Dydaktyka szczegółowa

Dydaktyka szczegółowa: tematy egzaminacyjne i zagadnienia szczegółowe

1. The use of authentic materials in the EFL classroom

Peacock described it as a materials that have been produced to fulfil social purpose in the language community. They are usually the materials that have been produced for purpose other than teaching language. Authentic material designed for native speakers of English used in a classroom in a way similar to the one it was designed for. For example: radio news brought into the class so the students can discuss a report on pollution in the city where they live.

(Genuine –used not as intended , in a somewhat artificial way , for example , news article where the paragraphs are cut and mixed so the students’ task is to put them into the correct order)

Advatages

  • Ss exposed to real discourse (rozmowa)

  • Intrinsic educational value (we can learn a lot about world)

  • Include incidental (or improper) English (demonstrate how English is really used, reflection of reality)

  • Produce a sense of achievement (for example, listening to music and ss can catch the meaning of lyrics then they can use it)

  • Can be re-used under different circumstances if the task is different

  • Language changed is reflected (lg out of date)

  • SS practice some of the micro-skills. Listening sub skiles:gist,specific info, Writing : postcards, reading: letters ,skimming (general idea of the text)

  • Variety of text types,lg styles

  • Encourage reading for pleasure (cover topics of interests)

Diadvatages

-authentic materials may be too culturally biased and too many structures are mixed, causing lower levels have a hard time decoding the texts.

-vocabulary might not be relevant to ss’ immediate needs (contains vocabulary that don’t teach particular words and it is useless)

- too many structures are mixed (too much info)

- time consuming to prepare (task preparation)

- can become outdated easily (e.g. news)

- can require good knowledge of the cultural background

2. Computer assisted language testing

Warshauer (1996) categorized the development of CALL into three main phases

CALL in the past
“Behavioristic CALL” was implemented in the 1960s and ’70s and was based on the behaviorist theories of learning, which included drill and practice. At this juncture, the use of computers and software in language teaching was, as Taylor (1980) describes, the “computer as a tutor.” One of the best known systems of its type was the PLATO system that included central computers and terminals and performed tasks such as vocabulary drills, grammar explanations and drills, and translation tests (Ahmad, Corbett, Rogers, & Sussex, 1985).

The next phase, i.e., the “communicative CALL,” introduced in the 1970s and ’80s was the result of a communicative approach, which was one of the mainstream methods in second/foreign language teaching at that time. Since this approach emphasized the process of communication and highlighted the use of the target language in real settings, the programs that appeared in this period featured practice in a non-drill format. Software that had not been specifically designed for CALL was also employed for writing practice. This type of application in CALL is the so-called “computer as a tool” (Brieley & Kemble, 1991).

CALL at present
Currently, we are at the “integrative CALL” stage, which is a result of the expansion of technological advancements such as multimedia technology and the Internet. These two innovations allow the learners to access a more authentic learning environment. As we know, multimedia enables one to integrate four skills, and the Internet provides opportunities to interact in an English language environment 24 hours a day. Although the scope of CALL has widened in the last 40 years, it is not yet a perfect solution for teaching/learning all aspects of a language. The quality of programs has not yet reached the level of assessing the users’ natural spoken language or the appropriateness of use in the context of the situation.

Assessment and testing are used interchangeably, testing is normally conducted to produce scores.

Historical perspective on CALT:

CALT in the 1960’s and 1970’s-repetition

Hardware:

Software :

1970’s-1980’s- the emphasis on speaking and communication

Software

1990’s –after 2000

Software

Hardware

The web

CBT’s

WBT’s

Low tech

-easy to prepare

-straight forward to use

-not safe (source-code can be accessed)

-involve client side programming

High tech

-more difficult to prepare

-data stored on server

-test security

-involve server side programming

-grates are fully-automated

CAT’S

3. The implementation of computers in ELT

4. The digital natives vs. immigrants dichotomy

Natives

-born into the world of technology

- Digital Natives’ brains are likely physically different as a result of the digital input they received growing up

-they like spending their time with technology (games,videos, phone calls)

-prefer fast information delivery

-they prefer graphic information

-they have parallel/multitasking processing

-they have short attention spans—for the old ways of learning

Immigrants

-use web as a secondary source

-prefer to read software manuals rather than trying things out

-in order to read they print not read from the computer

-share web resources in offline contexts

Legacy content /old one:

Future content:

5. E-materials evaluation

Why we use e-materials evaluation?

· As a source of language

· For support in learning

· As a stimulus for student production

· As a record of learning

When do we evaluate materials?

· When building up a materials bank/planning a lesson - predictive evaluation

· After using - retrospective evaluation

Why do we use materials other than a course book?

· There may be no course book for a class

· For a negotiated syllabus - or just S preference for a different topic

· Mixed level groups may need different materials

· To add variety

· To clarify areas not presented well in the course book.

· To add pronunciation

· To meet Ss' expectations - more tests/more long readings

External Internal

-examines the extent to which a set of materials meets the needs of a particular group of learners, the syllabus, and the examination, i.e. whether a set of materials is suitable for a group of students.

-it is the first step of a more complex evaluation procedure-

-can help evaluators chose materials in order to conducting analysis

-focuses on the internal responsibility of the materials, e.g. the theoretical assumptions behind the materials; the intended objectives and the extent to which the objectives have been realized; the justification of language selection and grading; the design of activities and tasks.

-it is detailed analysis of what materials offer

-it is focused on presentation of language skills, authenticity of language, language practice procedures
Impressionistic overview In-depth evaluation
-It is based on the face value (layout, visuals) - it is guided by a set of referential criteria, (checklist)
Predictive evaluation Retrospective evaluation
-it helps teachers chose appropriate materials

-impressionistic evaluation is based on impressions

-empirical evaluation concerns actual application of materials

  1. criteria important from T’s perspective

  2. criteria vital for L

  3. language content

  4. resultant computer assisted instruction- pc gives some instruction to create e-materials

  5. technical issues

  6. cost

t-related materials criteria

-the description is compared to content

-Relationship of content to curricular, personal and institutional needs

-language skills are developed

-various types of learning styles and strategies are presented

-the learner derives pedagogical value from it

-criteria of speech recognition are taken into consideration

-the e-copies/print-outs of activities are distributed

-it is co-operation and competition between students

l-related materials criteria

-there is clarity of content arrangement (rozmieszczenie treści)

-target age group is defined

-needs and interests of both genders are considered

-navigation is intuitive and has lot of options

-different learning strategies are used

-there is autonomy in selecting activities

-learners can involve in select materials

-good quality of graphics and rubrics

-immediate feedback

-it contains search functions

-there is a wide range of language tests

Lt-related materials criteria

-there are specific language goals

-what appears in these materials? language accuracy and situational/cultural context

-language level is precise

-for introduction of grammar the language samples are presented

-audio-visuals are in good quality

Technical aspects

-there is time limit for activities

-multimedia are helpful and interactive

-they are ease in use

-there is possibility to updates

- colours are nice to eyes

-font characters are clear

-navigation is intuitive

6. The use of ICT in teaching speaking skills

goals:

- telecollaboration Project

7. The use of ICT in teaching listening skills

Materials

(including text-to-speech applications)

8. The use of ICT in teaching reading skills

Pre tasks

-they build scheme

-also build expectations

-provide background knowledge

-vocabulary is also pre-taught by for example brainstorming

-guided treasure hunts

-thematic fieldtrip

While tasks

-scrolling

-flickering screen

-font size

-While reading stage requires balancing in reading comprehension,web searching ,website evaluation

Post tasks

-activating vocabulary (production)

-providing grammar/vocabulary instructions (text is as a model for that)

-web quest

-blogs (production,interaction, skills interaction)

Web based reading tasks :online reading followed by quiz, reading instructions online and perform in class, following instructions (setting up e-mail account e.g.)online games, quizzes, reading/making questionnaire.

9. The use of ICT in teaching writing skills

Traditional

-there is no real audience

-no real interaction

-no response

-writing is far away from authenticity ( it demotivates students)

Web-based

-interest between writer and recipient

-ss become better communicators

-ss interact and collaborate via e-mails

-electronic network helps Ls create/produce/analyse info more effectively.

-word processing enhance writing quality,grades, motivation as there is error correction

-ss are more willing to produce drafts on computer it is endless

-vital electronic skills are developed (e.g. e-mails,blogging,posting,commentaries)

10. Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL)

CLIL involves learning subjects, such as science or geography, through the medium of a foreign language.

Advantages

For learners:

-increasing motivation as language is used to fulfil real purposes

-introducing learners to the wider cultural context

-developing positive “can do” attitude towards lg learning , they concentrate on task not just learning

-developing ss multilingual interests and attitudes

-preparing students for further studies and work

For teachers:

-the use of innovate methods materials and e-learning (also when t uses internet in order to prepare lesson)

- individual and institutional networking

opportunities and professional mobility

-the development of good practices through cooperation with teachers in other departments, schools and countries

-higher levels of job satisfaction

Challenges

-CLIL REQUIRES RE THIKING OF:

-the traditional t skills(using blackbords e.g.)

-knowledge of the foreign language teaching as it is totally new direction

-classroom practices

-ts’ lg level

-t might not receive the necessary re-training to carry out their new roles effectively

-suitable classroom resources may not be available in all subjects

-too much focus on vocabulary, grammar is ignored

11. Error Analysis

(Error – deviation from the norms of the standard target language as a result of a lack of the knowledge of rules

Mistake – deviation from the norms of the standard target language as a result of a slip of the tongue, stress,tiredness or fatigue.)

12. Error correction in teaching methods

Error – deviation from the norms of the standard target language as a result of a lack of the knowledge of rules

Mistake – deviation from the norms of the standard target language as a result of a slip of the tongue, stress,tiredness or fatigue.

Grammar translation: (T in centre)

Direct method:

Audio-lingual method: (repetition based on mechanical learning)

Silent way method: based on cognitive sociology, ss come up with rules, t prompts, no stress, nice, pleasant

(de)Suggestopedia humanistic approach, focus on the learner

Community Language Learning

Total physical response

Communicative Language Teaching

Cognitive Code using mind, logical thinking while learning

13. Intercultural competence

Culture is the negotiation of beliefs, values, attitudes, and their interrogation and celebration through signifying practices’

Intercultural competence is the ability to communicate effectively and appropriately with people of other cultures

“The contemporary world is saturated with multicultural communities where different cultures regularly interact. Even relatively monocultural and monolingual countries, e.g. Poland, are now hosts to a variety of ethnic groups, and the European Union has culturally diversified so much that it is inhabited by representatives of roughly three

hundred minorities. Consequently, today effective communication requires intercultural (communicative) competence, which equips people to negotiate socio-cultural differences. Intercultural language teaching is supposed to help learners avoid communication breakdowns, sensitize them towards otherness, develop empathy, as well as teach them how to objectively explore other cultures. Intercultural language teaching encourages learners to work autonomously, perform, and reflect on experience, without concentrating exclusively on declarative knowledge. Byram and Planet (1999) indicate that intercultural communication involves a complex network of interactions between people’s perspectives, beliefs, values, and practices, beyond mere information exchange. Thus, Byram (1997; 2008) sets out the goals of intercultural language teaching under the umbrella concept of Intercultural Communicative Competence, which embraces: linguistic, sociolinguistic and discourse competence, as well as intercultural knowledge, skills, attitudes, and critical cultural awareness.”

BRITISH STUDIES INTERCULTURAL TEACHING
Native speaker model of teaching L1/C1 are transferred into L2/C2 elements
Monolithic picture of culture Heterogeneous picture of culture (2 combinations of different cultures of sub cultures)
Static culture Dynamic culture (changes all the time)
Based on knowledge Based on experience (skills are important, not knowledge)
Top-down approach( limited view of culture) Bottom-up approach (we give students product: ticket and they are ask to draw their conclusion)
Goal : knowledge Goal: knowledge, skills, attitudes
Teacher centeredness Student autonomy

The components of intercultural competence are :

knowledge (about other cultures and other people's behaviors) “The teacher’s knowledge is supposed to cover: societies and cultures, including his own; an awareness of the perspectives of others on his own culture; culture-determined learning modes; interpretation of behaviour, and ways of avoiding conflict.”

skills (skills of interpreting and relating-they form the ability "to interpret a document or event from another culture, to explain it and relate it to documents from one′s own" ; the skills of discovery and interaction, which constitute the ability "to acquire new knowledge of the culture and cultural practices) “The intercultural teacher is to possess: skills of negotiation; skills of text/media interpretation; teaching skills which would enable him to facilitate learner autonomy; skills of materials management; and language skills useful for the negotiation of meaning”

attitudes (Attitudes towards people from a different culture often include prejudices or stereotypes, which can lead to unsuccessful interaction) “The teacher’s attitudes are to comprise: readiness to use the target language in order to negotiate interpersonal understanding, reflection, critical cultural awareness, critical evaluation, openness, tolerance and acceptance of otherness. ““Attitudes and knowledge are preconditions while the skills of interpreting and relating as well as the skills of interaction and discovery influence the processes of intercultural communication. A learner can acquire these factors through experience and reflection, but their acquisition in an educational setting with the help of a teacher can additionally promote the development of critical cultural awareness, the fifth component of intercultural competence

All of them are complemented by the values one holds because of one’s belonging to a number of social groups, values which are part of one’s belonging to a given society.”

ANTHROPOLOGY CULTURAL STUDIES
Learning through cultural practices Learning about cultural practices
Experience is the most criteria It is focused on text
It is palpable (całościowy,kompletny) It is cognitive
People can live in this conditions people can reading about it
Focus on language and culture Focus on culture
It records experience; compares; translates; explains This is participation in others’ live and collection of different data (interviewing, interpretation,observations)

“Firstly, since intercultural communicative competence is not a fully prescribed entity, the teacher can no longer act as a knower who transmits to the learners a body of declarative knowledge. Secondly, since it is impossible to collect a complete/perfect intercultural knowledge, the teacher’s task is to engage, along with learners, in controlled intercultural mediation. Hence, the practitioner needs to activate learners in order to ensure that they are truly involved in learning. In computer-assisted teaching a blend of responsibilities on the linguistic, didactic, technical, managerial and social spheres needs to be reached. Finally, the intercultural teacher must be ready to face situations in which he will be unable to answer his learners’ questions. While assisting learners systematically, he might also need help from their learners. While it is a realisation that teachers are not universally ready to accept, it is perfectly illustrative of a transfer in the intercultural teacher’s role from that of an authority to that of a partner. “

14. The role of grammar in teaching methods

Grammar-Translation Method

Direct Method

Audio-Lingual Method

Silent Way

(De)Suggestopaedia

Community Language Learning

Total Physical Response

Communicative Language Teaching

Cognitive Code

Krashen's zero position on grammar

“Stephen Krashen said that explicit grammar instruction in language classrooms has a limited value, because it needs to be developed in another way. Krashen argued that learning grammar makes acquisition of the second language learning slow. Also, he said that there are three processes: filter, learning process and monitor. He said that the optimal use of monitor is when conscious rules do not affect communication.”

fundamental rule

“According to Krashen there are two independent systems of second language performance: 'the acquired system' and 'the learned system'. The 'acquired system' or 'acquisition' is the product of a subconscious process very similar to the process children undergo when they acquire their first language. It requires meaningful interaction in the target language - natural communication - in which speakers are concentrated not in the form of their utterances, but in the communicative act. The 'learned system' or 'learning' is the product of formal instruction and it comprises a conscious process which results in conscious knowledge 'about' the language, for example knowledge of grammar rules. According to Krashen 'learning' is less important than 'acquisition'.”

15. Interlanguage transfer

“When target language components are the same as native components, transfer is zero. When they are similar, transfer is positive. When they are different, transfer is negative.”

“Positive transfer/Facilitation occurs when the structures of the two languages are similar, and consequently the learning of the second language is aided by the native language. It is “correct” meaning in line with most native speakers’ notions of acceptability.”

”When the two languages differ in structures, negative transfer occurs and results in errors, and thus, one’s performance is disrupted by the native language. Negative transfer is also known as interference in the sense

that the learner’s previous learning interferes with the linguistic items he or she is currently learning. Language interference is most often regarded as a source of errors.”

“Retroactive inhibition refers to where learning acts back on previous learned material, causing someone to forget (language loss ).”

“There are many typical examples of this type of transfer with Spanish learners of English) - It is common that when trying to express their age, Spanish learners of English tend to say * ‘I have ten years old, instead of ‘I am ten years old.’ Here, there has been a replacement of the verb to be which is used in English to say how old someone is, for the verb ‘tener’ which Spanish speakers use to express their age) - When trying to express possession Spanish learners of ESL tend to say *‘The leg of Maria’, instead of Maria’s leg. Here, we can note the use of the article that Spanish uses before body parts, and the use of the preposition of, but being used the way Spanish does”“English learners of French and French learners of English find that they share a great amount of vocabulary. For Japanese speakers learning Chinese, it is really easy when it comes to learn how to write in Chinese, for the entire Japanese ideograph is based upon Chinese”

‘Interlanguage: It is taken as a given in ESL and SLA (Second Language Acquisition) research that the old model of behaviorist transfer of habits from the first language to the second does not accurately describe the process of learning a language. Students instead go from their first language to their second/third, etc. through an interlanguage, a natural language that has its own rules. Whether the first language is Chinese or Spanish, all learners go through the same processes and stages, though first language may affect the length of stay in each stage. ESL makes a distinction between "errors" and "mistakes." Errors are glimpses into interlanguage. They are consistent and stage sensitive. Mistakes are slips, performance errors. So you first have to see if the student really knows the rule, but isn’t using it right now (a mistake) or if the student has a different conception of the rule (an error).Transfer: While transfer is not the whole story, some things are indeed transferred from the first language to the second. Russian and Japanese speakers will have trouble with articles because they do not have articles in their native languages, for example.”

16. First language acquisition and its implications for language teaching

L1 acquisition: smooth, effective

L2 acquisition: more complicated, interfered with by L1 – interlanguage is developed; depends on various factors

Similarities/differences between L1 and L2 acquisition inform T`s choice of:

They also help T understand:

Presence of developmental sequences

  1. The silent period → development of the basic competence

Both first and second language learners pass through a similar initial stage, the silent period. Children acquiring their first language go through a period of listening to the language they are exposed to. During this period the child tries to discover what language is. In the case of second language acquisition, learners opt for a silent period when immediate production is not required from them. In general, however, many second language learners - especially classroom learners- are urged to speak. The fact that there is a silent period in both first and second language learners (when given the opportunity) is widely accepted.
However, there is disagreement on what contribution the silent period has in second language acquisition. While Krashen (1982) argues that it builds competence in the learner via listening, Gibbons (1985, cited in Ellis, 1994) argues that it is a stage of incomprehension.

  1. Formulaic speech

Formulaic speech is defined as expressions which are learnt as unanalysable wholes and employed on particular occasions (Lyons, 1968, cited in Ellis, 1994). Krashen (1982) suggests that these expressions can have the form of routines (whole utterances learned as memorized chunks - e.g. I don't know.), patterns (partially unanalyzed utterances with one or more slots - e.g. Can I have a ____?), and Ellis (1994) suggests that these expressions can consist of entire scripts such as greetings.

  1. Structural and semantic simplification

The first and second language learners apply structural and semantic simplifications to their language. Structural simplifications take the form of omitting grammatical functors (e.g. articles, auxiliary verbs) and semantic simplifications take the form of omitting content words (e. g. nouns, verbs). There are two suggested reasons why such simplifications occur. The first reason is that learners may not have yet acquired the necessary linguistic forms. The second reason is that they are unable to access linguistic forms during production.

Reading and writing→ artificial language skills

Listening and speaking → natural language skills

  1. The silent period
Ls pass through a silent period
It builds competence in the learner via listening (Krashen). It is a stage of incomprehension (Gibbons)

  1. Formulaic speech – routines (not expandable)/patterns(expandable) (Krashen)

  • unanalysable wholes (jedność) (Lyons)

  1. Structural

  • Omitting grammatical functors (e.g. articles, auxiliaries)

  • Semantic simplification: omitting content words (e.g. nouns, verbs)

Reasons Ls may not have yet acquired linguistic forms

Ls are unable to access linguistic forms during production

Silent period

Formulaic speech

The L`s choice of TL variety

  • In L1 acquisition no chance to make a nonscious choice of a language variety

  • Birthplace automatically determines the language variety to be acquired

  • Deviations from the standard language are not seen as a failure to acquire the language

When you learn the first language, you cannot decide what language you speak, you learn language from your parents

Evidence of acquisition order

Acquisition sequences:

Acquisition order
Ls acquire certain grammatical morphemes in a fixed order (Krashen)
Invariant (niezmienny) sequence of acquisition for at least 14 functors in English as L1 (noun/verb inflections, prepositions,and articles) (Brown)

Acquisition orders for question words (what, where, who) show a great similarity in L1 and L2 acquisition (Lightbown and Spada)

Wells (1986b, in Ellis, 1994) proposes inter-learner variables affecting the order of acquisition as sex, intelligence, social background, rate of learning, and experience of linguistic interaction.
Furthermore, McLaughlin (1987) claims that evidence from research shows that the learner's first language has an effect on acquisitional sequences which either slows their development or modifies it. He adds that, considerable individual variation in how learners acquire a second language, such as different learning, performance, and communication strategies, obscure the acquisitional sequences for certain constructions.
Lightbown and Spada (2006) review studies which have proposed that the acquisition of question words (what, where, who, why, when, and how), show a great similarity in first and second language acquisition. Based on the morpheme studies in L2 acquisition, Krashen (1982) put forward the Natural Order Hypothesis which he developed to account for second language acquisition. He claimed that we acquire the rules of language in a predictable order. This acquisition order is not determined by simplicity or the order of rules taught in the class. The above arguments show that there seems to exist an order of acquisition in both first and second language acquisition.

Impact of linguistic universals and markedness marked ->articles, question tags, Present Perfect

Linguistic Universals
Two schools: Typological universals/ Generative school
Typological universals: languages from different families have common features (nouns, verbs)
Universal grammar (language acquisition device): some universal principles of grammar underlie (być podstawą) and govern specific language rules
Markedness(marked/ unmarked rules)

Marked rules:

  • Language specific features which Ls resist (opierać się, odrzucać) transferring

  • Peripheral (mające drugorzędne znaczenie) rules (derived historically, borrowed, created accidentally)

Unmarked rules:

Universal rules (present in most languages, which Ls tend to transfer)

  • Core rules (word order) are innate (wrodzony) and can be arrived at through the application of Universal Grammar

Unmarked features learnt ealier/easier than marked rules in L1 and L2 acquisition

Marked/peripheral aspects more difficult to learn (Ellis and McLaughlin)

The findings show that unmarked features are learned earlier and easier than marked rules in both the first and the second language while unmarked forms require more time and effort by the learner.

Role of input (Krashen)

Input

“language whicha learner hears or receives and from which he or she can learn” (Richards)

Behaviourist view: direct relationsheep between input and output. To develop language habits Ls must be given feedback which represents input (stimulus/response/habit formation)

Interactionist view: verbal interaction or input, is crucial for language acquisition, input from TV/ radio is insufficient
Input Hypothesis (Krashen)

L1 learner receives simple, comprehensible input at the beginning

With time input becomes more complicated

Caretaker talk/motherize
Interactionist view: one-to-one interaction gives access to adjusted input

Chomsky: input essential but cannot fully explain L1 acquisition

-ungrammaticalities/disfluencies- inadequate source of language data (kids would not distinguish grammatical/ungrammatical forms)

-poverty of the stimulus-input alone does not supply Ls with sufficient data
L1 learners must rely on Universal Grammar (innate knowledge)

Krashen (1982) argues that the input a first language learner receives is simple and comprehensible at the beginning and is getting slightly more complicated. With this argument, he supports his next argument that input should be slightly above the level of the language learner. Only in doing so can the second language learner move forward. He argues that the second language learner should be exposed to the target language as much as possible and that the lack of comprehensible input will cause the language learner to be held up in his development (Ellis, 1994; McLaughlin, 1987).
The Interactionist Approach to first language acquisition holds that one to one interaction gives the child access to language which is adjusted to his or her level of comprehension, therefore, interaction is seen as crucial and impersonal sources of language (such as TV and radio) are seen as insufficient. Consequently, verbal interaction is seen to be crucial for language leaning since it helps to make the facts of the second language salient to the learner. Similarly, intersectional modifications which take place in the conversations between native and non-native speakers are seen as necessary to make input comprehensible for the second language learner (Lightbown & Spada, 2006; Ellis, 1994).

Role of stimulus/response learning behaviourist (learning is a habit formation)

For younger learners – it is very interesting

For older learners – this method is very mechanical ,they enjoy rules

Behaviouristic View of Language Acquisition
Conditioning and habit formation (Pavlov; Skinner) stimulus, response, reinforcement
Some regular/routine aspects of language might be learned through stimulus/response (determined by environment)
L1 and L2 learners from/repeat original sentences. Thus the B Approach fails…(niewidoczne na mojej kserówce)

The similarity between L1 and L2 acquisition is seen in the Behavioristic Approach originally which tries to explain learning in general. The famous psychologist Pavlov tried to explain learning in terms of conditioning and habit formation. Following Pavlov, B. F. Skinner tried to explain language learning in terms of operant conditioning. This view sees language as a behavior to be taught. A small part of the foreign language acts as a stimulus to which the learner responds (e.g. by repetition). When the learner is 100 % successful, the teacher reinforces by praise or approval.
Consequently, the likelihood of the behavior is increased. However, if the learner responds inappropriately then the behavior is punished and the likelihood of this behavior to occur is decreased (Brown, 1994). In other words, children imitate a piece of language they hear and if they receive positive reinforcement they continue to imitate and practice that piece of language which then turns into a 'habit' (Williams & Burden, 1997).
However, L1 and L2 learners form and repeat sentences they have not heard of before. Therefore, this approach fails to account for the creative language use of L1 and L2 learners.

Impact of ZPD (Zone of Proximal Development)

Try to:

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

  • Child able to copy actions beyond capacities but only within limits

  • Performance much better when guided by adults (understanding and independence develop)

  • ZPD – “the difference between the level of solved tasks that can be performed with adult guidance and help and the level of independently solved tasks” (Vygotsky)

Children lean faster and easier when adults help them

We can say that zone of proximal development is shared in first and second language acquisition; for example ,when children come across a problem they cannot solve themselves they turn to others for help. Thus, collaboration with another person is important for a child to learn. Otherwise, development would not be possible. Learning collaboratively with others precedes and shapes development. A good example for this process is said to be the development of literacy (Gallaway & Richards, 1994; Lantolf & Thorne, 2007).
Vygotsky (1982, cited in Daniels, 1996) asserts that through using language children take part in the intellectual life of the community. In order to negotiate meaning, collaboration between the child and the members of the community is required. Considering language education, instruction creates the zone of proximal development, stimulating a series of inner developmental processes (Daniels, 1996; Lantolf & Thorne, 2007). According to the ZPD, assistant performance and collaboration are crucial for learning and development. The teacher’s assistance and students’ collaboration with their teacher and their peers is inevitable for L2 development. The teacher’s most important classroom work “is to provide for the social interaction within the community of learners such that the learners may move from what they know to what they don’t yet know” (Hawkins, 2001, p. 375).

Acquisition/Learning Hypothesis

Acquired knowledge –intuitive, full competence

Learned knowledge – gaps, a lot of effort, fail in competence

The Acquisition/Learning Hypothesis
Children acquire, absorb subconsciously, informally

  • Acquisition and learning are completely different processes

  • Learning cannot transform into acquisition

  • Adults can acquire like children do

  • Even in EFL classroom Ls can acquire (through meaningful interaction – Krashen)

The Acquisition-Learning hypothesis - is the most important of aspect of his theory of second language acquisition According to Krashen, there are two independent ways of developing our linguistic skills ACQUISITION and LEARNING.  Acquisition involves the subconscious acceptance of knowledge where information is stored in the brain through the use of communication; this is the process used for developing native languages. The learner is unaware of the process taking place. Once the new knowledge has been acquired, the learner is actually unaware of possessing such knowledge.

This is analogous to the way in which children learn their native language  Learning, on the other hand, is the conscious acceptance of knowledge ‘about’ a language (i.e. the grammar or form). Learning a language involves formal instruction and is therefore a conscious process. New language forms are represented and possibly contrasted consciously by the learner as "rules" and "grammar". These "rules" - while known by the student - may well nave no actual impact on the language produced by the student. Krashen states that this is often the product of formal language instruction. A good example would be the third person "s" - a structure "learnt" in the first few weeks of any English course but frequently not "acquired" until very much later.

The Monitor hypothesis
This hypothesis further explains how acquisition and learning are used; the acquisition system, initiates an utterance and the learning system ‘monitors’ the utterance to inspect and correct errors.  Krashen states that monitoring can make some contribution to the accuracy of an utterance but its use should be limited.  He suggests that the ‘monitor’ can sometimes act as a barrier as it forces the learner to slow down and focus more on accuracy as opposed to fluency.

The Critical Period Hypothesis

The Critical Period Hypothesis

“a biologically determined period of life when language can be acquired more easily and beyond which time language is increasingly difficult to acquire” (Brown)

  • Language appears when children`s anatomical, physiological, motor, neural, and cognitive development allows it

  • A critical period for L1/L2 acquisition is due until puberty

Neurological factors: brain lateralization

Left hemisphere: language, logical, analytical operations and higher mathematics

Right hemisphere: recognizing emotions, faces and global understanding (Steinberg)
The plasticity of the brain before puberty enables L1 and L2 acquisition

Critical period hypothesis, as suggested by Lenneberg (1967), indicates that language acquisition should take place during a critical period ending at about the age of puberty. In other words, it refers to a biologically determined period of life when language can be acquired. Lennenberg (1967) proposed his theory of critical period in which he argued that in order to have proper language fluency, language should be acquired or learned before the onset of puberty. However, he left out the point that whether this applies only to the first language acquisition or extend up to the second language acquisition as well. Lennenberg suggested two parts; firstly, normal language learning occurs within childhood. Secondly, reaching the adult age by puberty, brain loses its plasticity and reorganizational capacities necessary for language acquisition. Long (1990) puts the critical age at 6 years, but Scovel argues that there is no evidence to support this and argues for a pre-puberty start. Initially, the notion of a critical period was connected only to first language acquisition. The argument is that children are superior to adults in learning second languages because their brains are more flexible (Lenneberg, 1967; Penfield & Roberts, 1959). They can learn languages easily because their cortex is more plastic than that of

older learners. But this model was extended to be employed with regard to SLA. With regard to SLA, the classic argument is that a critical point for SLA occurs around puberty, beyond which people seem to be relatively incapable of acquiring a native like accent of the second language. This has led some to assume, incorrectly, that by the age of 12 or 13 you are over the hill when it comes to the possibility of successful second language learning.

Fossilization

Fossilization

Non-targer norms become (part of competence) fixed in interlanguage

Factors:

  • Age (loss of brain plasticity)

  • Lack of desire to articulate (adopt TL norms) for psychological reasons

  • Communicative pressure (need to outperform prześcigać, przewyższać competence)

  • Lack of learning opportunity

  • Nature of feedback (positive feedback may foster fossilization)
Absent from L1 acquisition

Fossilization refers to the process in which incorrect language becomes a habit and cannot easily be corrected.

Language fossilization refers to the process in the learning of a secondary language in which the student has more and more difficulty furthering his fluency in the language, until eventually, the student can learn no more. The language, for all intents and purposes, has been set in stone in the mind of the learner at this last point. Some potential for learning small superficial aspects of the language might still exist, such as vocabulary, but conceptual understanding of the material will not develop any further. Fossilization, thus, is a sort of stagnation in secondary language acquisition that cannot be overcome. Fossilization most often occurs in an inadequate learning environment. This usually means learning a language in a classroom, as opposed to learning it in the country where it is natively spoken. Many aspects of a language simply cannot be taught in a classroom, where one generally learns a highly academic version of the tongue, as opposed to the colloquial language Fossilization often means that certain aspects of the language were learned incompletely or incorrectly, such as grammatical features like conjugating verbs in the wrong fashion or using the wrong vocabulary, in such a manner that they cannot be unlearned and replaced with correct usage. Fossilization may also consist of a sort of subconscious clinging to aspects of the learner's mother tongue, for instance, with syntax and phonology. This may reflect an inability to similarly “unlearn” characteristics of a mother language for the purpose of learning another; the native language so deeply hardwired into the brain that its paradigms cannot be replaced when attempting to learn a new and foreign language.

Social Factors

Social Factors

Natural Contexts:

  • Majority language contexts: TL serves as L1 (ethnic minority groups)

  • Official language contexts: TL functions as official language

  • International contexts: TL used for interpersonal communication in countries where it is neither L1 nor is it used as an official language (e.g. in arts, science)
L1 acquisition takes place only in a natural context in the social group
Psychomotor factors: Starting from birth, speech muscles gradually develop until 5-6. Then, intil puberty they maintain flexibility
Children`s speech muscles permit them to easily acquire native-like pronunciation in L1/L2

Affective factors:

Affective factors
Children have not yet developed affect
Children develop a sense of self-identity towards puberty (need to protect self-identity and develop inhibitions)
Children no language ego (it`s flexible, dynamic but as the child reaches puberty the language ego becomes protective)

  • Young children not cognitively developed to possess attitudes towards races, cultures, ethnic groups and languages

  • At school age attitudes are acquired

  • Krashen`s Affective Filter Hypothesis: affective variables can act as a mental block (prevent comprehensible input from being absorbed)

  • High affective filter (Ls are unmotivated/anxious/lack confidence)

  • Low affective filter (Ls not anxious/wish to integrate with L2 group)
Children `s affective filter is low

The development of cognition in adult comes along with some affective obstacles on the way of learning a second language. One of them is inhibition. A child is highly egocentric but as he grows up, he becomes more and more aware of himself and develops a more solid self-identity and after the age of puberty he tries to protect this identity_ (Moinzadeh, Dezhara, & Rezaei, 2012). In the case of language, he develops a language ego with reference to the language he learns (Brown, 1994). The point here is that learning a new language for an adult means adopting a new ego along with an existing one related to the mother tongue (Moinzadeh, Dezhara, & Rezaei, 2012). This feeling of clinging to the first ego causes an inhibition on the way of learning the second language (Moinzadeh, Dezhara, & Rezaei, 2012). On the other hand, children are naturally egocentric. While learning their language they are not afraid to make mistakes, and in general, they do not feel abashed when they

are corrected (Tucker, 2003). Also, their thoughts usually do not surpass their language ability. Adults, on the other hand, usually suffer form a fairly large amount of language learning anxiety (Tucker, 2003). Adults often feel frustrated or threatened in the struggle of learning a different language (Hadley, 2002). Another factor which is also much affected by emotional change is motivation. As Tucker (2003) suggests a child's motivation is simple. In order to communicate and to be a part of family and society the child must master the target language. This motivation is quite weighty, especially when compared to the motivation that adults have, or rather, must find (Tucker, 2003). In second language acquisition studies, a large part of the variation between learners is due to motivation (Ervin-Tripp, 2001). The most obvious mechanism for motivation to have such effects is via self-imposed increase in exposure to target language. Adult motivations usually fall into one of two categories: integrative motivation (which encourages a learner to acquire the new language in order to become closer to and/or identify themselves with the speakers of the target language) or instrumental motivation (which encourages a learner to acquire proficiency for such practical purposes as becoming a translator, doing further research, and aiming for promotion in their career) (Hadley, 2002). Either one of these types of motivation must be prevalent for successful acquisition to take place (Tucker, 2003). Another affective factor causing difficulty for the learners is attitude. There is now a body of research (e.g., Gardner & Lambert, 1972; Gardner, Smythe, Kirby, & Bramwell, 1974) showing that attitudes correlate with success in language class. The research also supports the claim that the type of attitude has an effect (i.e., instrumental or utilitarian attitude) which is not as good as an integrative one. Since young children are not yet cognitively developed to raise a solid attitude toward a certain races, cultures, ethnic groups, and languages, the attitude is established when the child grows up and if it is positive, it can enhance the process of second language learning and vice versa (Ellis, 1994). Affective variables can act as a mental block (i.e., affective filter) and can prevent comprehensible input to be absorbed. When the learner is unmotivated and lacks confidence, the affective filter goes up. When the learner is not anxious and wants to be a member of the group speaking the target language, the filter goes down (Du, 2009). McLaughlin (1987) argues that children are at an advantage when learning a first or second language because their affective filter is low while adults are likely to have a higher affective filter due to events that occurred in adolescence.

Implications of the above for EFL instruction

http://www.educ.ualberta.ca/staff/olenka.bilash/best%20of%20bilash/krashen.html

17. The role of the teacher in teaching methods

Grammar-Translation Method

QUIZING

”In grammar-translation classes, students learn grammatical rules and then apply those rules by translating sentences between the target language and the native language. Advanced students may be required to translate whole texts word-for-word. The method has two main goals: to enable students to read and translate literature written in the target language, and to further students’ general intellectual development. Grammar-translation classes are usually conducted in the students’ native language. Grammar rules are learned deductively; students learn grammar rules by rote, and then practice the rules by doing grammar drills and translating sentences to and from the target language. More attention is paid to the form of the sentences being translated than to their content. When students reach more advanced levels of achievement, they may translate entire texts from the target language. Tests often consist of the translation of classical texts. There is not usually any listening or speaking practice, and very little attention is placed on pronunciation or any communicative aspects of the language. The skill exercised is reading, and then only in the context of translation.”

Direct Method

“The direct method of teaching was developed as a response to the Grammar-Translation method. It sought to immerse the learner in the same way as when a first language is learnt. All teaching is done in the target language, grammar is taught inductively, there is a focus on speaking and listening, and only useful ‘everyday' language is taught. The weakness in the Direct Method is its assumption that a second language can be learnt in exactly the same way as a first, when in fact the conditions under which a second language is learnt are very different. Example The teacher explains new vocabulary using realia, visual aids or demonstrations.In general, teaching focuses on the development of oral skills.

Characteristic features of the direct method are:

Audio-Lingual Method

“Originated from the Behaviourist theory of learning languages! Similar to the earlier Direct Method. Teaches the language directly. Doesn’t focus on teaching vocabulary. Students are drilled in the use of grammar.

There are 4 parts to the Audio Lingual method.

1. Repetition The students repeat what the teacher says:

2. Inflection The teacher says a word or sentences, the students change the form

3. Replacement The teacher says a sentence and the students replace a word in the sentence

4. Restatement The teacher says a sentence and the students rephrase the sentence

The Audio-lingual Method was widely used in the 1950s and 1960s, and the emphasis was not on the understanding of words, but rather on the acquisition of structures and patterns in common everyday dialogue. These patterns are elicited, repeated and tested until the responses given by the student in the foreign language areautomatic.

Some characteristics of this method are:

Silent Way

students built criteria what is good what is bad by using knowledge of friend

“The silent way is a methodology of teaching language based on the idea that teachers should be as silent as possible during a class but learners should be encouraged to speak as much as possible.

There are three basic principles:

The general goal set for language learning is near-native fluency in the target language, correct pronunciation and mastery of the prosodic elements of the target language.

Learner role

Learners are expected to develop independence, autonomy and responsibility.

Independent learners are aware that they must depend on their own resources and realize that they can use the knowledge of their own language to open up some things in a new language. Autonomous learners choose proper expressions in a given set of circumstances and situations. Responsible learners know that they have free will to choose among any set of linguistic choices, the ability to choose intelligently and carefully is said to be evidence of responsibility.

Teacher role

Teacher silence is, perhaps, the most demanding aspect of the Silent Way. Teacher silently monitors learners’ interactions. “ Teaching” meant to present an item once, using typically nonverbal clues to get across meaning. So, he uses gestures, charts and manipulates in order to elicit and shape student responses. The teachers’ role is one of neutral observer, neither elated by correct performance nor discouraged by error.

ADVANTAGES

This method fosters cooperative learning between individuals.

It embodies a new approach to education in general, a respect for the individual and an awareness of the individual’s extraordinary cognitive powers.

If it is succeeded to teach the language the by using the rods without repeating too much, it will really save time and energy for both teachers students. […]. The self-esteem of the students will be increased and this will enhance learning. By this way students will say ‘I learned instead of I was taught well.’ (Demircan1990).

DISADVANTAGES

For some teachers the rigidity of the system (no repetitions by the teacher, no answers by the teacher etc.) may be meaningless.

How such a method would in the average classroom situation, or how successfully it might be used at more advanced levels is a question mark left in our minds.

Language is separated from its social context and taught through artificial situations usually by rods.”

(De)Suggestopaedia

“Some of the key elements of Suggestopedia include a rich sensory learning environment (pictures, colour, music, etc.), a positive expectation of success and the use of a varied range of methods: dramatised texts, music, active participation in songs and games

TEACHER’S ROLES

Teacher should create situations in which learners are most suggestible and then to present linguistic material in a way most likely to encourage positive reception and retention by learners. Show absolute confidence in the method. Organize properly, and strictly observe the initial stages of the teaching process—this includes choice and play of music, as well as punctuality. Give tests and respond tactfully to poor papers (if any). Maintain a modest enthusiasm. Teachers are expected to be skilled in acting, singing and psychotherapeutic techniques

LEARNERS’ ROLES

Students volunteer for a suggestopedic course. Learners must not try to figure out , manipulate, or study the material presented but must maintain a pseudo-passive state

ADVANTAGES OF SUGGESTOPEDIA

students can lower their affective filter. Classes are held in ordinary rooms with comfortable chairs, a practice that may also help them relaxed. Authority concept Students remember best and are most influenced by information coming from an authoritative source, teachers. Double-planedness theory: It refers to the learning from two aspects. They are the conscious aspect and the subconscious one. Students can acquire the aim of teaching instruction from both direct instruction and environment in which the teaching takes place.Peripheral learning: Suggestopedia encourages the students to apply language more independently, takes more personal responsibility for their own learning and get more confidence. Peripheral information can also help encourage students to be more experimental, and look to sources other than the teacher for language input.

DISADVANTAGES OF SUGGESTOPEDIA

The main disadvantages of suggestopedia are as follow: Environment limitation: Most schools in developing countries have large classes. Each class consists of 30 to 40 students. There should be 12 students in the class. The use of hypnosis: Some people say that suggestopedia uses a hypnosis, so it has bad deep effects for human beings. Lazanov strongly denied about it. Infantilization learning: Suggestopedia class is conditioned be child-like situation. There are some students who do not like to be treated like this as they think that thay are mature.

Community Language Learning

“One of the key ideas is that it is the students who determine what is to be learned, so that the role of the teacher is that of a facilitator and support.

Native language are permitted among students . . Translation will be provided by the teacher . . Specially created for adult learner who might fear to appear foolish . . Students apply the target language independently when they feel confident enough to do so . . Students are encouraged to express how they feel about the learning process Students and teachers work together to facilitate learning by

valuing each other, lowering the defense that prevent interpersonal interaction

reducing ankiety and constituting a supportive community.

Teachers role is that of a true counselor.

They are not perceived as a threat

They don’t impose boundaries and limits

They concentrate on the learners needs

ADVANTAGES

Works well with lower levels students who are struggling in spoken English .. Lower students’ anxiety and overcome threatening affective filter.. It creates a warm , sympathetic and trusting relationship between teacher and learners . . Counselor allow the learners to determine type of conversation . . Train students to become independent.

DISADVANTAGES

Some learners find it difficult to speak on tape .. In order for students to become independent , teacher might neglect the need for guidance .. Teacher has to be highly proficient in the target language and in the language of students .. Translation is an intricate and difficult task . The success of this method relies largely on the counselor’s translation .. It is time consuming to carry out .”

Total Physical Response

“Total Physical Response (TPR) is a methodology for teaching language by involving students in physical activity. The first goal of a teacher using TPR is to help the students develop listening fluency (Asher: 1969, p. 5). The other language skills, speaking and writing, are supposed to be learned in a later stage as Asher believes that the ability to understand a language by listening to it would later have a positive effect on building the other skills (Asher, 1969, p. 5). In TPR, students learn by reacting to commands given either by the teacher or their fellow students. Therefore, students learn only by hearing sentences in which the imperative is used. The imperative is so prominent as Asher regards language as "grammar-based" with the verb - especially the verb used in the imperative - being the "central motif" (Richards & Rodgers, 2001, p. 73). Asher in fact believes that "[m]ost of the grammatical structure of the target language and hundreds of vocabulary items can be learned from the skilful use of the imperative by the instructor" The teacher’s role in TPR is to select the teaching material and plan the tasks the students are going to do (Knight, 2001, p. 154). His main role in the classroom is to give commands to the students. The teacher might for example tell the students: “Stand up!”, “Sit down!”, “Take your pencil!” etc. The instructor also serves as a model and gives feedback to the students. The feedback he/she gives is likened to the feedback children receive from their parents. The teacher is to gradually increase the amount of correction given to the learner as he progresses in his knowledge of the target language just as parents will tolerate less mistakes as a child gets older (Richards & Rodgers, 2001, p.76). The learner's part is to listen and to respond physically to the commands. When the students have sufficient listening fluency and feel ready for it, they can begin to speak as well. In this later stage, TPR uses role plays and dialogues in which the students act out real life situations. TPR is… a method of teaching language using physical movement to react to verbal input in order to reduce student inhibitions and lower their affective filter (stress).

Roles of Learners & Teacher

Learners have the primary roles of listener & performer. They listen attentively and respond physically to the commands given. The teacher who has a direct and active role has the responsibility of providing the best kind of exposure to language.”

Communicative Language Teaching

“Communicative language teaching makes use of real-life situations that necessitate communication. The teacher sets up a situation that students are likely to encounter in real life. Unlike the audiolingual method of language teaching, which relies on repetition and drills, the communicative approach can leave students in suspense as to the outcome of a class exercise, which will vary according to their reactions and responses. The real-life simulations change from day to day. Students' motivation to learn comes from their desire to communicate in meaningful ways about meaningful topics.

The communicative approach is based on the idea that learning language successfully comes through having to communicate real meaning. When learners are involved in real communication, their natural strategies for language acquisition will be used, and this will allow them to learn to use the language.

Example

Practising question forms by asking learners to find out personal information about their colleagues is an example of the communicative approach, as it involves meaningful communication.

The type of classroom activities proposed in CLT also implied new roles in the classroom for teachers and learners. Learners now had to participate in classroom activities that were based on a cooperative rather than individualistic approach to learning. Students had to become comfortable with listening to their peers in group work or pair work tasks, rather than relying on the teacher for a model. They were expected to take on a greater degree of responsibility for their own learning. And teachers now had to assume the role of facilitator and monitor. Rather than being a model for correct speech and writing and one with the primary responsibility of making students produce plenty of error-free sentences, the teacher had to develop a different view of learners’ errors and of her/his own role in facilitating language learning.”

Cognitive Code


Wyszukiwarka

Podobne podstrony:
DYDAKTYKA+HISTORII, DYDAKTYKA HISTORII- nauka o edukacji historycznej społeczeństwa, w szczególności
Szczegółowe cele kształcenia(1), Dydaktyka ogólna
Scenariusz zajęć dydaktyczno wychowawczych w przedszkolu
Fwd dydaktyka, Metody alternatywne
guzy część szczegółowa rzadsze
Pedagogika ćw Dydaktyka
Wyklad 2 Eksploatacja przepisy szczegolowe
DYDAKTYKA SPECJALNA prezentacja
Przedmiot i zadania dydaktyki 4
2014 ABC DYDAKTYKIid 28414 ppt
Proces dydaktyczny a proces badawczy
czaszka część szczegółówa
Zobowiązania część szczegółowa (6)
Proces dydaktyczny ppt
Środki dydaktyczne 1
3 DYDAKTYKA

więcej podobnych podstron