Introduction to the acquisition of language – exam questions.
I. Choose the correct answer:
Who believes in the following statement when it comes to the explanation of the phenomenon of the acquisition of language: „it’s all In your mind”?
A. behaviorists B. innatists C. connectionists D. emergentists
Who believes in the following statement when it comes to the explanation of the phenomenon of the acquisition of language: „you say what I say”?
A. behaviorists B. innatists C. connectionists D. emergentists
Who believes in the following statement when it comes to the explanation of the phenomenon of the acquisition of language: „it’s both from inside and outside”?
A. behaviorists B. innatists C. connectionists D. evolutionists
4. Which of the theories was based on NATURE as the main factor responsible for language acquisition
A. Skiner’s verbal behavior B. Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development
C. The Speech Act Theory D. The Universal Grammar Theory
5. Which of the theories was based on NATURE as the main factor responsible for language acquisition
A. Cognitive Theory B. Discourse Theory
C. The Acculturation Model D. A Neurofunctional Theory of Language Acquisition
6. Which of the theories was based on NURTURE as the main factor responsible for language acquisition
A. Fodor’s Modular Approach B. Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development
C. A Neurofunctional Theory of LA D. The Universal Grammar Theory
7. A theory of learning which was most influential in 1940s and 1950s was:
A. behaviorism B. innatism C. connectionism D. evolutionism
8. A theory of learning which was most influential in 1960s and 1980s was:
A. behaviorism B. innatism C. connectionism D. evolutionism
9. A theory of learning which was most influential in 1990s and 2000s was
A. behaviorism B. innatism C. connectionism D. evolutionism
10. “The logical problem” of language acquisition was first formulated by
A. N. Chomsky B. B. F. Skinner C. S. Pinker D L. Vygotsky
11. … believe that language develops in the same way as other biological functions e.g. walking, seeing.
A. behaviorists B. innatists C. connectionists D. emergentists
12. … believe that human beings are able to learn from experience by associations .
A. behaviorists B. innatists C. connectionists D. evolutionists
13. … believes that cognitive development and acquisition of language are connected and dependent on each other (children use words for concepts they understand e.g. „bigger”).
A. N. Chomsky B. B. F. Skinner C. E. Greenberg D. J. Piaget
14. … believe that many differences among languages represent not separate designs but different settings of a few "parameters" that allow languages to vary
A. behaviorists B. innatists C. connectionists D. emergentists
15. Chomsky czyli … believe that many differences among languages represent not separate designs but different settings of a few "parameters" that allow languages to vary
A. behaviorists B. innatists C. connectionists D. emergentists
16. One of the four basic factors that need to be taken into account while constructing your own theory of SLA for a given environment is
A. Learner characteristic B. trace C. SLI D. Order of acquisition
17. Age; ethnic, cultural, religious, linguistic and educational background; native language; socioeconomic situation; life experiences, goals; intellectual capacities, abilities, strengths and weaknesses; language aptitude; personality; motivation belong to
A. Learner characteristics B. Linguistic factors C. Learning processes D. Learning context
18. Understanding how learning takes place; learning strategies; importance of frequency of input, attention to form and meaning; memory, storage and recall processes; interrelationship of cognitive affective and physical domains characterize
A. Learner characteristics B. Linguistic factors C. Learning processes D. Learning context
19. Children produce at least fifty words, begin to combine words into simple sentences at the age of
A. 6 months B. 1 year C. end of 2 years D. 3 years
20. First signs of symbolic capacity thought to underlie art, religion and language are thought to have appeared
A. 10 000 y.a.. B. 30 000 y.a.. C. 100 000 y.a.. D. 2 000 000 y.a..
21.The only bone in the body not connected to any other, found only in humans and Neandenthals, is called
A. larynx B. pharynx C. velar D. hyoid bone
22.Around … of age, the larynx "drops" much lower in the throat, making choking easier but speech possible.
A 3 months B. 6 months C. 1 year D. 2 years
23. … makes patients unable to create grammatically complex sentences.
A anomia B. Wernicke’s aphasia C. Broca’s aphasia D. averbia
24. … discovered that damage to a particular area of the brain could cause language comprehension deficits rather than speech production deficits.
A. Pinker B. Elman C. Broca D. Wernicke
25. Common characteristics among people with … are difficulty with phonological processing (the manipulation of sounds) and/or rapid visual-verbal responding
A. PWD B. Broca’s aphasia C. Wernicke’s aphasia D. dyslexia
26 Dyslectic students who have significant difficulties in one or more of the four skills in their mother tongue (i.e., reading, writing, listening, and speaking) … experience problems with foreign language learning in school.
A. may B. will C. never
27 Which of the following is recommended for teaching dyslectic students a foreign language:
A. oral communication B. language laboratory practice
C. computer-assisted learning. D. multisensory approach
28. Which of these is not an example of multisensory structured language (MSL) approach:
A. categorizing B. connecting the new to the known
C. listening to tapes D. teaching the phonems and the letters they represent
29. … may be the most probable cause of dyslexia.
A. genetic inheritance B. malnutrition C. childhood diseases D. physical injury
30 The core difficulty for a dyslectic person is not
A. word recognition B. reading fluency C. spelling D. abstract reasoning
II. Mark the statements as true or false:
Theories based on nature state that innate factors are more dominant in language acquisition. TRUE
Theories base on nurture state that environmental factors are believed to be more dominant in language acquisition TRUE
Theories based on nurture state that innate factors are more dominant in language acquisition. FALSE
Theories base on nature state that environmental factors are believed to be more dominant in language acquisition FALSE
“The logical problem” of language acquisition was first formulated by Noam Chomsky. TRUE
“The logical problem” of language acquisition was first formulated by B. F. Skinner FALSE
Innatists believe that language develops in the same way as other biological functions e.g. walking, seeing TRUE
Behaviorists believe that language develops in the same way as other biological functions e.g. walking, seeing FALSE
According to innatists principles are universal rules true for all languages and parameters are features specific for the particular language (e.g. omission of a subject) TRUE
According to connectionists principles are universal rules true for all languages and parameters are features specific for the particular language (e.g. omission of a subject) TRUE
11. According to connectionists parameters are universal rules true for all languages and
principles are features specific for the particular language (e.g. omission of a subject) FALSE
12. Generative grammar is recursive, which means that any output of application of rules can be
the input for subsequent application of the same rule. TRUE
13.Generative grammar is not recursive, which means that no output of application of rules can be the input for subsequent application of the same rule. False
Generative grammar is recursive, which means that any output of application of rules can be the input for subsequent application of the same rule. That should enable generating strings like:
the daughter of the father of the brother of his cousin.
(NP -> NP’(D+N) + PREP + NP(D+N)’’)
14.Generative grammar is a set of rules which define a possibly infinite set of finite strings. TRUE
Based partially on mathematical equations generative grammar is a set of rules which define a possibly infinite set of finite strings
The ability to acquire such sets of rules is most probably uniquely human.
15.Generative grammar is a set of rules which define a finite set of possibly infinite strings. FALSE
A finite set of rules which enable rewriting nonterminal signs as strings of terminal signs.
Jean Piaget believes that cognitive development and acquisition of language are connected and dependent on each other (children use words for concepts they understand e.g. „bigger”) T
N. Chomsky believes that cognitive development and acquisition of language are connected and dependent on each other (children use words for concepts they understand e.g. „bigger”) F
18. The four basic factors that need to be taken into account while constructing your own theory of SLA for a given environment are: learner characteristic, linguistic factors, learning processes, order of acquisition. TRUE
19. Early immersion students acquire almost native-like proficiency in passive skills' (listening and reading) comprehension of the second lg. by the age of 11. TRUE
20. Early immersion students are more successful in listening and reading proficiency than partial and late immersion students. TRUE
21) Role play, interviews, information gap, games, pair work, learning by teaching are examples of activities typical of the Audiolingual Method. FALSE
22) Role play, interviews, information gap, games, pair work, learning by teaching are examples of activities typical of the Communicative Approach. TRUE
23) At around 3 months babies begin to babble – they produce vocalizations that try to reflect
the characteristics of the language they hear FALSE
24) At the end of their first year children understand frequently repeated words, produce a word or two TRUE
25. Homo erectus shows first changes in the anatomy that made it possible to produce various sounds. False ( poprawna odp Australopithecus)
26. Australopithecus had skulls and speech organs like ours, complex tools showing regional variation, biologically the same as today’s humans. False ( poprawna odp Modern Homo sapiens)
27. A small horseshoe-shaped bone suspended in the muscles of our neck, like a piece of fruit trapped in Jell-O is called a larynx. False ( poprawna odp Hyoid bone)
28. The larynx drop happened about the same time as the appearance of the hyoid bone. True
29) In human infants, the larynx sits up high in the nasal cavity like a snorkel, so babies can’t drink and breathe at the same time. FAŁSZ
30) Dyslexia is due to either lack of intelligence or desire to learn. FAŁSZ
What are behaviourists’ views on learning the first language?
Children imitate and practise the language produced around them
The imitation is reinforced through parents’ praise or successful communication
Habits of „correct” language use are formed
The quality and quantity of the language the child hears as well as the consistency and the intensity of the reinforcement influence the child’s language behaviour.
Imitation:
Word for word repetition of all or part of someone else’s utterance:
e.g.
Mum: „Shall we play with the puffer train?”
Child: „Play with puffer train! Puffer train!”
Practice:
repetitive manipulation of form:
e.g.
Mum: „See, puffer trains have wheels.”
Child: „Puffer train have wheels. And car have wheels. They both have wheels.”
30% - 40% of children’s speech are imitations of what someone has just said
Children imitate words and structures that are just beginning to appear in their speech
The imitation is structured (methodical)
The choice of what to imitate is based on sth new they have just begun to understand and use.
What is “the logical problem” of language acquisition?
„The logical problem of language aquisition: children come to know more about the structure of their language than they could reasonably be expected to learn on the basis of the samples of language they hear”. Many researchers have been working to explain the matter. There is for example theory which says that the ability to learn language is in human brain in a shape of “universal grammar”, another claims that it’s environment which influence our brain to use language. A 100% true is only one: children have an ability to create new forms and structures, even if they haven’t heard them before.
3. Give 3 examples of children’s creativity in language use.
Patterns:
e.g.
Mum: „I think we need to take you to the doctor.”
Child: „Can she doc my head?”
Unfamiliar formulas
e.g.
Adult guest at a party: „I’d like to propose a toast!”
Child: „I’d like to propose a piece of bread!”
Question formation
e.g.
„Are dogs can wiggle their tails?”
„Are those are my boots”
„Are this is hot?”
Order of events
e.g.
„You took all the towels away because I can’t dry my hands.”
What are innatists’ views on learning the first language?
„The logical problem of language aquisition: children come to know more about the structure of their language than they could reasonably be expected to learn on the basis of the samples of language they hear”
Noam Chomski (1959),
The logical problem:
e.g. a) John saw himself.
b) *Himself saw John.
c) Looking after himself bores John.
d) John said that Fred liked himself.
e) *John said that Fred liked himself.
f) John told Bill to wash himself.
g) *John told Bill to wash himself.
h) John promised Bill to wash himself.
i) John believes himself to be intelligent.
j) *John believes that himself is intelligent.
K) John showed Bill a picture of himself
All human languages are fundamentally innate (shapes and slots)
The input from environment (speech) makes only a basic contribution – the biological programming does the rest
Language develops in the same way as other biological functions e.g. walking, seeing (animal instincts, critical period hypothesis, feral/wild children: Victor,12, 1779 and Genie, 13, 1997, deaf children/parents)
The same universal principles underlie all languages (Universal Grammar)
5 Explain the concept of the Critical Period in language acquisition.
critical period- the time of specialization of the left hemisphere for language which happens in early childhood. The language acquisition then takes place. If a child doesn’t acquire language during that period, he will find it difficult to learn it later on.
Evidence supporting critical period hypothesis comes from feral children who failed to develop language after being deprived of early linguistic input. The most famous cases are Genie and Victor of Aveyron .
6.Give evidence supporting the concept of Universal Grammar.
Universal grammar – evidence:
-Universality of complex language
-grammar in action : pidgins and creoles
-mental disability:SLI
-children brought up in different environments
Universal grammar by Greenberg:
-lexical categories(noun,verb)
-structure dependency (SVO, OVS, VSO)
-phrase structure consisting of Head, Specifier, Complement.
-recurent structures(phrases containing a Headof the same type as the phrase)
Universal grammar by Chomsky:
-People know which sentences are grammatically well formed in their native language
-they have this knowledge also of previously unheared sentences
-so they must rely on mentally represented rules and not only on memory
-the final rules of a language depend on a set of universal rules : principles (true for all languages) and parameters(features specific for the particular language e.g. omission of the subject)
-grammar is generative : finite set of words can generate an infinite number of sentences
-the inborn grammar system specifies all possible patterns
7.Explain the term Generative Grammar.
generative grammar refers to a particular approach to the study of syntax. A generative grammar of a language attempts to give a set of rules that will correctly predict which combinations of words will form grammatical sentences. Generative grammar originates in the work of Noam Chomsky, beginning in the late 1950s. The ability to acquire set of rules (co generative grammar) is most probably uniquely human. Generative grammar is recursive, which means that any output of application of rules can be the input for subsequent application of the same rule.
It consists of 4 elements:
-a limited number of nonterminal signs(word classes labels as noun…)
-a beginning sign
-a limited number of terminal sign
-a finite set of rules
Give arguments criticizing innatists’ views on learning the first language.
Chomskyan linguists rely heavily on the intuitions of native speakers regarding which sentences of their languages are well-formed. Language of the Pirahã people of the northwestern rainforest of Brazil resists Chomsky's theories of generative grammar.
9 Give arguments supporting interactionists’ views on learning the first language.
Learning a language is basically improving the strength of your network's connections.
If the connections between the words are stronger, you should be a better speaker, because you can more easily come up with antonyms, synonyms and other related words.
Name the main principles of the Grammar-Translation Method of teaching a second or foreign language.
(i) Translation interprets the words and phrases of the foreign languages in the best possible manner.
(ii) The phraseology and the idiom of the target language can best be assimilated in the process of interpretation.
(iii) The structures of the foreign languages are best learnt when compared and contrast with those of mother tongue.
Name The main principles of the Audiolingual Method of teaching a second or foreign language.
New material is presented in the form of a dialogue. Based on the principle that language learning is habit formation, the method fosters dependence on mimicry, memorization of set phrases and over-learning. Structures are sequenced and taught one at a time. Structural patterns are taught using repetitive drills. Little or no grammatical explanations are provided; grammar is taught inductively. Skills are sequenced: Listening, speaking, reading and writing are developed in order. Vocabulary is strictly limited and learned in context. Teaching points are determined by contrastive analysis between L1 and L2. There is abundant use of language laboratories, tapes and visual aids.There is an extended pre-reading period at the beginning of the course. Great importance is given to precise native-like pronunciation. Use of the mother tongue by the teacher is permitted, but discouraged among and by the students. Successful responses are reinforced; great care is taken to prevent learner errors. There is a tendency to focus on manipulation of the target language and to disregard content and meaning.
12. Name the main principles of the Natural Approach to teaching a second or foreign language.
Conscious learning operates only as a monitor or editor that checks or repairs the output of what has been acquired. (The monitor hypothesis)
Grammatical structures are acquired in a predictable order and it does little good to try to learn them in another order.(The natural order hypothesis).
People acquire language best from messages that are just slightly beyond their current competence. (The input hypothesis)
The learner's emotional state can act as a filter that impedes or blocks input necessary to acquisition. (The affective filter hypothesis)
13. Name the main principles of the Communicative Approach to teaching a second or foreign language.
An emphasis on learning to communicate through interaction in the target language.
The introduction of authentic texts into the learning situation.
Providing opportunities for learners to focus, not only on language but also on the Learning Management process.
An enhancement of the learner’s own personal experiences
An attempt to link classroom language learning with language activities outside the classroom.
14. Name the main principles of Content Based Instruction as a method of teaching a second or foreign language.
Build on students' educational background and personal experiences based on the topic of literature
Help students comprehend the meaning that the author tries to convey in order to enhance their reading ability
Provide the opportunities for peer cooperative learning
Enhance students' critical thinking and judgmental abilities
Develop students' oral fluency by asking questions and sharing their feedback
Develop students' writing ability by writing an essay or comments related to the topic of the literature
15. Name the main principles of Problem-Based Learning as a method of teaching a second or foreign language.
Each class introduces a problem that must be solved in a colaborative way
Problems used in PBL are ill-structured, that is, they do not have clear-cut, absolute answers
They are also relevant to the learners' situations
They require learners to explore resources other than the teacher, including reference materials and community members, and to draw on knowledge from various subject areas such as mathematics, geography, and science.
During the inquiry process they need to use language to obtain and communicate information, express opinions, and negotiate, as they would in real life situations
They develop vocabulary, learn rules of grammar and conventions of social language use, they construct an understanding of language as it is used in real- world contexts
teachers need to ask questions such as: Why? What do you mean? and How do you know that is true? The purpose is to challenge the students' reasoning.
16. Name and characterize the four basic factors that need to be taken into account while constructing your own theory of SLA for a given environment.
Learner characteristic (age; ethnic, cultural, religious, linguistic and educational background; native language; socioeconomic situation; life experiences, goals; intellectual capacities, abilities, strengths and weaknesses; language aptitude; personality; motivation)
Linguistic factors (systematising the language; understanding and explaining the systems of a target language; first language interference)
Learning processes (understanding how learning takes place; learning strategies; importance of frequency of input, attention to form and meaning; memory, storage and recall processes; interrelationship of cognitive affective and physical domains)
Learning context („natural” environment vs classroom teaching; the teacher; the institution; amount of time spent learning; methodological approaches; textbooks; materials
17. Describe the development of the first language over the first 2 years of a child’s life.
Can name a number of objects common to his surroundings
Is able to use at least two prepositions, usually chosen from the following: in, on, under
Combines words into a short sentence-largely noun-verb combinations (mean) length of sentences is given as 1.2 words
Approximately 2/3 of what child says should be intelligible
Vocabulary of approximately 150-300 words Rhythm and fluency often poor
Volume and pitch of voice not yet well-controlled
Can use two pronouns correctly: I, me, you, although me and I are often confused
My and mine are beginning to emerge
Responds to such commands as "show me your eyes (nose, mouth, hai
18. Describe the syntactic development of the first language in the third year of a child’s life.
By 3 years, children usually have difficulty using words correctly. Children experience many problems such as underextensions, taking a general word and applying it specifically (for example, 'blankie')and overextensions, taking a specific word and applying it too generally (example, 'car' for 'van'). However, children coin words to fill in for words not yet learned (for example, someone is a cooker rather than a chef because a child will not know what a chef is). Children can also understand metaphors.
19. Describe the interview technique called BSM.
BSM Models and Techniques
BSM techniques reviewed here are based on cognitive-behavioral models that attribute self-directed learning and behavioral self-control (BSC) to the reactive effects of cognitive factors, such as awareness and self-talk, and behavioral factors, such as antecedents, observable actions, and consequences. In 1973, Glynn, Thomas, and Shee proposed a four-component model of BSC: (a) self-assessment (e.g., covert questions about performance, such as “Am I on-task?”); (b) self-recording (e.g., overt responses to self-assessment questions, such as checking yes or no on a self-recording form); (c) self-determination of reinforcement (i.e., specifying types, amounts, and schedules of reinforcement); and (d) self-administration of reinforcement (i.e., delivering reinforcement contingent on performance). The first two components in this BSC model comprise self-monitoring, which can be cued covertly (i.e., student reminds self) or overtly (e.g., via tape-recorded audio cues). Meichenbaum (1977) described another traditional BSC component, self-verbalization or self-instruction, in which students talk themselves through a task (e.g., studying, “Look at the first word, say and spell it. Car, c-a-r.”).In the 1980s, the term BSM replaced the term BSC. Researchers and practitioners reported that BSM skills were necessary for self-determination, whereby individuals with disabilities have “the capacity to choose and to have those choices be the determinants of one’s actions”. Researchers have developed additional BSM components, such as: (a) self-graphing, whereby students obtain on-going feedback by charting results soon after they perform a task (DiGangi, Maag, & Rutherford, 1991; McDougall & Brady, 1998); (b) self-evaluation, whereby students judge the quality of their own performance (Grossi & Heward, 1998); and (c) video self-modeling (VSM), whereby students view videotaped images of themselves performing tasks and, thereby, serve as their own model.
20 Compare the order of acquisition of grammatical morphemes in the first and second/foreign language
First language:
- present progressive –ing (Mommy running)
plural –s (two books)
Irregular past forms (Baby went)
Possessive ‘s (Daddy’s hat)
Copula (Annie is happy)
Articles the and a
Regular past –ed (She walked)
Third person singular simple present - s (She runs)
Auxiliary be (He is coming)
SECOND LANGUAGE:
1: plural -s
2: progressive -ing
3: copula be
4: auxiliary be
5: article
6: irregular past tense
7: third person singular present tense -s
8: possessive -’s
21 compare the acquisition of question formation in the first and second/foreign language
FIRST LANGUAGE
Stage 1: Single words or two – three word sentences with rising intonation ‘Cookie? ‘ Mummy book?’; some correct questions learned as chunks ‘ Where’s daddy?’
Stage 2: declarative sentence with rising intonation ‘You like this?’ ‘I have some?’
Stage 3: fronting appears ‘Can I go?’ but errors are frequent ‘Is the teddy is tired?’ ‘Why you catched it?’
Stage 4: fronting with more variety of auxiliaries , adding the auxiliary ‘do’ ‘Do dogs like ice cream?’, no inversion in Wh- questions unles they are formulaic
Stage 5: both Wh- and Yes/No questions formed correctly, errors in negative questions still appear ‘Why the teddy can’t go outside?’
Stage 6: All question types formed correctly including complex embeded questions
THE SECOND
Stage 1 A dog?
Stage 2 The boys throw the shoes?
Stage 3 What the dog are playing?
Is the picture has two planets on top?
Stage 4 Where is the sun?
Stage 5 How do you say [proche]?
Stage 6 It’s better, isn’t it?
Why can’t you go?
Can you tell me what the date is today?
22 compare the acquisition of negation in the first and second/foreign language
FIRST LANGUAGE
Stage 1: The word No. (used alone or as the first word in an utterance ‘No cookie.’ ‘No comb hair’
Stage 2: In longer sentences negative word ‘no’ appears before the verb ‘Daddy no comb hair’; rejection and prohibition expressed with ‘don’t’ ‘Don’t touch that!’
Stage 3: Forms of the negative other than ‘no’ in more complex sentences following the correct English word order but the same form in all persons ‘I cant do it’ ‘He don’t want it’.
Stage 4: Correct forms of auxiliary verbs but double negatives still possible ‘You didn’t have supper’, ‘She doesn’t want it’ ‘I don’t have no more candies’
SECOND LANGUAGE
Stage 1 No bicycle.
No have any sand.
I no like it.Stage 2 He don’t like it.
I don’t can sing.Stage 3 You can not go there.
He was not happy.
She don’t like rice.Stage 4 It doesn’t work.
We didn’t have supper.
I didn’t went there23. Give 3 possible reasons why language emerged.
1) God
2) Natural selection(multiplication, variation and heredity -> replication enhancing traits: adaptations; the ancestors' birth and death rate is the explanation for the organism's engineering design)
3) A by-product of a bigger brain
4) Luck/ coincidence ( genetic drift)
24. Explain how evolution has equipped human beings for speech.
- Hyoid bone
- Low larynx
- Adaptation of the brain:
+ adequate mass
+ functional organization:
* Brocka's area
* Wernick's area
25. What does brain size have to do with the production of speech?
Broca’s area – is located in left hemisphere. It plays a significant role in language production.
•Broca’s aphasia makes patient unable to create grammatically-complex sentences. Patients are usually aware that they cannot speak properly. Comprehension in Broca's aphasia is relatively normal.
Wernicke’s area- is located in the left hemisphere . It is involved in the understanding of written and spoken language.
Wernicke's aphasia:
speech that has a relatively normal syntax but is largely meaningless.
Other areas involved in language are those surrounding the Sylvian fissure, a cleavage line separating the portions of the brain that are exclusively human from those we share with other animals. In general, the areas that control language would be adjacent to one another if the human brain was laid out as a flat sheet.
26. Name, describe and characterize the areas of brain responsible for language
The enlargement of Broca’s area most probably provided the mental constructional skills which characterise human communication behaviours.
Most studies of Broca’s area in human brains have concluded that it is larger on the left side than the right, which seems to correlate with the finding that 94% of right-handers do most of their speech and language processing on the left sides of their brains. Scientists had long assumed that this asymmetrical enlargement of Broca’s area in humans was key to language abilities. Many brain experts define Broca’s area as two adjacent regions, which have been associated respectively with the verbal production of speech and giving meaning to speech.
27.Explain the difference between pigin-like communication to a creole-like language.
A pidgin is “ a language with a reduced range of structure and use, with NO native speakers.” It grows up among people who do not share a common language but who want to communicate with each other.
A creole is “a pidgin which has become the mother tongue of a community,” and therefore has native speakers.28.What is SLI?
SLI (Specific Language Impairment) is a disorder which delays language development in children. Children with this disorder talk much later than other children, and they struggle with many basic concepts in language. Specific language disorder can impair a child's ability to understand language, and a child's ability to communicate.
29) What is dyslexia?
Dyslexia is a brain-based type of learning disability that specifically impairs a person's ability to read. Common characteristics among people with dyslexia are difficulty with phonological processing (the manipulation of sounds) and/or rapid visual-verbal responding. Students with dyslexia usually also experience difficulties with other language skills such as spelling, writing, and pronouncing words.
30) Name at least 3 problems dyslectic students have:
remembering the sounds or phonemes of the new language,
• repeating sounds, words, phrases or sentences that are provided by the teacher or through an audiotape or computer
• breaking down words of more than one syllable, such as words with prefixes and suffixes, or compound words
• reading and spelling multisyllabic words
• recognizing common spelling patterns across words
• understanding and applying grammatical rules, such as forming plurals and possessives and using proper word order, esp. when these rules are different from the native language
• comprehending spoken language even when it is spoken slowly
• hearing and then recognizing a word in writing
31) What aspects of meaning does G. Leech identify?
meaning is defined as something that is conveyed or signified; sense or significance
Leech says that meaning can best be studied as a linguistic phenomenon in its own right, not as something ‘outside language’.
this means we investigate what it is to ‘know a language’ semantically, e.g. to know what is involved in recognizing relations of meaning between sentences, and in recognizing which sentences are meaningful and which are not.
He recognizes 7 types of meanings of words: conceptual meaning, connotative meaning, social meaning, affective meaning, collocative meaning, reflected meaning and thematic meaning.
32) Explain the word “categorical” in the expression “categorical perception of speech sounds”
Categorical perception is involved in processes of perceptual differentiation. We perceive speech sounds categorically, that is to say, we are more likely to notice the differences between categories (phonemes) than within categories. The perceptual space between categories is therefore warped, the centers of categories (or "prototypes") working like a sieve or like magnets for incoming speech sounds. We hear speech sounds such as [p], [t], [k], [i], [a], [u].
33) How can you improve your memory for foreign language?
- by using mind maps to assist with memory and creativity whereby one idea or word is then expanded to its next idea or word
- first by learning the sound of the word, the phonetics (phonemes), then the components of the word, the root, prefix and suffix and then connecting these words to other words we have previously learnt (e.g. a serious disease, heart disease etc)
- we need to exercise our memory, e.g. when it comes to learning vocabulary – the key is actually frequent use and exposure – via flash cards, writing it down a hundred times, screaming it out loud or constant repeating
34) Name 3 functions of language.
a) Informative language function: essentially, the communication of information
b) Expressive language function: reports feelings or attitudes of the writer (or speaker), or of the subject, or evokes feelings in the reader (or listener)
c) Directive language function: language used for the purpose of causing (or preventing) overt action
35) Summarize briefly Ferdinand de Saussure’s idea of the nature of meaning
For him, language is a complex system composed of numerous interrelated elements. In "Nature of the Linguistic Sign," Saussure specifies some of these elements, including sign, signifier and
signified. What he defines as a "sign" unites a concept with a sound-image. The sound-image is not precisely an actual sound that is spoken, but the "psychological imprint of the sound, the impression that it makes on our senses." The integral yet opposition relationship of the sound-image and concept may perhaps be clearer by identifying these two by other terms: the signifier and the signified. If it has meaning, the signifier or sound-image indicates a signified or concept. Although the relationship of signifier and signified is arbitrary, the meaningfulness of the sign is not: it is determined by and contributes to the linguistic string -- system of signs -- of which it is a part. All of these elements -- sign, signifier, signified, sound-image, symbol, etc. -- make it clear to Saussure that language is a complex and sophisticated linguistic system.
36) Name 3 main followers of pragmatist verification and briefly describe their beliefs.
1) William James
William James's version of the pragmatic theory is often summarized by his statement that "the 'true' is only the expedient in our way of thinking, by this meaning that truth is a quality the value of which is confirmed by its effectiveness when applying concepts to actual practice (thus, "pragmatic"). James's pragmatic theory is a synthesis of correspondence theory of truth and coherence theory of truth, with an added dimension. Truth is verifiable to the extent that thoughts and statements correspond with actual things, as well as "hangs together," or coheres, fits as pieces of a puzzle might fit together, and these are in turn verified by the observed results of the application of an idea to actual practice.
2) John Dewey
Although Dewey referred to his philosophy as "instrumentalism" rather than pragmatism, he was one of the three major figures in American pragmatism, along with Charles Sanders Peirce, who invented the term, and William James, who popularized it. Dewey worked from strongly Hegelian influences, he stated that value was a function not of whim nor purely of social construction, but a quality situated in events ("nature itself is wistful and pathetic, turbulent and passionate."
3) Charles_Sanders_Peirce
Peirce (CP 5.11–12), like James (Pragmatism: A New Name for Some Old Ways of Thinking, 1907), saw pragmatism as embodying familiar attitudes, in philosophy and elsewhere, elaborated into a new deliberate method for fruitful thinking about problems. Peirce differed from James and the early John Dewey, in some of their tangential enthusiasms, in being decidedly more rationalistic and realistic, in several senses of those terms, throughout the preponderance of his own philosophical moods.
37) How do children construct the meaning of language?
From the beginning of live, a child constructs the meaning through dialogues with others, then he begins the transition to systematic symbolic construction and achieves the semiotic freedom of construing meanings into systems. This choice of meaning is the essential characteristic of protolanguage. The second major transition is from protolanguage into language, which includes grammar. The basic form of information is turning shared experience into meaning. Conversation evolves as the joint construal of shared experience, whereby phenomena accessible to both parties' consciousness are turned into meanings through dialogue. In the course of time the child discovers that language can take the place of shared experience. In early child language development, narrative is a form of dialogue, verbalization of shared experience so it can become part of a shared construction of reality. Examples are drawn from interactions of a young child with his parents.
38) Name 3 main features of child directed speech.
- the prosodic features with higher pitch and exaggerated intonation patterns of the mother′s speech
- the complexity features like shorter utterances, the use of many questions, many commands and very little past tense forms
- the redundancy features including the use of specific words, repetitions of words, parts of a sentence and utterances, as well as expansions
39) Name 3 main functions of child directed speech.
- enables communication and makes it easier for an infant
- contributes to transmission of language and the knowledge about language
- is a chief instrument of socialization
40) Define “speech acts” and briefly characterize their role in first and second language acquisition.
A speech act is a minimal functional unit in human communication, e.g. a greeting: "Hi, Eric. How are things going?" or a request: "Could you pass me the mashed potatoes, please?"
Halliday (1975), Dore (1975,1977) and Bruner (1975,1978) have examinated the development of speech acts in young children (before one year of age) and concluded that knowledge of communicative function precedes true language. Dore in particular argues that the speech act is the basic unit of linguistic communication and the early language development consists of the child’s pragmatic intentions gradually becoming grammaticalized. Bruner stresses the importance of mother-child interaction and finds this related to the progression in the kinds of requests made by children. Why should foreign langauge students learn to perform speech acts? When second language learners engage in conversations with native speakers, difficulties may arise due to their lack of mastery of the conversational norms involved in the production of speech acts.
41) Define the idea of “priming”.
Priming is the implicit memory effect in which exposure to a stimulus influences response to a later stimulus. It can occur following perceptual, semantic, or conceptual stimulus repetition. It happens, for example, that if a person reads a list of words including the wordtable, and is later asked to complete a word starting with tab, the probability that they will answer table is greater than if not so primed.
42) Name 3 differences in the understanding of language by Plato and Aristotle.
Plato (naturalist)
Language was created by gods (it is perfect and unchangeable)
Words reflect nature (they are ideal)
Sound symbolism (sounds in words are meaningful)
Aristotle (conventionalist)
Language was created by people (it can be changed)
It was created on the basis of an agreement (convention)
Words are not ideal
43) What’s the role of memory in First Language Acquisition?
Language acquisition has to be stored in memory, in order for us to speak – know what to speak, the context and how to speak (putting words in relevant order). We use different kinds of memory functions for different use of our language acquisition:
the sensory memory concerns with senses, relevant to language acquisition – memorizing by the hearing system, also known as the echoic memory; when information travels through the brains and gets interpreted
the short-term memory is used for chunking the material that we have received – such as for studying for a test or reading a text – how much can we remember out of what we read?
the long-term memory is used for storing unlimited information; sugessted mainly to encode meaning, in the sense that we use the long-term memory to make sense out of what we talk
44) Compare the views 2 philosophers of language from the period of Middle Ages.
Anselm of Canterbury follows Augustine’s view of the language as a system of signs. He explains the sense of his theory in three basic categories: name, verb and statement. According to him, common names are signifying common natures, and proper names – the common nature in combination with distinctive features. Adjectives may signify their subjects as well as their qualities by means of direct and indirect signification. Anselm subscribes to the Aristotle’s idea of verbs signifying something connected with time – past or future. Verbs may signify either actions or ‘doings’ of some types, including even passive processes. Statement is an abstract item that carries the truth or falsity. A given statement ought to signify what it was designed to express, and, if assertoric (stating the fact), it ought to signify the world the way it really is.
The idea of Thomas of Erfurt’s De modi significandi referred to the different ways in which a word or expression is able to signify something. Words themselves are the product of a primary act of imposition by which a particular utterance is connected to some thing or property of a thing. The word acquires its modi significandi through a second act of imposition encoding all of the general syntactic roles it can play in connection with other words and expressions, i.e., the various parts of speech it can fulfill (e.g., noun, verb, adverb) and the grammatical forms of these parts (e.g., the gender, number, and case of nouns; the tense and mood of verbs).
45) Briefly describe the contribution of Thrax and Panini to the body of knowledge on language.
1. Thrax
According to Dionysius Thrax (a Hellenistic grammarian, who probably created the first book of grammar in Europe -“Art of Grammar”) Grammar is the empirical knowledge of the expressions commonly used among poets and prose-writers. This definition reflects the intrinsic ties between grammar and poetics.
2. Panini – a Hindu monk who is considered to be the first phonetician in the history of linguistics.
He is known for his Sanskrit grammar, particularly for his formulation of the 3,959 rules of Sanskrit morphology, syntax and semantics. Sanskrit – a classical language of India, it was believed that only by perfect pronunciation the prayers would be heard.
46) Why is thinking without words controversial?
Some philosophers hold that creatures incapable of communication by language are also incapable of thought, whereas they are, since their decision-making involves both
structured representations and instrumental reasoning about the consequences of
actions
The notion of ‘thinking without words’ is controversial because, assuming that nonlinguistic creatures can think, it is not obvious that their thinking differs in kind from ours; and even if their thinking does differ in kind from ours, it is not obvious that this has anything to do with language (in fact, their thinking is more limited than ours)
47) What is J. Wilkins’s contribution to the theory of language?
John Wilkins wrote “An Essay towards a Real Character, and a Philosophical Language” (1668), in which he describe a universal language he designed to facilitate scientific communication and trade and reduce religious misunderstanding. In the universal language which he invented, each word is defined by itself. Wilkins continued the work began by Descartes involving a language of figures. He divided the universe into forty categories or genera, subdivided into differences, each subdivided into its own species. To every genus he assigned a monosyllable of two letters; for every difference, a consonant; for every species, a vowel. The words in the Analytic Language of John Wilkins are not awkwardly created arbitrary symbols; every one of its letters is significant.
48) What are the main assumptions of “less is more” hypothesis?
Less is more theory was created by Elissa Newport. She posits that children are better able to learn languages than adults. The theory explains that in the beginning stages of language learning, limited input helps children learn language.
“Less is more” idea is used to explain the ease with which children can acquire language. It might also help to explain the ease with which people form stereotypes (but only when those stereotypes are actually true).49) Name 2 differences between formal and informal language learning environments.
Formal learning environment
often characterised as a classroom in which students are taught by teachers; it is training or learning department who sets the goals; it involves some kind of studial activity on the part of the learner – for example an attempt to learn about the language by obtaining information about explicit rules of grammar
Informal learning environment
it is often characterized as unorganized, unsystematic, and regularly unintentional; described as the lifelong process by which people acquire and accumulate knowledge skills, attitudes and insights gathered from a lifetime of experiences; it is the learner who sets the goals
50) Name 2 factors that might trigger second language attrition.
psychological factors, which are dependent from the individual learner and divided into biological and cognitive aspects
sociopsychological factors, as the attitude towards the target language and culture and aligned with the motivation for acquiring the language
51) Define and give 2 examples of prosody in language use.
In linguistics, prosody is the rhythm, stress, and intonation of speech. Prosody may reflect various features of the speaker or the utterance:
the emotional state of the speaker, as in the form of the utterance (statement, question, or command); “Did you see what she had done?” (may be pronounced with rising tonation expressing astonishment or outrage
the presence of irony or sarcasm; emphasis, contrast, and focus; as in the sentence: “Thanks a lot, that soup tastes great without salt! (the sentence is pronounced with an intonation indicating sarcasm)