instruction clear, restrict the scope for variety in answers, make test conditions remain constant
Direct test items- SS are being tested while performing the communicative skill. (real life use)
Direct test item types:
- create a `level playing filed'- T should avoid making excessive demands on specialist knowledge
- replicate real-life interactions
Speaking:
- an interview about themselves
- decision-making activities
- pictures to compare and contrast
- role-play activities
Writing:
- writing compositions and stories
- reply to a job advertisement (transactional letter)
- informational leaflets about their school/town
- a set of instructions for some common task
Listening:
- completing charts with facts and figures from a listening text
- identifying which of a number of objects (pictures on the test paper) is being described
- identifying which out of two or three speakers says what
- following directions on a map, identifying the correct house or place
Reading:
- multiple choice questions to test comprehension of a text
- matching written descriptions with pictures of the items, or procedure, they describe
- transferring written information to charts, graphs, maps
- matching jumble headings with paragraphs
Indirect test items- measure a student's knowledge and ability by getting at what lies beneath their receptive and productive skills. (controlled items)
Indirect test item types:
- multiple choice questions
- cloze procedures
- transformation/ paraphrase
- sentence re-ordering
Discrete-point testing- test on thing at a time ( chose correct tense of verb)
Integrative test- test the usage of variety of language at any on given time
Different styles/ genres
Levels of intimacy (levels of formality):
- distance- use of well-formed sentences in writing a priority; use of full forms and written equivalencies in spoken communication
- closeness- leads to spontaneity- occurrence of ellipsis, non-clausal sentences, tags, hesitators, etc.
Reason that people can operate within sociocultural rules is because they know about different styles and recognize different written and spoken genres. In order to speak and write at different levels of intimacy Ss need practice in different genres and styles.
Reception and production
- output and input- when a student produces a piece of language and sees how it turns out that information is fed back into the acquisition process. Output becomes input. This feedback can come from ourselves and other learners. (Page 250 - the circle of input and output)
- texts as models- showing Ss actual piece of writing (letter, report, article) to help them to analyse structure and style
- texts as stimuli- letter or radio programme may provide the necessary stimulus for Ss to tell their own stories etc.
- reception as part of production- reception and production are bound up together (conversation- blend of listening and speaking; writing- often depends on what we previously have read) →one skill leads naturally on to other linked activities.
- production enables reception- productive skill work help Ss with their receptive skills (Ss can apply the insights they gain from their writing to reading, etc.)
. Approaches to student writing
- process and product- in the teaching of writing we can concentrate on the product of writing (→ only interested in the aim of the task and in the end product) or on writing process itself (→ pay attention to the various stages that any piece of writing goes through).
Stages of process writing: (recursive stages)
- drafting
- structuring - ordering information, experimenting with arrangements, etc.
- reviewing - checking context, connections, editing, assessing impact
- focusing- making sure you're getting the message across you want to get across
- generating ideas and evaluation- assessing the draft
The main disadvantage of getting Ss concentrate on the process of writing it that it takes time.
- writing and genre- Ss study texts in the genre they are going to be writing before they start their own writing; such approach is especially appropriate for Ss of English for Specific Purposes
- creative writing- imaginative tasks such as writing poetry, stories or plays, often the result is treated as some kind of achievement; often Ss tap into their own experiences (→ grater motivation)
- writing as a cooperative activity- group's research is broader than an individual; more detailed and constructive feedback; cooperative writing works well with both process and genre-based approaches; writing in groups can be greatly motivating for Ss as including not only writing but research, discussion, peer evaluation, group pride, etc.
using the computer
Language corpora - huge collection of language from sources such as books, magazines, newspapers, and speech, stored on computers.
KWIC = `key words in context' - show how particular words are used
What is language corpora for?
- we can get to know with what words the given word collocates
- we can get examples of a word from only the spoken corpus or form the written corpus
- we can ask the software to give us examples of the word used as for example a noun
- we can find out how common a word is
schemata = pre-existent knowledge of the world that we need to employ in order to make any sense of any text
Top-down and bottom-up processing
- in top-down processing the reader/listener gets a general view of the reading/listening passage by absorbing the overall picture
- in bottom-up processing the reader/listener focuses on individual words and phrases, and achieves understanding by stringing these detailed elements together to build up a whole
5. Different skills we use while reading/listening:
- identifying the topic - getting idea of what we are reading/listening to
- predicting and guessing - reading/listening to in order to confirm our expectations of what we have predicted
- reading/listening for general understanding (for gist) - not stopping for every word, not analysing everything that is included
- skimming - running your eyes over a text to get a quick idea of the gist of a text
- reading and listening for specific info - we ignore all the other info until we come to the specific item we are looking for = scanning
- reading and listening for detailed info - we read and listen in order to understand everything we are reading/listening to in detail
- interpreting text - understanding (beyond the literal meaning of words) what the writer or speaker is implying or suggesting
1. Extensive reading - the T encourages Ss to choose for themselves what they read and to do so for pleasure and general language improvement.
It is not enough to tell Ss “read a lot”, we need to offer them a programme which includes appropriate materials, guidance, tasks, and facilities such as permanent or portable libraries of books.
Intensive reading - teacher chosen and directed, and designed to enable Ss to develop specific receptive skills.
Reasons for using intensive reading:
- T may want to have Ss practice specific skills such as readings to extract specific info, or reading for gist
- T may get Ss to read texts for communicative purpose, as part of other activities, as sources of info, in order to identify specific uses of language
- reading is often a prelude to a speaking or writing activity
Extensive listening - T encourages Ss to choose for themselves what they listen to and to do so for pleasure and general language improvement
- it takes place outside the classroom
- materials: simplified readers published with an audio version on tape; coursebooks tapes; types of authentic material
- T needs to make a collection of appropriate tapes clearly marked for level, topic and genre (we can keep it in for example a box)
- T should keep a record of which Ss have borrowed which tapes
- How to encourage extensive listening?
T can for example ask Ss to record their responses to what they have heard in a personal journal, or fill in report forms which T has prepared asking them to list the topic, assess the level of difficulty and summarise the contents of a tape.
Intensive listening - teacher chosen and directed, and designed to enable Ss to develop specific receptive skills.
Advantages:
- Ss hear a variety of different voices apart from just their own T - extremely portable and readily available, tapes are cheap, machines to play are relatively inexpensive
Disadvantages:
- in big classroom with poor acoustics problems with audibility occur
- difficult to ensure that all the Ss can hear equally well
- the speed is dictated by the tape, not by listeners
-the Ss don't see the place the speaking is taking place
- it is not natural occupation
Elements of speaking:
a) Language features (elements necessary for spoken production):
- connected speech - an effective speaker of English should be able not only to produce individual phonemes but also to use fluent `connected speech'. In connected speech sounds are:
- modified (assimilation)
- omitted (elision)
- added (linking r)
- weakened (through contractions and stress patterning)
- expressive devices - Ss should be able to deploy at least some of the features:
- changing the pitch and stress of particular parts of utterances
- varying volume and speed
- showing by other physical non-verbal means how one is feeling
- lexis and grammar - an affective speaker of English should be able to use a number of common lexical phrases. T should supply a variety of phrases of different functions (agreeing/disagreeing/expressing shock, approval etc.)
- negotiation language - language we use to seek clarification and to show the structure of what we are saying. Speakers need to `structure their discourse' if they want to be understood, they need to use certain phrases.
b) Mental/social processing
- language processing - an effective speaker should be able to process language in his/her head and put it into coherent order so that it comes out in forms that are not only comprehensible, but also convey the meanings that are intended. T should include speaking activities in language lessons to help Ss develop habits of rapid language processing in English.
- interacting with others - effective speaking involves a good deal of listening, an understanding of how other participants are feeling, and a knowledge of how linguistically to take turns or allow others to do so.
(on-the-spot) information processing - apart from our response to other's feelings, we also need to be able to process the info they tell us the moment
Communication games
- designed to provoke communication between Ss: solving a puzzle, drawing picture (describe and draw), putting things in the right order
- `Twenty Questions' - a tv/radio game in which the chairperson thinks of an object and tell that the object is either animal, vegetable, or mineral - or a combination of two or three of these. The team has to find out what the object is asking only `yes/no' questions. They get points if they guess the answer in 20 questions or less.
- `Just a Minute' - a long running comedy contest where each participant has to speak for 60 seconds on a subject they are given by the chairperson/teacher without hesitation, repetition or deviation or language mistakes. If another contestant hears any of these he/she interrupts, gets a point and carries on with the subject. The person who is speaking at the end of 60 seconds gets 2 points.
- `Call My Bluff' - involves 2 teams, team A is given a word that members of the other team don't know. Team A finds a correct dictionary definition of the word and makes up 2 false ones of their own. They read out their definitions and team B has to guess which is the correct one. Now team B reads out 3 definitions of their word and team A has to guess.
- `Fishbowl' - 2 Ss speak but when a signal occurs, one of them has to stop, take out from a fishbowl a piece of paper on which Ss have previously written phrases, questions and sentences and try to incorporate these into conversation straight awaywe get it
2. Language study techniques:
- demonstration- offer Ss a situation which shows the language in action and later modeling the language ourselves; language can be used in text, but T can use pictures or various items of realia to demonstrate the meaning
- explanation- .e.g. using diagrams using the board or OHP or Cuisenaire rods, fingers or sometimes depending on the level of Ss T can explain in the student's own language
- discovery- encourage SS to discover new language forms themselves in the text, or by looking at grammatical evidence in order to work out a grammar rule → guided discovery
- accurate reproduction- Ss learn new language forms through an accurate reproduction stage→ T asks Ss to repeat new words, phrases or sentences in a controlled way, correcting them when they get things wrong and showing approval when they use form correctly
accurate reproduction - `practice' stage of PPP model
- immediate creativity- T asks Ss to create their own sentences using the new language form (T can see whether the new language form was properly understood)
immediate creativity- `production' stage of PPP model
- check questions - T asks questions to see if Ss have understood the meaning or use → concept questions