1. Evaluate the behaviorist views on the first language acquisition on the basis of what we know about this process today

• Behaviorists believed that learning of the first language is like any other learning and that it is a process of habit formation.

• They believed that children learn the language from their parents by means of imitation. They follow verbal habits, acquiring pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar and social patterns.

• Children don't have any predispositions; still, they learn the language by imitating the environment. They listen to people around them and try to imitate some sounds. They make mental connections. According to behaviorists whatever children learn comes from the environment. They can't learn anything that wouldn't come from the environment.

• They repeat sentences and produce other sentences by analogy.

However studies say that:

• Children don't repeat everything all the time, they're choosy - they repeat what's interesting, relevant, new, they produce forms that are original or with an error

• When they imitate, they omit parts of sentences which have no meaning (such as articles)

• They imitate functional items

• A lot of children's learning is not mechanical at all - they make up new items of language

According to Chomsky, however, a language can't be learned in a mechanical way because it's too complex:

• You don't have to learn the grammar structure to be able to learn it

• What you know is much more you're exposed to in your life

• Parents rather focus on what is true and untrue rather than grammatical and ungrammatical

2. How do children acquire their mother tongue? Discuss some theories you are familiar with

There are 3 theories on that: behaviorism, innatism and interactionism

According to behaviorism:

• Children learn the language from their parents by means of imitation. They follow verbal habits, acquiring pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar and social patterns.

• Children don't have any predispositions; still, they learn the language by imitating the environment. They listen to people around them and try to imitate some sounds. They make mental connections. According to behaviorists whatever children learn comes from the environment. They can't learn anything that wouldn't come from the environment.

• They repeat sentences and produce other sentences by analogy.

According to innatism:

• Children work on the available data (it is connected with LAD - a device which Chomsky came up with, which makes it possible for humans to learn a language)

• Child's inborn abilities are triggered by the environment.

• At some point children come up with a perfect language.

• A child comes to this world with some potential, some universal principles of language which are triggered from the outside (UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR - explains how children are able to use complex grammar structure)

It allows the child to develop competence in the language (competence: subconscious knowledge of what is possible in the language. It manifests itself in production. Unlimited number of sentences can be created from a certain number of grammar rules and vocabulary)

There is so called critical period (look it up in the notes)

According to interractionism:

• It emphasizes the role of the people talking to a child

• The human language develops on the basis of the interaction between the child and the caretakers

• There is a constant interplay between the child and the environment

• The crucial element - the modified input/language - adjusted to the level of the child

• Here-and-now vocabulary children can relate to

• Language used for communicative purpose, we usually speak clearly and slowly

• We modify intonation - children are very good in reading intentions

• Children pay attention to the meaning. Language is used to express the meaning which we acquire through interaction with the environment

• Language develops entirely from social action

3. Second language acquisition - is it similar or different from first language acquisition?

Factors to be taken into consideration when comparing L1 vs L2 acquisition:

1. Learner characteristics:

• Knowledge of another language - L1 acquirers don't have it. L2 learners have it.

• Cognitive maturity - L2 may or may not have it. L1 develop it with the lg

• Metalinguistic awareness - small children don't have it. Mature learners do. For example distinguishing between things and actions, grouping words, understanding and using metalanguage

• Knowledge of the world - all learners develop it. Ability to make connections from your schemata

• Nervousness about speaking - children don't have it. Adults do.

2. Learning conditions

• Freedom to be silent - L2 learners usually have no choice in most lessons

• Ample time (sufficient time) - L1 have all the time they need. L2 learners - limited by classes

• Corrective feedback - grammar Children don't get it. L2 learners do

• Corrective feedback - word choice Both children and L2 learners are corrected

• Modified input (a lg which is adjusted to the language level of a person)- Both children and L2 learners get modified input. In the classroom - teacher talk

Differences between L1 and L2 acquirers:

1. The L1 acquirer knows considerably less about the world and hence has only fairly basic things about the here-and-now to communicate (on-going experiences and feelings)

L2 learners have more complicated ideas they may want to communicate even when their L2 resources are inadequate for the job.

2. The L1 acquirer has little fear of making “mistakes”

3. L1 acquirers are highly motivated to communicate in their L1.

L2 learners may have very different levels of motivation in this respect.

4. L1 learners spend considerable time acquiring their mother tongue - they are surrounded by the language

5. The L1 acquirer will acquire native speaker status in the normal course of events.

6. L1 acquirers do not normally undergo grammatical instruction. Some L2 acquirers do

4. Child-adult differences in the process of acquiring a second language

Although both groups of learners are capable of acquiring a second language, the age factor creates very important differences in how this acquisition proceeds.

Children	Adults
Due to their psychological make-up children have a very short attention span and frequently change their interests, since they have not yet developed a lasting motivation to learn.	They usually have some kind of a goal and expectations related to the purpose of learning the language.
Their enthusiasm is short-lived: it may be raised easily but lost very quickly. In the school context they may eventually base their motivation on an external obligation.	Since adults usually learn languages voluntarily, they tend to have more stable motivation and are self-disciplined.
They have no negative attitudes towards learning and languages (and the culture that comes with it).	They may have certain inhibitions as a result of earlier experience, e.g. e.g. the fear of ridicule and failure. They have developed their learning style and deep-seated beliefs about their own abilities.
Children have little experience and knowledge of the world, which leads to worse understanding of complex semantic or grammatical relations. They are usually exposed to simpler language and their understanding comes from what they can see, hear, touch and interact with. They take information form the surrounding and thus often learn indirectly. They do not analyze or investigate that much.	Adults have already developed their ways of conscious, analytical reasoning and are able to comprehend abstract notions or generalizations, which can be used in providing formal explanation of grammar. They tend to over-intellectualize.
Their interest is enticed by engaging the mind and the body alike. They benefit form the use of educational game-based procedures, which bring together the enjoyment of playing and the productivity of language practice.	Interest comes form the content and its purposefulness. Adults are more willing to use textbooks providing formal rules and exercises. They do, however, value discussions, etc.
Most children are keen to talk about themselves and compete with others.	Adults may choose to stay anonymous and see themselves as individuals. Yet, they are able to cooperate if needed.
They are good at learning pronunciation (flexible speech organs)	Teaching pronunciation, which is more demanding for adults, whose speech organs are less flexible and used to native speech
Younger children lack certain skills that facilitate learning (e.g. cannot write).	Having the ability to read and write, adults may broaden and test their knowledge in a written form.
Habitual learning is to some extent involved at this stage of development	Drill may seem childish and discouraging.
Children fill less pressure to learn against the time.	Adults are limited by time.
They are easily fatigued, so a balance between stirring activities and calming activities must be maintained.	Their intellectual powers may be diminishing with age, e.g. hearing problems.
The teacher is not so much the provider of knowledge or a partner in gaining it but an authority they can rely on, also emotionally. The teacher is thus both an instructor and a caretaker	The teacher's authority is based on knowledge, rather than on any official status of superiority. He is supposed to be an expert but also a partner in interaction. Adults may be critical of teaching methods and expect to be treated like clients.
Children pick the language quickly, but need systematic contact to retain the knowledge.	Generally, adults are less successful unless they put more time and effort.

5. Krashen's theory of second language acquisition. Is there an evidence supporting his views?

The Five Hypotheses of Krashen's Theory

1) Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis

This is the essential component to Krashen's theory. For this hypothesis, the term “learning” relates to specifically to language and refers to the ways in which “children develop first language competence” The acquisition aspect of this hypothesis is subconscious, while the learning portion is a conscious effort by the learner.

Language acquisition occurs subconsciously while participating in natural conversations or communications where the focus is on meaning.  The learning of a language occurs separately where grammar, vocabulary, and other rules about the target language are explicitly taught.  There is a focus on analyzing errors and correcting them.  The focus in the aspect of “learning” is not on the content or meaning of the conversation or book, but rather on the structure of the language.

2) Natural Order Hypothesis

This portion of the theory “states that students acquire (not learn) grammatical structures in a predicable order” with certain items being learned before others . This order seems to be independent of the learner's age, the conditions of exposure, and the background of the L1 development. According to Krashen, natural order patterns of second language acquisition do not follow those of the first language acquisition patterns. Nonetheless, there are patterns to L2 development.           

However, the L2 acquisition patterns of a child are very similar to the L2 learning patterns of an adult.  Krashen points out that “the existence of the natural order does not imply that we should teach second languages along this order, focusing on earlier acquired items first and acquired items later”

Basic elements of the language are taught first and then gradually progressed to the more complex elements. 

This is evident in learning verb conjugations, as well as in learning the different vocabulary and semantics.

In many ways, this approach to instruction may be helpful to many students.  It provides a strong foundation in language mechanics.  However, I think it may also hinder the student in that many times they may find themselves thinking about which rule to apply when speaking and this may often negatively affect the proficiency and flow of communication. At the same time, some one could argue that this is an example of the over use of the Monitor model.  In reality, both apply to this situation. 

3) Monitor Hypothesis

The Monitory Hypothesis of Krashen's theory proposes that there is a `monitor' which functions to help the person to, in essence, filter his/her language.  The person uses the monitor to apply rules to the already learned knowledge, such as which verb tense to use or which form of speech to use. Krashen (1994) explains that in order to use a monitor well, three factors must be met: (1) time; (2) focus on form; and (3) knowledge of the rules.

Krashen also proposes that the use of the Monitor varies among different people.  There are those who use it all of the time and are classified as “over-users”. There are also learners who either have not learned how to use the monitor or choose to not use it and they are identified as “under-users”. The group in between these ends of the spectrum are the “optimal users”.  These people use the Monitor appropriately and not to either extreme. A psychological profile of the language user is helpful to determine in what group they belong.

4) Input Hypothesis

The Input Hypothesis poses the concept represented by  i+1; where the i represents the “distance between actual language development” and  i+1 represents “the potential language development” The learner is unable to reach the i+1 stage without the assistance of others. 

There are three key elements to this hypothesis. First, language is acquired, not learned, by the learner receiving comprehensible input that has arrangements or structures just beyond the learner's current level of mastery (i+1).  Next, speech should be allowed to emerge on its own. There is usually a silent period and “speech will come when the acquirer feels ready. The readiness state arrives at different times for different people” It should not be taught directly and a period of grammatically incorrect speech is typical. Finally, the input should not deliberately contain grammatically programmed structures. “If input is understood, and there is enough of it, i+1 is automatically provided”

5) Affective Filter Hypothesis

Affective Filter - something which determines to what degree a person learns in a formal or an informal situation. Affect is defined as “the effect of personality motivation and other `affective variables' on second language acquisition” Krashen applies this theory to language learning and looks at its influences on the rate of second language acquisition in three areas: anxiety, motivation, and self-confidence.

           

If a learner has low anxiety, high motivation, or high self-confidence, s/he is said to have a low affective filter. This in turn assists with allowing in more information and providing a fertile venue for learning.  On the contrary, if a person has high anxiety, lower motivation, or a lower self-esteem, the affective filter will be higher and does not provide the learner with as many “subconscious language acquisition” (Krashen, 1994, p. 58) opportunities as that of a person with a low affective filter.

6. Discuss the notion of LAD. What implications does it have for language acquisition?

LAD - language acquisition device (Innatism, Chomsky)

He said it's a kind of device which makes it possible for humans to learn a language

What does it offer?

• Makes it possible to distinguish human language from other noises

• On this basis it can construct a system. It makes it possible to change and revise the system

• Arranging different events into classes - concept formation

How does LAD function?

It has to have input from the environment. It works on the data on the basis of which they form hypotheses - children work on the available data

Child's inborn abilities are triggered by the environment. (At some point children come up with the perfect language)

Learners develop competence using LAD and UG.

7. Discuss the concept of „critical (sensitive) period” Is there such period in second language acquisition? Explain.

Critical period (suggested by Lenneberg)

1. There is a certain limited time in child's language when the child can accomplish the task of developing the language subconsciously. It starts soon after birth and it finishes around puberty (12-14)

2. If we don't develop L1 around puberty, there may be some problems afterwards

3. There are 2 versions of this hypothesis - strong and weak version

Strong version	Weak version
If we don't do it until puberty we can't master it later	If we don't do I we will have problems afterwards and it will never be complete

Evidence coming from sign language - healthy children who were brought up in such families could develop normal language.

It is commonly believed that children are better suited to learn a second language than are adults. However, in general second language research has failed to support the critical period hypothesis in its strong form, which argues that full language acquisition is impossible beyond a certain age. Even those who begin learning a language late in life are capable of gaining a high level of fluency. The only aspect of language shown to follow the (strong) critical period hypothesis is accent: the overwhelming majority of those who begin learning a language after puberty are unable to acquire a native-like accent.

8. Is younger really better? What are the effects of age on second language acquisition

It is commonly believed that children are better suited to learn a second language than are adults. However, in general second language research has failed to support the critical period hypothesis in its strong form, which argues that full language acquisition is impossible beyond a certain age. Even those who begin learning a language late in life are capable of gaining a high level of fluency. The only aspect of language shown to follow the (strong) critical period hypothesis is accent: the overwhelming majority of those who begin learning a language after puberty are unable to acquire a native-like accent.

The theory has often been extended to a critical period for second language acquisition, although this is much less widely accepted. Certainly, older learners of a second language rarely achieve the native-like fluency that younger learners display, despite often progressing faster than children in the initial stages. In learning, a second language, "younger = better in the long run," but there are many exceptions, noting that five percent of adult bilinguals master a second language even though they begin learning it when they are well into adulthood — long after any critical period has presumably come to a close.

While the window for learning a second language never completely closes, certain linguistic aspects appear to be more affected by the age of the learner than others. For example, adult second-language learners nearly always retain an immediately-identifiable foreign accent, including some who display perfect grammar .Some writers have suggested a younger critical age for learning phonology than for syntax and that there is no critical period for learning vocabulary in a second language. Factors other than age may be even more significant in successful second language learning, such as personal motivation, anxiety, input and output skills, settings and time commitment.

Second-language learning is not necessarily subject to biological critical periods, but "on average, there is a continuous decline in ability [to learn] with age."

9. Contrastive analysis - does it have any role to play in the process of teaching?

Contrastive Analysis

- In its strong version introduced in the middle part of the 20^th c CA was believed to make it possible to predict learners difficulties. It was claimed that the principal barrier in L2 acquisition is the interference of L1 with the system of L2, and so a structural contrastive analysis of the two would enable linguists to make predictions of difficulties encountered by learners.

- According to the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis L2 learning=overcoming of the differences between L1 and the target lg.

- CA involved 4 basic procedures: description of the two lgs, selection of certain forms for contrast, the contrast itself and predictions of errors.

- Initially it was believed that similar elements are easily acquired while contrasting elements cause difficulties. These difficulties could be arranged in a hierarchy, depending on the nature of the difference. Then, however, it was noted that interference can actually be greater when items are similar in the two lgs (e.g. Markedness Differential Hypothesis: marked items are more difficult). Also, it was noted that learners with different native lgs sometimes commit the same errors.

- Less extreme versions of CA were eventually popularized. They do not imply degrees of difficulty but acknowledge that interference exists and can explain some difficulties. Predictions should not precede but follow the observation of difficulties. This led to the idea of interlanguage and to EA.

In its strongest formulation, the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis claimed that all the errors made in learning and L2 could be attributed to 'interference' by the L1. However, this claim could not be sustained by empirical evidence that was accumulated in the mid- and late 1970s. It was soon pointed out that many errors predicted by Contrastive Analysis were inexplicably not observed in learners' language. Even more confusingly, some uniform errors were made by learners irrespective of their L1.

It thus became clear that Contrastive Analysis could not predict learning difficulties, and was only useful in the retrospective explanation of errors.

10. What is the role of the learner's native language in the process of second language acquisition?

Several factors related to students' first and second languages shape their second language learning. The crucial concept is language transfer and categorization.

positive transfer is a positive influence of an L1 feature and supports L2 learning,

negative transfer (also called interference) is a negative influence of an L1 feature on L2 acquisition. It is not always a matter of similar/different. "False friends" is an example of negative transfer even though it involves similarity.

Categorization.

Every language divides the world into certain concepts or categories, and they are language specific. There is never a 100% overlap of categories between languages. The closer two language communities are culturally, the more overlap. We may perceive English as distant, but when you compare it with Chinese, you will observe relative closeness in terms of grammatical system, pronunciation or vocabulary, etc. English does have the concept of definiteness/indefiniteness marked much more evidently in its grammar system than Polish (not that it's totally absent - Polish definiteness: Butelka jest na stole. vs. Na stole jest butelka.) So in PL it is sometimes realized by means of word order whereas in English there is a separate item which carries that information

So an absence of a category is usually a problem for the learner and results in negative transfer. The same may be said about some sounds (mainly "th"or "ing"). But for the japanese a common pronunciation problem is distinction between "r" and "l". They do have both, but they are variants of one phoneme, so one appears in front of vowels while the other appears elsewhere (before consonants or at the end of a word). In other words they never appear in contrastive pairs as they do in English: level/lever, lip/rip, light/right. So in this case there is negative transfer of an L1 feature in the sense that Japanese learners use "l" instead of "r" (or the other way round) as they would in L1.

Some other factors include:

a) the linguistic distance between the two languages

When the L1 is in the same family of languages as L2, L2 is learned a lot easier.

Indo-European -> Germanic -> West Germanic -> English, German, Dutch

b) students' level of proficiency in the native language and their knowledge of the second language - The student's level of proficiency in the native language -- including not only oral language and literacy, but also metalinguistic development, training in formal and academic features of language use, and knowledge of rhetorical patterns and variations in genre and style -- affects acquisition of a second language. The more academically sophisticated the student's native language knowledge and abilities, the easier it will be for that student to learn a second language.

Students' prior knowledge of the second language is of course a significant factor in their current learning.

c) the dialect of the native language spoken by the students (i.e., whether it is standard or nonstandard)

Learners may need to learn a dialect and a formal register in school that are different from those they encounter in their daily lives. This involves acquiring speech patterns that may differ significantly from those they are familiar with and value as members of a particular social group or speech community.

4. the relative status of the students' language in the community, and societal attitudes toward the students' native language.

Language attitudes in the learner, the peer group, the school, the neighborhood, and society at large can have an enormous effect on the second language learning process, both positive and negative. It is vital that teachers and students examine and understand these attitudes. In particular, they need to understand that learning a second language does not mean giving up one's first language or dialect. Rather, it involves adding a new language or dialect to one's repertoire.

11. Discuss the concept of „learner language” and its significance for teaching

Learner language - a system developed by the learner on the way to the target language

• It's characteristic to him/her, it's both correct and incorrect. The incorrect forms may be incorrect in different ways

• A lot of errors made by the learners are developmental and are not the result of interference.

• They evolve in time

• Both children and adult follow a sequence in acquisition of grammar items in a foreign language. There is what might be called an “internal syllabus” - learners seem to be acquiring the language by the same kind of built syllabus

A number of studies have looked into the sequence of acquisition of pronouns by some learners. They show that learners begin by omitting pronouns or using them indiscriminately: for example, using "I" to refer to all agents. Learners then acquire a single pronoun feature, often person, followed by number and eventually by gender. Little evidence of interference from the learner's first language has been found; it appears that learners use pronouns based entirely on their inferences about target language structure.

Certain things are learned earlier than others - passive voice is acquired by the age of 5,6.

Whatever we learn has to be internalized and sank in.

A process of constructing the system in which learners are constantly testing hypotheses about the target language from a number of possible sources of knowledge:

1. limited knowledge of the target language itself

2. knowledge of the native language

3. knowledge of communicative functions of language

4. knowledge of the language in general

5. knowledge of life, human beings etc

Learner language is a system that is changing all the time. It is in a state of flux. While constructing the system, the learner is trying to deal with the linguistic chaos.

The learner goes through the process of trial and error; hypotheses, formation and testing.

The learner slowly succeeds in establishing the target system.

12. Where do errors come from? Explain how different theories of second language acquisition try to account for learner errors.

“Making of errors can be regarded as a device the learner uses in order to learn.”

Before 1960s, when the behaviouristic viewpoint of language learning was prevailing, learner errors were considered something undesirable and to be avoided. It is because in behaviourists perspectives, people learn by responding to external stimuli and receiving proper reinforcement. A proper habit is being formed by reinforcement, hence learning takes place. Therefore, errors were considered to be a wrong response to the stimulus, which should be corrected immediately after they were made. Unless corrected properly, the error became a habit and a wrong behavioural pattern would stick in your mind.

This viewpoint of learning influenced greatly the language classroom, where teachers concentrated on the mimicry and memorisation of target forms and tried to instill the correct patterns of the form into learners' mind. If learners made any mistake while repeating words, phrases or sentences, the teacher corrected their mistakes immediately. Errors were regarded as something you should avoid and making an error was considered to be fatal to proper language learning processes.

One of the hypotheses analyzing errors in Second Language Acquisition is Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis.

“The underlying assumption of CA was that errors occurred primarily as a result of interference when the learner transferred native language habits into L2. Interference was believed to take place whenever the `habits' of the native languages differed from those of the target language”

A number of people criticized the hypothesis in the 1970s. Jackson and Whitman claimed that predicted errors do not occur and that errors have nothing to do with the native language. Therefore, Ronald Wardhaugh came up with a weak version of Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis. It said that since only some errors can be traceable to transfer (especially among the students at lower levels of proficiency), Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis can be better used to explain rather than predict. He believed native language was not as influential as it seemed.

Since Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis looked primarily on the relationship between the learner's native language and the target language, there were further investigations conducted on learner errors.

Corder and his colleagues came up with Error Analysis. It was the starting point for the study of learner language and L2 acquisition. It resulted from non-contrastive approach to errors and the assumption that there are a lot of errors caused by the nature of the language.

Error Analysis has five stages, namely

• collection of a sample of learner language,

• identification of errors,

• description of errors,

• explanation of errors

• evaluation of errors.

Each stage was to serve as an aid to establish a view which errors teachers should pay more attention to. These stages made a lot of problems, because the judging criteria were not clear. For example, how should one assess `seriousness', `intelligibility' or `acceptability' of an error? The one clear conclusion was that the teachers should attend most carefully errors that interfere with communication. Despite the fact that Error Analysis is imperfect, it made a substantial contribution to Second Language Acquisition research.

“ It served as a tool for providing empirical evidence for the behaviorist/mentalist debates of the 1970s showing that many of the errors that learners make cannot be put down to interference. (…) Perhaps, above all, it helped to make errors respectable - to force recognition that errors were not something to be avoided but were an inevitable feature of the learning process”

Errors are a natural part of the language learning process and although their character changes with the progress of education, with regard to their origin they can be divided into

1) interlingual transfer

2) intralingual trasnfer

3) context of learning

4) communication strategy

1) Interlingual errors - caused by transfer - “the influence resulting from similarities and differences between the target language and any other language that has been previously ( and perhaps imperfectly) acquired”.Although transfer may have also a facilitating effect (positive transfer), when there is a negative interaction (negative transfer), the cross-linguistic influence results in errors.

Some specific types of errors due to transfer include:

• underproduction - producing few or no examples of a given structure in the target lg because it is different from those in L1 (avoidance),

• overproduction - using forms that are frequent in L1 with the same (but too high) frequency in the target lg;

• various production errors, e.g. substitutions of TL (target lg) forms with L1 forms; calcues, code-mixing, word order errors, etc.

2) Intralingual errors are independent of cross-linguistic differences. They appear within the target language itself and are caused by overgeneralization and simplification. In this case the learner has acquired some rules of the target language, but failed to notice exceptions or expanded the context, thus producing incorrect output.

Examples:

• simplification, e.g. omission of articles;

• overgeneralization, e.g. extension of articles to nouns that do not allow them;

3) Contextual errors - caused by the negative influence from the way a learner is taught - the transfer of training. Such false concepts (induced errors) may appear due to

• a misleading explanations from the teacher

• a faulty presentation of a structure or a word in a textbook,

• rote memorization by a drill without proper contextualization, etc.

• the use an inappropriate register, e.g. too formal language, unnecessarily promoted by the classroom context;

4) Communication strategy

Errors may occur as a result of the way learners have taught themselves, e.g. their use of L2 communication strategies, related to the learning style of an individual.

Errors resulting from the teaching received are easily fossilized - stable and immune to correction.

13. Discuss different types of errors.

From the Error Analysis:

1. Overgeneralization - you know the rule and you think it applies to everything, for example “broked”

2. Ignorance of rule restriction - using the rule when it doesn't apply “I made him to do it”

3. Incomplete application of rules “You read much?”

4. False concept hypothesis (“One day it was happened”)

Error can be classified according to basic type: omissive, additive, substitutive or related to word order.

They can also be classified by how apparent they are: overt errors such as "I angry" are obvious even out of context, whereas covert errors are evident only in context.

Errors of comprehension versus errors of production

Comprehension errors include both phonological mistakes and grammatical mistakes. A phonological mistake would be the spelling of the word physics as fyzics; a grammatical mistake would be transcribing Yesterday he worked as Yesterday he work. We can define spelling errors as those that would likely be made by a native speaker (e.g., receive/recieve)

errors of production

Speech errors provide insights into the workings of the language system.

(Freudian Slips: Speech errors caused by repressed intentions. Last night my grandmother (died) lied.)

Errors may also be classified according to the level of language: phonological errors, vocabulary or lexical errors, syntactic errors, and so on. They may be assessed according to the degree to which they interfere with communication: global errors make an utterance difficult to understand, while local errors do not. In the above example, "I angry" would be a local error, since the meaning is apparent.

14. List and discuss (in the order of importance) 5 factors that, in your opinion, are decisive about second language achievement (i.e. Are responsible for success or failure)

1. Motivation (p 66)

2. Language aptitude (p50) (if it happens that a learner has a talent it makes the learning process less painful and quicker, especially when other people notice this talent)

3. Attitudes (p 69)

4. Self-esteem (p 70)

5. Personality (p 73)

15. What is meant by „individual variation” in language learning?

Individual variation - Individual Differences between the learners (p 50)

16. Cognitive factors in language learning (p 52)

17. Affective factors in language learning (p 52)

Two types of learning may be distinguished on the basis of affective factors:

- defensive learning - learning is an external obligation in order to avoid some unpleasant consequences, e.g. punishment, withholding of rewards;

- receptive learning - the learner perceives the relevance of the material and is interested, open to the incoming instruction.

18. The role of motivation. How can the teacher motivate his/her students?

• Some Ideas for Motivating Students

1. Explain. Some recent research shows that many students do poorly on assignments or in participation because they do not understand what to do or why they should do it. Teachers should spend more time explaining why we teach what we do, and why the topic or approach or activity is important and interesting and worthwhile. In the process, some of the teacher's enthusiasm will be transmitted to the students, who will be more likely to become interested. Similarly, teachers should spend more time explaining exactly what is expected on assignments or activities. Students who are uncertain about what to do will seldom perform well.

2. Reward. Students who do not yet have powerful intrinsic motivation to learn can be helped by extrinsic motivators in the form of rewards. Rather than criticizing unwanted behavior or answers, reward correct behavior and answers. Remember that adults and children alike continue or repeat behavior that is rewarded. The rewards can (and should) be small and configured to the level of the students. Small children can be given a balloon, a piece of gum, or a set of crayons. Even at the college level, many professors at various colleges have given books, lunches, certificates, exemptions from final exams, verbal praise, and so on for good performance. Even something as apparently "childish" as a "Good Job!" stamp or sticker can encourage students to perform at higher levels. And the important point is that extrinsic motivators can, over a brief period of time, produce intrinsic motivation. Everyone likes the feeling of accomplishment and recognition; rewards for good work produce those good feelings.

3. Care. Students respond with interest and motivation to teachers who appear to be human and caring. Teachers can help produce these feelings by sharing parts of themselves with students, especially little stories of problems and mistakes they made, either as children or even recently. Such personalizing of the student/teacher relationship helps students see teachers as approachable human beings and not as aloof authority figures. Young people are also quite insecure, and they secretly welcome the admission by adults that insecurity and error are common to everyone. Students will attend to an adult who appears to be a "real person," who had problems as a youth (or more recently) and survived them.

It is also a good idea to be approachable personally. Show that you care about your students by asking about their concerns and goals. What do they plan to do in the future? What things do they like? Such a teacher will be trusted and respected more than one who is all business.

4. Have students participate. One of the major keys to motivation is the active involvement of students in their own learning. Standing in front of them and lecturing to them (at them?) is thus a relatively poor method of teaching. It is better to get students involved in activities, group problem solving exercises, helping to decide what to do and the best way to do it, helping the teacher, working with each other, or in some other way getting physically involved in the lesson. A lesson about nature, for example, would be more effective walking outdoors than looking at pictures.

Students love to be needed (just like adults!). By choosing several students to help the teacher (take roll, grade objective exams, research bibliographies or biographies of important persons, chair discussion groups, rearrange chairs, change the overhead transparencies, hold up pictures, pass out papers or exams) students' self esteem is boosted and consequently their motivation is increased. Older students will also see themselves as necessary, integral, and contributing parts of the learning process through participation like this. Use every opportunity to have students help you. Assign them homework that involves helping you ("I need some magazine illustrations of the emphasis on materialism for next week; would someone like to find one for me?").

5. Teach Inductively. It has been said that presenting conclusions first and then providing examples robs students of the joy of discovery. Why not present some examples first and ask students to make sense of them, to generalize about them, to draw the conclusions themselves? By beginning with the examples, evidence, stories, and so forth and arriving at conclusions later, you can maintain interest and increase motivation, as well as teach the skills of analysis and synthesis. Remember that the parable method of making a point has some significant historical precedent.

6. Satisfy students' needs. Attending to need satisfaction is a primary method of keeping students interested and happy. Students' basic needs have been identified as survival, love, power, fun, and freedom. Attending to the need for power could be as simple as allowing students to choose from among two or three things to do--two or three paper topics, two or three activities, choosing between writing an extra paper and taking the final exam, etc. Many students have a need to have fun in active ways--in other words, they need to be noisy and excited. Rather than always avoiding or suppressing these needs, design an educational activity that fulfills them.

Students will be much more committed to a learning activity that has value for them, that they can see as meeting their needs, either long term or short term. They will, in fact, put up with substantial immediate unpleasantness and do an amazing amount of hard work if they are convinced that what they are learning ultimately meets their needs.

7. Make learning visual. Even before young people were reared in a video environment, it was recognized that memory is often connected to visual images. In the middle ages people who memorized the Bible or Homer would sometimes walk around inside a cathedral and mentally attach certain passages to objects inside, so that remembering the image of a column or statue would provide the needed stimulus to remember the next hundred lines of text. Similarly, we can provide better learning by attaching images to the ideas we want to convey. Use drawings, diagrams, pictures, charts, graphs, bulleted lists, even three-dimensional objects you can bring to class to help students anchor the idea to an image.

It is very helpful to begin a class session or a series of classes with a conceptual diagram of the relationship of all the components in the class so that at a glance students can apprehend a context for all the learning they will be doing. This will enable them to develop a mental framework or filing system that will help them to learn better and remember more.

8. Use positive emotions to enhance learning and motivation. Strong and lasting memory is connected with the emotional state and experience of the learner. That is, people remember better when the learning is accompanied by strong emotions. If you can make something fun, exciting, happy, loving, or perhaps even a bit frightening, students will learn more readily and the learning will last much longer. Emotions can be created by classroom attitudes, by doing something unexpected or outrageous, by praise, and by many other means.

The day you come to class with a bowl on your head and speak as an alien observer about humans will be a day and a lesson your students will remember. Don't be afraid to embarrass yourself to make a memorable point.

9. Remember that energy sells. Think about these problems for a minute: Why would so many students rather see Rambo, Robocop, Friday the 13th, or another movie like that than one on the life of Christ? Why is rock music more popular with youth than classical music or Christian elevator music? Why is evil often seen as more interesting than good? The answer is connected with the way good and evil are portrayed. Unfortunately, evil usually has high energy on its side while good is seen as passive and boring. We've been trapped by the idea that "bad people do; good people don't." Good is passive, resistant, reactionary, while evil is proactive, energetic, creative.

Being energetic in your teaching is a motivating factor in itself; adding energy to the ideas you want to convey will further enhance learning and commitment to the ideas.

19. Humanistic psychology and its influence on the theory and practice of language

Theory

- Humanistic psychology, introduced by Karl Rogers, had a major impact on the theory and practice of language teaching, since it turned the focus away from teaching and focused on the learner and learning.

- It was a reaction to cognitive theories, which focused on human brain. Humanistic psychology is a whole-person theory. Humanists believe a person consists of 3 domains: cognitive, psychological and emotional.

- They stress the role of emotions (affective focus) because emotions are behind everything people do and so they decide about effectiveness, etc.

- An individual has an inborn ability to develop educationally and enhance his/her existence, but needs a non-threatening environment to do so.

- The role of education is to create the right conditions for learning, e.g. reducing stress, exciting interest. There is a hierarchy of needs (A. Maslow) which have to be satisfied in the 1^st place if learning is to take place, e.g. the need to feel warm and safe, the need to belong somewhere, etc.

- Also, learners should be prepared to accept and deal with the changes that accompany learning. Hence, learning how to learn is may be even more important than acquiring knowledge.

- The learner is responsible for learning (the autonomus learning approach).

- The teacher is a facilitator of the learning process (creates the right conditions), not a transmitter of knowledge.

- Two types of learning may be distinguished on the basis of affective factors:

- defensive learning - learning is an external obligation in order to avoid some unpleasant consequences, e.g. punishment, withholding of rewards;

- receptive learning - the learner perceives the relevance of the material and is interested, open to the incoming instruction.

The second type of learning should be promoted. It is meaningful as it uses associations to form a cognitive structure (as early as in 17^th c it was believed that “All is in all” - we should connect the background with the new knowledge). Receptive learning is more permanent, since it has a positive affective focus and the learner is willing to make more effort.

Practice

- Humanistic psychology was a drive for a new type of learner-centered methods - fringe methodologies.

- These methods emphasis the non-threatening atmosphere; most of them also emphasis communication (or at least meaningfulness) form the very beginning.

- Errors are seen as information about the learner. The methods are non-punitive and use gentle correction to make the learner notice the error.

- Some well-known fringe methodologies and their basic assumptions are:

- Community Language Learning (by Charles Curran) which had a psychotherapeutic basis. It was thought adults felt threatened by the language learning situation. Teachers should be counselors who make adults feel comfortable. Students should use the lg communicatively and learn about their own learning. All this should be achieved in a non-defensive manner, e.g. during the 1^st lesson students should get the feel of a community, so they sit in a circle, may use their native lg (Teacher is “the knower” and translates); they use the human computer exercise (teacher repeats the utterance but always correctly); teachers refer to learners' experience; learners grow independent, etc.

- Total Physical Response - the idea of the comprehensive input is crucial; it enhances retention when learners respond physically, e.g. move, draw, match pictures, tick off, etc. Feeling of success and low anxiety also facilitate learning. The goal is to prepare for communication, but comprehension is more important than production (we don't control the lg we receive but we can control our speech). Teacher= director of students' behavior.

- Suggestopedia - we need to overcome psychological barriers to learning - desuggest the limitations by providing a deeply relaxed state in which the learner's momory capacities are increased (hypermnesia). Also, by infantilization - an emotional reduction to the state of a child, learners may at the same time preserve their full intellectual potential and become open to learning (cf. children). Exapmles of how to overcome the limitations: learners can develop new identities to feel safer, the concert phase- using music.

- The Silent Way - teaching is subordinate to learning; teacherswork depending on what happens in the classroom; learners are responsible for learning and develop their own criteria for correctness; teacher works with the students while the students work with the language; silence is important for the memory. Techniques: rods, color-coded and word charts, silence, self-correction, etc.

20. Learner-centered vs. teacher-centered approaches to teaching

Learner-centered education is a promising model that relies on two complementary components: (1) placing more responsibility in the hands of the students, and (2) requiring the instructor to serve as the “presenter or facilitator of knowledge,” rather than the traditional “source of all knowledge.”

The teacher-centered approach is associated chiefly with the transmission of knowledge. The work of teachers depends upon the abilities, skills and efforts of their students. Student achievement is at the forefront of teacher-centered curriculum, but teachers are driven to meet accountability standards and often sacrifice the needs of the students to ensure exposure to the standards.

There is a distinction between the expert and the novice teacher. Expert teachers have case knowledge, knowledge of information stored in their memory banks, which allows them to compare situations and respond accordingly. They have amassed a store of impromptu responses for capturing teachable moments.

Teachers in a teacher-centered environment focus on making relationships with students that are anchored in intellectual explorations of selected materials. They focus more on content than on student processing.

Both approaches recognize the student as a key factor in improving student achievement. The teacher-centered approach places control for learning in the hands of the teacher. The teacher uses her expertise in content knowledge to help learners make connections. The effort to get to know the learner and how he processes information is secondary. The learner-centered approach, however, places more of the responsibility for knowing individual learner capabilities and creating an environment where learners can make learning connections. Similarly the onus for achieving is shifted to the student. Teachers provide a variety of instructional methods and techniques for helping learners construct their learning and develop a system for applying knowledge and theory.

21. What is a SYLLABUS? List and describe different types of syllabuses. What theoretical principles are they based on?

Syllabus - language programme, a list of content - of what to teach and how on a specific subject (program nauczania)

1. process vs. product oriented

process oriented - focus on the process, how students should gain their goals

product oriented - focuses on what should be gained by the students

2. synthetic vs. analytic

synthetic - organized around certain areas, items which need to be put together (tenses, vocabulary)

analytic - the purpose of the learning - what they will be able to do with the language, for example students will be able to apologize

Main types of syllabus:

1. grammatical - concentrates on grammatical items and rules. Somehow isolated

2. lexical - the main aim - particular words

3. grammatical - lexical - a combination of both

4. situational - concentrating on situations, such as “eating a meal”, “buying a ticket” or “asking for help”, “doing the shopping”

5. topic based - topics such as “food” or “family” dominate and are the starting point

6. notional - semantyczny - more abstract concepts - notion of time, direction, cause, existence, space

7. functional - notional

Benefits:

• it sets realistic learning tasks

• it provides for the teaching or everyday, real-world language

• it leads us to emphasize receptive (listening/reading) activities before rushing learners into premature programme

• it recognizes that the speakers must have a real purpose for speaking and something to talk about

8. mixed “multi-strand” (very popular now)

9. procedural (task-based) - story writing, following instructions

10. process - not very organized, negotiating with learners, even during the course

A syllabus is, in essence, a contract between the teacher and student regarding policies, procedures, and content of a course.  Because this contract is so important, it is useful for new and experienced teachers alike to review their syllabi to ensure that all necessary material is included. 

Syllabus design criteria:

• learnability (how difficult or easy sth is)

• frequency ( how often sth is used, how common a lg item is)

• usefulness

• coverage (how many different uses particular items cover)

22. Communicative Language Teaching - its advantages and disadvantages.

Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)

• based on the functional theory of language

• gradually becoming the methodological mainstream

Advantages:

• it does not focus on the knowledge of grammar rules but on developing communicative competence (term introduced by Hymes), naturally used by people; communication is seen as the fundamental, real-life function of language;

• foreign language lessons cease to be about the language itself but focus on its purpose - expressing opinion, feelings, etc. also through the negotiation of meaning with the interlocutor, whose reactions are an essential part of interaction;

• CLT acknowledges that form, meaning and function must be taught together;

• knowledge of the FL-speaking countries and their society is taught on the way, since the learner is expected to develop sensitivity to the context and socio-cultural implications of real discourse; thus, authentic materials of various forms, styles and registers are used (possibly simplified to suit the learners); learners practice more natural language

• there is a great variety of activities to engage in a CLT classroom; while all the activities must have communicative purpose, most of them also combine the use of different skills, just the way they are integrated in real life (e.g. opinion-gap activities, dictoglosses, games or role plays); this diversity reduces boredom in the classroom, proves how useful language is for various purposes and stimulates learners' motivation;

• CLT tries to cater for learners' needs in setting the (linguistic and functional) objectives, e.g. by arranging the syllabus according to the learners age, proficiency, occupation and their own suggestions, by giving the learners time to express their individuality and group status, along with the comforting choice to participate or not;

• student-teacher interaction is of less threatening nature than in teacher-centered classes; teachers' goal is to promote communication and facilitate language learning; teachers may co-communicate with the learners, but mainly to give advice and correct global errors;

• minor errors are not dealt with on the spot, so as not to overwhelm the learner or disrupt interaction; linguistic feedback is mostly given at the end of the lesson;

• CLT leaves teacher much freedom to decide on the understanding and implementation of the proposals; it is open to innovation;

Disadvantages:

• there is some inconsistency in the theory of CLT; hence, it has many interpretations, generally divided into weak (moderate), strong and extreme; the stronger versions are nowadays more critically looked upon;

• there may be too little focus on form, in which case the learners become entirely dependent on communication strategies;

• when the strategies are inappropriate and teachers fail to monitor the learners or provide too little feedback, there is an increasing risk of some errors becoming fossilized;

• the suitability of authentic language has also been questioned; e.g. listening to authentic radio broadcasts may be too difficult for lower level language learners, whereas it may be difficult for a non-native teacher to judge if the semi-authentic materials are probable enough;

• CL lesson timing and syllabus planning might be more challenging to the teacher; lessons cannot be entirely learner-dependent, as this could lead to little language development and too much play; it may also be problematic to adopt CLT to courses aiming to prepare for grammar-based tests, e.g. language certificates;

• it may eventually happen that CLT fails to meet learners' expectations, as it often happens that due to prior school education learners expect the teacher to present grammar rules explicitly and correct every error;

Conclusion:

CLT has its advantages and disadvantages. It is still being improved on and modified, serving as the basis of other related whole language approaches, such as the Task-based Approach and Content-based Instruction. It seems true that when not taken to extremes, but well balanced, CLT is a beneficial way of teaching foreign languages.

23. What is communicative competence? Can we teach it?

- The term was introduced by D.Hymes, who suggested that Chomsky's notion of competence was limited, since it dealt with what is formally possible, but didn't give information on how language is actually used.

- Hymes believed 4 other factors need to be considered because the rules of language mean nothing without the rules of use. He advised checking whether and to what degree sth is:

- formally possible in a language,

- feasible (can be used), e.g. multiple embedded clauses are not normally used,

- appropriate - adequate in relation to the context,

- actually performed by native speakers, e.g. a great shame vs. a big shame.

- Thus he came to the idea of communicative competence = aspect of our global competence that enables us to convey and interpret messages and to negotiate meanings interpersonally, within specific contexts

- It is a dynamic, interpersonal construct that can be examined only by means of overt performance of 2 or more participants in the process of negotiating meaning.

- John Cummins formulated 2 further concepts connected with CC. He distinguished between:

1. CALP - Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (form-focused, context-reduced)

2. BICS - Basic Interpersonal Communicative Skills (focus on function, context embedded)

- Canale & Swain distinguished 4 components of CC (competencies):

1. grammatical - concerned with sentence level; what is possible; knowledge of linguistic code; rules, lexis etc.

2. discourse - refers to the learner's ability to connect sentences into discourse and form a meaningful whole based on intersentential relationships (cohesion: use of linguistic forms that make them stick together; coherence: logic of the text);

Competencies 1 and 2 reflect the use of linguistic system.

3. sociolinguistic - refers to what is socially appropriate, the social context;

4. pragmatic (strategic) - consists of verbal and non-verbal communication strategies that may be called into action to compensate for breakdowns in communication

Competencies 3 and 4 reflect the functional aspects of communication.

The idea to teach communicative competence is the core of CLT (Communicative Language Teaching), which (apart from its extreme version) acknowledges all 4 components of the competence. Here CC is taught with the use of authentic materials and stylistically rich language, activities with communicative purposes, e.g. info/opinion gap, which promote interaction (in groups or pairs), etc.

24. Communication strategies and their role in second language learning

Communication strategies - potentially conscious plans for solving what to an individual presents itself as a problem in reaching a particular communicative goal

(the rest - in the notes)

25. Input vs. interaction. Identify the two terms and explain how they relate to language learning/teaching.

Input- the lg which the learner is exposed to (either written or spoken) in the environment.

Interactionism- a theory that lg acquisition is based both on learners' innate abilities and on opportunities to engage in conversations in which other speakers modify their speech to match the learners' communication requirements (Lightbown, Spada: 122).

“The input and interaction approach takes as its starting point the assumption that language learning is stimulated by communicative pressure, and examines the relationship between communication and acquisition and the mechanisms (e.g., noticing, attention) that mediate between them.”

Krashen's INPUT HYPOTHESIS: explains the relationship between what the L is exposed to of a lg (the input) and LA.

• the hypothesis relates to acquisition, not learning (acquisition: subconscious and intuitive process of constructing the system of a lg; learning: conscious process of figuring out and forming rules),

• people acquire lg best by understanding input that is slightly beyond their current level of competence: if an acquirer is at stage i, the input s/he understands should contain i + 1 [neither i + 2 (acquirer is overwhelmed), nor i + 0 (acquirer is not challenged at all)],

• clues based on the situation, the context, and the knowledge of the world make comprehension possible,

• comprehensible input- utterances that the learner understands based on the context in which they are used (clues such as gestures, situations, or prior information) as well as the lg in which they are phrased,

• the ability to speak fluently cannot be taught directly- it emerges after the acquirer has built up enough comprehensible input (input + 1), thus speaking should not be taught directly or very soon in the lg classroom,

• it is not necessary to focus learner's attention on grammar but on meaning; grammar is acquired incidentally as learner attempts to comprehend messages.

Problems with Input Hypothesis: speech might emerge only for some learners (bright, motivated, and outgoing): what about students for whom the silent period might last forever? Krashen himself admitted that comprehensible input is a necessary but not a sufficient condition for acquisition.

In short: acc to the Input Hypothesis, we acquire lg by receiving a comprehensible input (by understanding messages). When the input contains forms and structures beyond the L's current level of competence in the lg, both comprehension and acquisition occur.

THE INTERACTION HYPOTHESIS:

“Conversation is not only a medium of practice, but also the means by which learning takes place. Conversational interaction in a second language forms the basis for the development of language rather than being only a forum for practice of specific language features.”

THE INTERACTIONISTS' POSITION:

• lg develops as a result of the complex interplay between the uniquely human characteristics of the child and the environment in which the child develops,

• the crucial element in the LA process is a lg which is modified to suit the capability of the learner,

• modified input- adapted speech which adults use to address children and native speakers use to address lg learners so that the L will be able to understand, e.g.: shorter, simpler sentences, slower rate of speech, and basic vocabulary,

• modified interaction- adapted conversation patterns which native speakers use in addressing lg learners so that the L will be able to understand, e.g.: comprehension checks, clarification requests, and self-repetitions,

• modified input in L1A= caretaker talk (or motherese), in L2A= foreigner talk (or teacher talk). In English, caretaker talk involves a slower rate of speech, higher pitch, more varied intonation, simpler sentence patterns, frequent repetition, and paraphrase,

• one-to-one interaction gives the child access to lg which is adjusted to his/her level of comprehension (when a child does not understand, the adult may paraphrase).

Effects of interaction on comprehensibility:

In a study (by Pica, Young, Doughty) students were asked to follow instructions and complete a task under two conditions: a) ss listened to a simplified script read by a native speaker (it included repetition, paraphrasing, simple grammatical constructions and vocab), b) ss listened to a script which was not simplified, but contained the same information. The learners were encouraged to ask questions and seek verbal assistance when they had any difficulty following directions. The results: ss who had the opportunity to ask clarification questions and check their comprehension as they were listening to the instructions, comprehended much more than the students who received a simplified set of instructions but did not interact while completing it.

26. List some typical classroom procedures (i.e. techniques) of the following methods: Grammar-Translation Method, Audio-lingual Method, Communicative Language Teaching. What are their characteristic features and what kind of learner abilities do they develop?

Grammar-Translation Method techniques:

• translation of texts and of particular sentences

• reading comprehension questions

• looking for synonyms, antonyms

• deductive application of the rules

• writing new words in sentences

• writing composition

the method focuses on:

• analyzing grammar rules and practicing them

• translating grammatical forms

• memorizing vocabulary in the form of isolated words

• learning rules of grammar by heart

• studying conjunctions (a word that joins words, phrases or sentences, for example `and', `but', `or')

• reading of different classical text begins early

• rules are practiced through writing sentences and translating them

The techniques focus on accuracy, not fluency, on form, not the meaning.

Audio-lingual method

Focuses on accurate pronunciation and grammar

Techniques:

• Drills (for example transformation drills - from question into a statement; question-and-answer drills

• Repetition after the teacher

• Dialogues (memorizing)

• Transformation exercises

• Overcorrection (a word that joins words, phrases or sentences, for example `and', `but', `or')

Communicative language teaching

The focus is on communicative and contextual factors in language use. The primary goal is fluency and acceptable language.

This method is learner-centered and emphasizes communication and real-life situations.

Learner-Centered

The role of the instructor in CLT is quite different from traditional teaching methods. In the traditional classroom, the teacher is in charge and "controls" the learning. In CLT the teacher serves as more of a facilitator, allowing students to be in charge of their own learning.

Communication

Language is used for communication. For this reason, CLT makes use of communication to teach languages. Whereas traditional language teaching places a lot of emphasis on grammar rules and verb conjugations, CLT emphasizes real-life situations and communication in. While grammar is still important in the CLT classroom, the emphasis is on communicating a message.

In CLT, students practice everyday situations that involve communication, such as asking someone for the time, buying food at the market or asking someone for directions.

In these exercises, the goal is for the student to communicate his or her needs and thoughts, without worrying about having perfect grammar.

Communicative language teaching makes use of real-life situations that necessitate communication. The teacher sets up a situation that students are likely to encounter in real life. Unlike the audiolingual method of language teaching, which relies on repetition and drills, the communicative approach can leave students in suspense as to the outcome of a class exercise, which will vary according to their reactions and responses. The real-life simulations change from day to day. Students' motivation to learn comes from their desire to communicate in meaningful ways about meaningful topics.

Example Activities

• Role Play

• Interviews

• Information Gap

• Games

• Language Exchanges

• Surveys

• Pair Work

Community Language Learninig techniques

• tape recording of students conversations

• transcription of the tape-recorded text

• creating new sentences in small groups

• teacher as a human computer

27. What methods do you associate the following techniques with: minimal pair drill, object lesson, paraphrase, mim-mem practice, problem-solving activities, question-and-answer technique?

minimal pair drill - audio-lingual method

object lesson (A lesson taught by using a material object.) ?

mim-mem practice (mimicry and memorization) - audio-lingual method

problem-solving activities - communicative language teaching ?

question-and-answer technique - the direct method

What theoretical principles do they illustrate?

28. Should foreign language grammar be formally taught? Give some arguments for and against.

Although it is essential to teach elements of language and develop communicative abilities in our students, there is no one best way to introduce and provide practice in them. Young learners have more natural facility in acquisition, while adults may benefit substantially from more “formal” language learning. Learning styles and intelligence strengths are also a significant factor.

29. How to teach foreign language grammar?

Learners have to do a number of things to be able to start making any new grammar item part of their personal stock of language.

They need to have exposure to the language, they need to notice and understand items being used, they need to try using language themselves in `safe' practice ways and in more

demanding contexts; they need to remember the things they have learned.

In order to teach a grammar item, you need to present the form, the meaning and the use. The teaching of grammatical meaning tends to be neglected in many coursebooks in favor of emphasis on form, since the meaning may be quite difficult to teach. However, it is no good knowing how to construct a new tense of a verb if you don't know exactly what difference it makes to meaning when it's used.

Two approaches to teaching grammar can be distinguished: inductive and deductive

Also explicit and implicit

Deductive approach to teaching grammar:

The rule is given first on the basis of which further practice follows

Inductive approach to teaching grammar:

• The context is given first from which the target structure is drawn

• On the basis of examples students are encouraged to practice and form the rule on their own

Explicit approach to teaching grammar:

Happens when students know that they are learning grammar

Implicit approach to teaching grammar:

Students have no idea that they're learning grammar (for example children are taught in this manner)

Strictly explicit grammar study and even grammar-focused lessons are often not communicatively based. They can therefore be boring, cumbersome and difficult for students to assimilate. The strict teaching of grammar / structure, except with students of the Logical - Mathematical or Verbal - Linguistic multiple intelligences, can be frustrating and highly ineffective.

By providing grammar in context, in an implicit manner, we can expose students to substantial doses of grammar study without alienating them to the learning of English or other foreign language.

The hypothesis is that adult language students have two distinct ways of developing skills and knowledge in a second language, acquisition and learning. Acquiring a language is “picking it up”, i.e., developing ability in a language by using it in natural, communicative situations. Learning language differs in that it is “knowing the rules” and having a conscious knowledge of grammar / structure. Adults acquire language, although usually not as easily or as well as children. Acquisition, however, is the most important means for gaining linguistic skills. A person's first language (L1) is primarily learned in this way. This manner of developing language skills typically employs implicit grammar teaching and learning.

This does not exclude explicit grammar-teaching entirely, however. Some basic features of English language grammar structure are illogical or dissimilar to speakers of other languages and do not readily lend themselves to being well understood, even in context. In cases where features of English grammar are diametrically opposed or in some other way radically different from the manner of expression in the student's L1, explicit teaching may be required.

Aspects of English language grammar that may offer exceptional challenge to EFL students include use of word order, determiners (this, that, these, those, a, an, the), prepositions (in, on, at, by, for, from, of), auxiliaries (do, be, have), conjunctions (but, so, however, therefore, though, although), interrogatives, intensifiers (some, any, few, more, too) and distinctions between modal verbs (can, could, would, should, may, might, must). Phrasal verbs also present considerable difficulty to learners of English.

Some students also are logical or linguistically-biased thinkers who respond well to structured presentation of new material. Logical-Mathematical and Verbal-Linguistic intelligence learners are prime examples of those that would respond well to explicit grammar teaching in many cases.

Although it is essential to teach elements of language and develop communicative abilities in our students, there is no one best way to introduce and provide practice in them. Young learners have more natural facility in acquisition, while adults may benefit substantially from more “formal” language learning. Learning styles and intelligence strengths are also a significant factor.

30. Compare the teaching of grammar in the following methods: grammar translation, audio-lingual, silent way. Why there is no universal way of grammar teaching?

The grammar-translation method

The major characteristic of the grammar-translation method is, precisely as its name suggests, a focus on learning the rules of grammar and their application in translation passages from one language into the other.

Very little teaching is done in the target language. Instead, readings in the target language are translated directly and then discussed in the native language, often precipitating in-depth comparisons of the two languages themselves. Grammar is taught with extensive explanations in the native language, and only later applied in the production of sentences through translation from one language to the other, e.g.

The basic approach is to analyze and study the grammatical rules of the language, usually in an order roughly matching the traditional order of the grammar of the target lg, and then to practise manipulating grammatical structures through the means of translation both into and from the mother tongue.

The method is very much based on the written word and texts are widely in evidence. A typical approach would be to

1. present the rules of a particular item of grammar

2. illustrate its use by including the item several times in a text

3. practise using the item through writing sentences and translating it into the mother tongue

Audio-lingual method

Dialogues are used for repetition and memorization. Correct pronunciation, stress, rhythm and intonation are emphasized. After a dialogue has been presented and memorized, specific grammatical patterns in the dialogue are selected and become the focus of various kinds of drill and pattern-practice exercise.

In audio-lingual method oral proficiency is equated with accurate pronunciation and grammar and the ability to respond quickly and accurately in speech situations. The teaching of listening comprehension, pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary are all related to fluency.

The silent way

The sentence is the basic unit of teaching and the teacher focuses on the meaning rather than communicative value. Students are presented with the structural patterns of the target language and learn the grammar rules of the language through largely inductive processes.

At the beginning stages, a learner is provided with a basic practical knowledge of grammar. Further on, lessons are planned around grammatical items and related vocabulary. Language items are introduced according to their grammatical complexity, their relationship to what has been taught previously, and the ease with which items can be presented visually.

31. Inductive vs. deductive teaching of grammar. When would you use them?

Deductive approach to teaching grammar:

The rule is given first on the basis of which further practice follows

Inductive approach to teaching grammar:

• The context is given first from which the target structure is drawn

• On the basis of examples students are encouraged to practice and form the rule on their own

The deductive approach represents a more traditional style of teaching in that the grammatical structures or rules are dictated to the students first. Thus, the students learn the rule and apply it only after they have been introduced to the rule.

For example, if the structure to be presented is present perfect, the teacher would begin the lesson by saying, "Today we are going to learn how to use the present perfect structure." Then, the rules of the present perfect structure would be outlined and the students would complete exercises, in a number of ways, to practice using the structure. In this approach, the teacher is the center of the class and is responsible for all of the presentation and explanation of the new material.

The inductive approach represents a more modern style of teaching where the new grammatical structures or rules are presented to the students in a real language context The students learn the use of the structure through practice of the language in context, and later realize the rules from the practical examples.

For example, if the structure to be presented is the comparative form, the teacher would begin the lesson by drawing a figure on the board and saying, "This is Jim. He is tall." Then, the teacher would draw another taller figure next to the first saying, "This is Bill. He is taller than Jim." The teacher would then provide many examples using students and items from the classroom, famous people, or anything within the normal daily life of the students, to create an understanding of the use of the structure. The students repeat after the teacher, after each of the different examples, and eventually practice the structures meaningfully in groups or pairs.

With this approach, the teacher's role is to provide meaningful contexts to encourage demonstration of the rule, while the students evolve the rules from the examples of its use and continued practice

In both approaches, the students practice and apply the use of the grammatical structure, yet, there are advantages and disadvantages to each in the EFL classroom.

The deductive approach can be effective with students of a higher level, who already know the basic structures of the language, or with students who are accustomed to a very traditional style of learning and expect grammatical presentations. It is also time saving.

The deductive approach however, is less suitable for lower level language students, for presenting grammatical structures that are complex in both form and meaning, and for classrooms that contain younger learners. Also, explanation is seldom memorable and it is usually at the expense of students' involvement and interaction.

The advantages of the inductive approach:

• students can focus on the use of the language without being held back by grammatical terminology and rules that can inhibit fluency.

• The inductive approach also promotes increased student participation and practice of the target language in the classroom, in meaningful contexts.

• It prepares students for self-reliance and may lead to learner autonomy.

• discovered rules are more meaningful, memorable and serviceable (mental effort involved ensures a greater degree of cognitive depth and so ensures greater memorability)

• It respects the intelligence and maturity of many, especially adults. Students are more actively involved in the learning process and are more motivated.

The use of the inductive approach has been noted for its success in ESL classrooms world-wide, but its disadvantage is that it is sometimes difficult for students who expect a more traditional style of teaching to induce the language rules from context. Also, some language rules are not easy for rule formulation. Students may hypothesize the wrong rule or their version of the rule may be either too broad or too narrow. It may also be hard to plan he lesson with this approach.

32. How is vocabulary taught in some of the methods you are familiar with? Describe the main procedures and discuss their advantages and disadvantages.

Vocabulary in the grammar translation method:

• Vocabulary memorized as a list of isolated words, without a context

It is crucial to learn new vocabulary with the context. It is always harder to learn lists of isolated words than if they are in sentences. It is less memorable and less meaningful.

Learning of isolated words may only lead them to the passive memory.

Vocabulary in the natural approach

It is the heart of a language and is acquired through contact with authentic examples of the language, probably from authentic materials.

The more the students are able to acquire, the better. In case of vocabulary, especially today, when students of English are surrounded by the language, acquiring of vocabulary from the authentic materials, such as songs or movies is both profitable and effortless.

Vocabulary in the direct method

Taught through demonstration, objects, pictures or through association.

It's especially good for visual learners. Visual aids are especially useful in teaching concrete vocabulary. It is worse with the abstract words, such as love, hate, war since it's harder to present them in a visual way.

Vocabulary in the lexical approach

The lexical approach to second language teaching has received interest in recent years as an alternative to grammar-based approaches. The lexical approach concentrates on developing learners' proficiency with lexis, or words and word combinations. It is based on the idea that an important part of language acquisition is the ability to comprehend and produce lexical phrases as unanalyzed wholes, or "chunks," and that these chunks become the raw data by which learners perceive patterns of language traditionally thought of as grammar. Instruction focuses on relatively fixed expressions that occur frequently in spoken language, such as, "I'm sorry," "I didn't mean to make you jump," or "That will never happen to me," rather than on originally created sentences. This digest provides an overview of the methodological foundations underlying the lexical approach and the pedagogical implications suggested by them.

• A New Role for Lexis

Michael Lewis, who coined the term lexical approach, suggests the following:

• Lexis is the basis of language.

• Lexis is misunderstood in language teaching because of the assumption that grammar is the basis of language and that mastery of the grammatical system is a prerequisite for effective communication.

• One of the central organizing principles of any meaning-centered syllabus should be lexis.

• Types of Lexical Units

The lexical approach makes a distinction between vocabulary—traditionally understood as a stock of individual words with fixed meanings—and lexis, which includes not only the single words but also the word combinations that we store in our mental lexicons. Lexical approach advocates argue that language consists of meaningful chunks that, when combined, produce continuous coherent text.

33. Your student has just said "I haven't gone to school last week". What would be your reaction, if you were a) and audio-lingual teacher b) a grammar-translation teacher c) a communicative teacher

"I haven't gone to school last week".

a) an audio-lingual teacher would corrected immediatey because otherwise it may lead to a bad habit

The correction: I didn't go to school last week.

b) a grammar-translation teacher would probably ask another student to correct

The correction: John, tell me what's wrong with this sentence and please correct your friend.

c) a communicative teacher

if it was a longer statement the teacher wouldn't correct it immediately, since the focus in this approach is on fluency. The correction would be made afterwards in such a way as not to discourage the student but to encourage him/her for example to self correction.

For example: There is something wrong with this sentence. Can you see it? Could you try to correct it? There is something wrong with the tense you used.

Then: peer-correction

Then: teacher correction with some more clues: When you give the exact date the tense should be different.

34. Discuss some major guidelines for dealing with errors in a foreign language classroom.

- It is now generally agreed that errors are a natural and unavoidable part of acquiring languages. Hence, teachers should adopt a health investigation of errors within the larger perspective of learners' total interlanguage performance rather than focus on every incorrect production.

- Nevertheless, teachers need to correct some errors to help students avoid fossilization and learn the correct forms of the language.

- The crucial point is to provide appropriate feedback. Feedback may be divided into

- affective (relating to the relationship between the source and the audience; encoded mostly by gestures, facial expressions, tone of voice,etc.)

- cognitive (relating to facts, suppositions; conveyed by means of linguistic devices)

With the prerequisite positive affective feedback, negative or neutral feedback to an error in the cognitive dimension (e.g. “Yes, but…”; “You're almost right,but…”) will not threaten or demotivate but it will encourage learners to “try again” and prevent fossilization.

- In order to deal with errors properly, the teacher must know specifically when and how to deal with errors. Although the matter is complex and context-dependent, major suggestions are the following:

- provide immediate feedback to global errors (those that hamper communication) and to errors concerning the linguistic item practiced at the given moment; delay but remember about less urging feedback;

- do not provide the correct version yourself; give the learner time to self-correct; use peer-correction, but only if the class dynamics doesn't make it humiliating;

- signal the nature of the error by gestures, word clues (e.g. tense, verb), phonetic charts, etc.

- as a last resort, provide the correct answer yourself and tell the learner(s) to repeat it and ask concept questions to check understanding;

- depending on the activity, correct individually or, especially with serious and recurring errors, give “whole class” feedback;

- do not devote much time during the lesson to errors that do not concern the subject matter practiced that day, but possibly assign the final part of the lesson to remedying those additional problems;

- check if serious errors recur after some time.

Generally, the idea is to discern the optimal tension between positive and negative feedback

35. What is the teacher's response to errors committed by students in the following methods: The Direct Method, Silent Way, Total Physical Response

The direct method - errors corrected immediately by giving the correct form

The silent way

Student errors are seen as a natural, indispensable part of the learning process. Errors are inevitable since the students are encouraged to explore the language. The teacher uses student errors as a basis for deciding where further work is necessary. The students are encouraged to self-correction. If the students are unable to self correct and peers cannot help then the teacher would supply the correct language, but only as a last resort.

Total Physical Response

It is expected that student will make errors when they first begin speaking. Teachers should be tolerant of the and only correct major errors. Even these should be corrected unobtrusively. As students get more advanced, teachers can `fine tune' - correct more minor errors.

37. Compare the two methods: the Grammar Translation method and the Direct Method

Grammar Translation: Its primary focus is on memorization of verb paradigms, grammar rules, and vocabulary. Application of this knowledge was directed on translation of literary texts--focusing of developing students' appreciation of the target language's literature as well as teaching the language. Activities utilized in today's classrooms include: questions that follow a reading passage; translating literary passages from one language to another; memorizing grammar rules; memorizing native-language equivalents of target language vocabulary. (Highly structured class work with the teacher controlling all activities.)

Direct Method: Focusing on oral language, it requires that all instruction be conducted in the target language with no recourse to translation. Reading and writing are taught from the beginning, although speaking and listening skills are emphasized— grammar is learned inductively. It has a balanced, four-skill emphasis.

39. What are characteristic features of pattern drills? How and for what purpose are they used in language teaching? How do they differ from other exercises? (Give examples)

Drills were used extensively within audio-lingual approaches but nowadays we recognise their limitations & use them for pronunciation practice in helping the students to get their mouths round the items. It is a chance for them to say it right in a controlled, safe way before more challenging tasks with the new language. They can be used after the presentation & when correcting during a controlled activity or after a freer one. These are for oral practice so if the language you are introducing is used in the written form then give a written drill! Drills can become a bit boring & predictable if you don't keep them snappy & lively so make them fun.

It's also not the case that higher, more advanced levels don't need drilling. If they find something difficult to say then drill them. Clearly they are going to find less language that is difficult to say than lower levels but all the same if it's difficult to say then help them out.

Categorization of Drills: Mechanical, Meaningful, and Communicative drills (from Richards, Platt, and Weber, 1985)

A mechanical drill is one where there is complete control over the student's response, and where comprehension is not required in order to produce a correct response.

Example: book --> this is a book. pen --> this is a pen.

A meaningful drill is one in which there is still control over the response, but understanding is required in order for the student to produce a correct response.

Example:

Teacher reads a sentence	Student choose a response
I'm hot. I'm cold. I'm thirsty. I'm hungry.	I'll get you something to eat. I'll turn on the air conditioning. I'll get you something to drink. I'll turn on the heater.

A communicative drill is one in which the type of response is controlled but the student provides his or her own content or information.

Teacher	Student completes cues
What time did you get up on Sunday? What did you have for breakfast?	I got up _____ . I had _____ .

• A few of the more common oral drills

1. Repetition drill.

T: She went to the cinema.
Stds: She went to the cinema.

2. Substitution drill.

T: She went to the cinema.
Ss: She went to the cinema.
T: Theatre
Ss: She went to the theatre.
T: Disco
Ss: She went to the disco

3. Question and answer drill

T: Where did she go yesterday?
Std 1: She went to the cinema
Std 2: Where did she go on Monday?
Std 3: She went to the disco.

Backchaining - for long sentences that you are drilling to help the stds remember & say. eg.
Tch: a million pounds?
Stds: a million pounds?
Tch: if you won a million pounds?
Stds: if you won a million pounds?
Tch: What would you do if you won a million pounds?
Stds: What would you do if you won a million pounds?

40. What is the role of student's native language in some of the methods you are familiar with? In your opinion, should or shouldn't the teacher use it in the classroom?

Audiolingual Method - The use of L1 is forbidden

Community Language Learning

Students' security is initially enhanced by using their naïve language. The purpose of using the native language is to provide the bridge from the familiar to the unfamiliar. Where possible, literal native language equivalents are given to the target language words that have been transcribed. Directions in class and sessions during which students express their feelings and are understood are conductive in the native language. In later stages, of course, more and more of the target language can be used.

Total Physical Response

TPR is usually introduced in the student's native language. After the introduction, rarely would the native language be used. Meaning is made clear through body movements.

The Silent Way

The students' native language can be used to give instructions when necessary, for example to help a student improve his/her pronunciation. At least at the beginning levels of proficiency the native language is used, during the feedback sessions.

The natural approach Students are allowed to use the native language alongside the target language. The teacher uses only L2

Communicative language teaching

Students are encouraged to communicate in the target language. However, the use of L1 is acceptable where necessary.

Suggestopedia

The teacher uses L1 when necessary. L1 translation is used to make the meaning of the dialogue clear. As the course proceeds, the teacher uses the native language less and less.

43. What areas of language and what lg skills are emphasized by the following methods: Grammar - Translation, Silent Way, Natural Approach, and Community Language learning?

THE GRAMMAR - TRANSLATION METHOD:

Areas: vocabulary and grammar

Skills: reading and writing

SILENT WAY:

Areas: pronunciation and grammar structures (limited vocab at first)

Skills: all four skills are worked on from the beginning but Ss learn to read and write what they already produced orally. The skills reinforce what Ss are learning.

NATURAL APPROACH: (?)

Areas: vocabulary

Skills: listening

COMMUNITY LANGUAGE LEARNING:

Areas: particular grammar points, pronunciation patterns, vocabulary are worked with, based on the lg Ss have produced.

Skills: the most important skills are understanding and speaking the lg at the beginning, with reinforcement through reading and writing.

46. Which methods do you associate the following techniques with: fill-in-the blanks, memorization, getting Ss to self-correct, backward build-up, sound-color chart, role-play?

FILL-IN-THE BLANKS

• Grammar - Translation Method

• The Direct Method - Ss induce grammar rules to do the task from examples and practice

MEMORIZATION:

• Grammar - Translation Method - lg learning provides good mental exercise

GETTING SS TO SELF-CORRECT

• The Direct Method - self-correction facilitates lg learning

• The Silent Way

BACKWARD BUILD-UP

• The Audio-lingual Method - used when Ss stumble over a line in a dialog; it is important to prevent learners from making errors as they lead to the formation of bad habits. When errors do occur, they should be immediately corrected by the teacher.

SOUND-COLOR CHART (associating sounds with colors)

• The Silent Way - to facilitate learning

ROLE-PLAY

• The Communicative Language Teaching

• Suggestopedia

48. Evaluate, from your point of view, the effectiveness of the so-called fringe methodologies, i.e. methods offering somewhat original solutions.

The so-called fringe methodologies include such theories of lg teaching as: Suggestopedia the Silent Way and Total Physical Response. Their innovative approach to lg learning gained as many supporters as critics.

Suggestopedia (Lozanov)- we do not use the full mental powers that we have, so we need to stimulate our mental reserves by desuggesting the psychological barriers that we, as learners, set up. Among the right conditions to learning are: a state of relaxation (Baroque music, bright, colorful classrooms, posters on the walls etc.) and giving over of control to the teacher. The teacher is the authority in the classroom. Students are the imitators; they imitate the teacher's pronunciation and follow teacher's directions.

Disadvantages of this method:

• not very practical: comfortable chairs or relaxing music are not available in every classroom,

• the emphasis is on vocabulary skills, grammar is dealt with minimally,

• focused more on memorization techniques than LA,

• the techniques may not be suited for all the learners and cultures (there are people who find classical music irritating rather than stimulating, it will not work with hyper teenage-ss who are used to learning in a more guided and controlled classroom settings).

• doesn't help ss to improve their communication skills- they stay passive till the teacher stimulates them to take part.

Advantages:

• a variety of activities (games, songs, role-playing, and questions/ answers exercises) are used to avoid boredom and to release tension that inhibits learning,

• peripheral learning is a useful technique- by being exposed to lg at a visual level (posters of irregular verbs or vocabulary items hung on the walls), ss have a chance of internalizing the linguistic items subconsciously,

• state of relaxation facilitates learning.

The Silent Way (Gattegno)- a methodology of teaching based on the idea that the lg should be approached by the L as a puzzle to be worked out. By using tools such as Cuisenaire rods (wooden or plastic colored rods), a selection of specially prepared charts and a pointer, the teacher presents the puzzle to the learners. The learners work out the "puzzle" and ultimately learn the lg involved in it. The teacher is silent most of the time, he stimulates rather than explains everything. Learners cooperate with each other in solving lg problems. Acc to Gattegno:

• learning is facilitated: a) if the L discovers or creates rather than remembers and repeats what is to be learned, b) by problem solving involving the material to be learned,

• learners should develop independence and responsibility,

• ss errors are seen as natural- errors are inevitable since ss are encouraged to explore the lg themselves,

• peer correction- in this method, ss are encouraged to help one another.

• Advantages:

• this method fosters cooperative learning between individuals,

• it embodies a respect for the individual and an awareness of the individual's extraordinary cognitive powers,

• with this way ss will say `I learned' instead of `I was taught well',

• if it is feasible to teach the lg by using the rods without repeating too much, it will save time and energy for both teachers and ss.

Disadvantages:

• this method can be benefited by the teacher only in small groups of ss,

• it would seem necessary for a teacher to gain a good deal of training and skill in order to apply the Silent Way in the lg classroom,

• for some teachers the rigidity of the system (no repetitions by the teacher, no answers by the teacher etc.) may be meaningless,

• lg is separated from its social context and taught through artificial situations, usually by rods.

All in all, no one method is the solution to the problems of the language learning. It would be better to take fruitful techniques from each method depending on the ss' level, age and needs.

Total Physical Response

It is based upon the way that children learn their mother tongue. Parents have 'language-body conversations' with their children, the parent instructs and the child physically responds to this. The parent says, "Look at mummy" or "Give me the ball" and the child does so. These conversations continue for many months before the child actually starts to speak itself. Even though it can't speak during this time, the child is taking in all of the language; the sounds and the patterns. Eventually when it has decoded enough, the child reproduces the language quite spontaneously. TPR attempts to mirror this effect in the language classroom.

• Its use in the classroom

In the classrom the teacher and students take on roles similar to that of the parent and child respectively. Students must respond physically to the words of the teacher. The activity may be a simple game such as Simon Says or may involve more complex grammar and more detailed scenarios.

TPR can be used to practise and teach various things. It is well suited to teaching classroom language and other vocabulary connected with actions. It can be used to teach imperatives and various tenses and aspects. It is also useful for story-telling.

• Advantages

• It is fun and easy. Students will enjoy getting up out of their chairs and moving around.

• Simple TPR activities do not require a great deal of preparation on the part of the teacher. However, some other more complex applications might.

• "TPR is aptitude-free." according to Asher. It is inclusive working well with a mixed ability class.

• It is good for kinæsthetic learners who need to be active in the class.

• It is a good tool for building vocabulary.

• It is memorable. Actions help strengthen the connexions in the brain.

• Class size need not be a problem.

• "TPR seems to work effectively for children and adults. There is no age barrier." according to Asher.

• Disadvantages

• Whilst it can be used at higher levels TPR is most useful for beginners. It is also at the higher levels where preparation becomes an issue for the teacher.

• Students are not generally given the opportunity to express their own thoughts in a creative way.

• It is easy to overuse TPR. "Any novelty, if carried on too long, will trigger adaptation." Asher writes, "No matter how exciting and productive the innovation, people will tire of it.

• The teacher may find that it is limited in terms of language scope. Certain target languages may not be suited to this method.

• It can be a challenge for shy students.

KAROL G:

50. Sequence for introducing new grammatical item

a) form - spelling, pronunciation, collocations

b) meaning - what it exactly mean

c) use - register, formal/informal in what context, situation

51. If it rains I'll stay home.

a) by giving examples of similar sentences to help students discover the rule (inductively)

b) be explaining the rule and writing on a blackboard the structure (deductively)

53. Kinds of Student grouping in a classroom

I) Whole class teaching

a)Advantages b)Disadvantages

- It reinforces a sense of belonging among the group of Ss - it favours the group rather than individual

(everyone is involved in one activity (to bond with Ss) (Ss do the same thing at the same time)

- suitable for activities where T is acting as controller - Individual Ss have no chance to say

(showing pictures, video, audio tape) anything on their own

- allows T to `gauge the mood' of Ss in general - Ss are afraid of participating in front of

(to get general understanding of S progress) the whole class (risk of public failure)

- Ss and T feel secure, when in Lockstep and under direct - doesn't encourage S to take responsibility

authority of a Teacher for their own learning

- not good for communicative lg teaching

II) Students on their own

a) Advantages b) Disadvantages

- allows T to respond to individual S differences in terms - does not help a class develop sense of

Of pace of learning, learning styles, preferences belonging

- less stressful for shy students - does not encourage cooperation which

- develops learner autonomy, promote skill of self reliance fosters motivation

- way of restoring peace and tranquility to a noisy - when every student has different task,

situation T has to prepare more materials time cons.

III) Pairwork

a) Advantages b) Disadvantages

- increases the amount of S speaking time - noisy activity,

- Ss can work and react independently without guidance - Ss may veer away from the point on an

from the Teacher (promoting autonomy) exercise

- allows teachers time to work with 1 or 2 pairs while - greater chances of misbehaviour

The other S continue working - Ss want rather relate to the T than to weak

- `two heads are better than one' promote cooperation linguistically peer

And friendly atmosphere - problematic choice of paired partner

- quick and easy to organize

IV) Group work

a) Advantages b) Disadvantages

- increases the amount of talking for individual Ss - may be noisy

- less problematic personal relationships - some Ss would prefer to be the focus

- greater chance of different opinions of Ts attention than peers

- encourages broader skills of cooperation and negotiation - individuals may become passive wheras

- more private work others may dominate

- promotes Ss autonomy as Ss take their own decisions - it can take longer to organize groups

- Ss can chose their level of participation

55. Top down/ bottom up approach

a) Top down processing - the reader or listener gets a general view of the reading/listening passage by absorbing the overall picture. It basis on the knowledge (schemata) Ss already have

- discriminating between emotional reactions

- getting the gist of a sentence

- recognize the topic (chose picture that shows it)

b) Bottom up - the reader or listener focuses on individual words and phrases, and achieves understanding by stringing these detailed elements together to build up a whole. You learn basic things for recognition of some elements.

- discrimination between intonation

- discrimination between phonemes

- selective listening for morphological endings

- selecting details from text

56. Intensive and extensive listening

Extensive - outside classroom, for pleasure in Ss home, car, personal stereo. They absorb knowledge and improve pronunciation. The motivational power is high when Ss make their own choices what to listen to. They can use authentic materials or simplified versions of some books recorded on tapes.

Intensive - listening to tape materials in the classroom. It allows Ss to hear a variety of different voices apart from just their own teacher. However in big classrooms with poor acoustics it can be difficult for all Ss to hear it properly, the speed dictated by the tape may be too fast,

Reading aloud, Story telling, Interviews, Conversations

57. Function of pre - reading/listening activities

Activate Ss schemata, preteach vocabulary, revise vocabulary, tune ss in to the topic, predictive skills, try to predict what the text is about, guess from pictures, set task, motivate Ss

58. a) pre listening/reading tasks

- activate schemata

- predict on the basis of pictures, headline

- preteach vocab, structures

- elicit vocab

- introduce what will be new

Motivate Ss

b) while listening/reading

- skim

-scan

- contextual guessing

- making inferences (reading between line)

- identifying functions of discourse pattern

(cloze exercises, outlining, paraphrasing, scrambled stories, information transfer, passage completion, T/F, answer q, fill in the gaps, matching titles with text, multiple choice, putting text in order)

c) post listening/reading

- role play, interview, personal questions, open questions, writing project, essay, write summary, underline topic sentences)

60. Students reading aloud

Mainly to check how students pronounce words, accent but not too often because it is time consuming and boring for students. Younger learners are more eager to read aloud than adults and more advanced students

61. Drills - a type of a controlled practice exercise. Mechanical drills do not involve thinking process. Students do not understand what they are doing. Drills in general come from AUDIOLINGUAL METHOD (substitution tables)

Mechanical drills are useful to practice pronunciation, phrases or grammar.

All types of drills are controlled practice

62. Activities built around the text

• Multiple choice,

• matching paragraphs with headings,

• picture with paragraphs,

• put paragraphs in order,

• t/f statements,

• choose the best title,

• Wh-questions,

• put sentences in a correct order,

• role play,

• personal questions,

• opinions

63. Principles of lg testing

a) Theoretical concepts: validity, reliability, washback

b) The distinction between the pairs of concepts:

- achievement v. proficiency tests

- diagnostic v. prognostic tests

- discrete-point v. integrative tests

- subjective v. objective

c) The form of the following types of test items:

- multiple - choice(with concept of stem, options, distractors)

- cloze

We test general fluency, lg skills, language (grammar, vocab, pronunciation, spelling), specific items taught (food, past simple)

64. Qualities of a good test

a) reliable - the results do not differ in different classes of the same level

TEST RELIABILITY - you can rely on results, and students must know the technique of testing

SCORER (RATER) RELAIBILITY - intra rater - teacher marks tests in the same way

• inter rater - different teachers mark the same test in different ways

b) validity (zasadność) We need to know what do we want to test

- content - gives samples of Ss knowledge

- construct - we teat what is supposed to be tested

- face - does it look like a test?

EMPIRICAL VALIDITY - results of the test do not differ from results of other assessments

PREDICTIVE VALIDITY - gives some info for the future

c) practical - easy to check and to fill in, not to short or too long (multiple choice, fill ins)

d) positive washback (backwash) effect - Students are better trained in areas of a language they know will occur on tests

65. Different kinds of tests

a) informal - diagnostic whether Ss have to work more

- formal - ends up with a grade

b) direct - focused on specific area

- indirect - focused on different areas (pronunciation, grammar, vocab)

c) Subjective - based on your own opinion (criteria)

- objective - clear criteria (matura)

d) APTITUDE - to see how Ss are gifted in lgs, general ability to learn lgs (bilingual classes)

e) DIAGNOSTIC - whether S is suitable to take an exam FCE, CAE (sample test)

f) PLACEMENT - to choose levels students should be in

g) PRACTICE - to give students chance practice before some major exams

h) PROFICIENCY - diagnoses level where students are

i) PROGRESS - to check what they have achieved

66. Techniques for testing grammar:

- finish a sentence,

correct errors,

fill in the blanks,

underline the correct verb form,

matching beginning with ending,

matching sentences with pictures,

translation,

multiple choice

67. Multiple choice tests

a) Advantages b) Disadvantages

- easy to do by Ss - Ss can guess 25 %

- easy to check - not easy to prepare

- objective - easy to cheat

- only a recognition test

Grammar - tense, structure, stopniowanie

What else we can test? Vocab, word order, reading, listening, general knowledge

68. Mary knowed the answer - overgeneralization teach past forms of irregular verbs

He asked me where do I live? Complexity? (not sure)

69. On the spot correction

a) Adv b) Disadv

- While practicing and teaching form or accuracy - can not be during free practice, or when for fluency task. Students become shy, are unwilling to speak

70. Dictation

• Benefits of Dictation

• Dictation makes the students and the teacher aware of the students' comprehension errors--phonological, grammatical, or both. In English, typical errors include the frequent omissions of bound morphemes such as:

• The -s plural

• The -'s possessive

• The -s third person singular

• The -ed ending for regular past participles.

• Dictation shows students the kinds of spelling errors they are prone to make.

• Dictation gives students practice in comprehending and transcribing clear English prose. Note: I find this important because we have all encountered awkward sentences in textbooks that are not good models of English writing, or raise grammatical, syntactic, or semantic questions that are not the point of the exercise to begin with. One example from a rather famous source: "When you receive a request like that, you cannot fail to obey it." This was in a textbook for a pre-intermediate class and came without a footnote to aid the student.

• Dictation gives students valuable practice in notetaking. ESL college students may already be in courses in which they must take notes of lectures delivered in English at normal speaking speed. While no one should take lecture notes that are exact transcriptions, learning to write spoken language quickly is an essential college skill.

• Dictation gives practice in correct forms of speech. Note: We have all read student compositions with grammatically correct sentences that are not correct forms, for example She is a surgeon of hearts or He is a good cooker.

• Dictation can help develop all four language skills in an integrative way.

• Dictation helps to develop short-term memory. Students practice retaining meaningful phrases or whole sentences before writing them down.

• Dictation can serve as an excellent review exercise.

• Dictation is psychologically powerful and challenging.

• Dictation fosters unconscious thinking in the new language.

• If the students do well, dictation is motivating.

• Dictation involves the whole class, no matter how large it is.

• During and after the dictation, all students are active.

• Correction can be done by the students

• Dictation can be prepared for any level.

• The students, as well as the teacher, can get instant feedback if desired.

• Dictation can be administered quite effectively by an inexperienced teacher.

• While dictating, the teacher can (in fact should) move about, giving individual attention.

• Dictation exercises can pull the class together during the valuable first minutes of class.

• Dictation can provide access to interesting texts.

• Knowing how to take dictation is a skill with "real world" applications. Many jobs demand accurate understanding of spoken orders (phone agents, dispatchers, administrative assistants, etc.). Also, the U.S. citizenship exam requires examinees to take a dictation.

• Dictation can be a good indicator of overall language ability.

71. Criteria for selecting vocabulary

- first the most frequent

- shorter, easier to pronounce

- concrete before abstract

- more general first

- according to topics (in groups) animals etc.

72. Consolidating and checking vocabulary

- Ask for a Polish equivalent

- ask concept questions

- ask tricky questions

- Ask for examples

(listen and point, do activities, demonstrations, miming)

73. Problems with teaching/ learning a foreign language

- similarity of some words to the native lg which may be misleading (ex. ordinary)

- spelling is different

- pronunciation is different

- connotations (positive or negative meaning)

- collocations (the way in which some words are often used together) f.ex.` commit a crime'

74. How to help Ss learn foreign vocab

Patrz pyt. 71, teach self-studying, use variety of techniques, through stories, visuals, examples, demonstrating, synonyms, matching, repetition, diaries,

75. Collocations - (the way in which some words are often used together) f.ex.` commit a crime'. We should always teach the whole phrase

Idioms - a group of words that has a special meaning that is different from the ordinary meaning of each separate word; `under the weather' = ill. We should try to find Polish equivalent foe better understanding.

76. Listen and do - intermediate.

To introduce variety, practice vocabulary, phrases, to make lesson more lively, turn on the light, take a photo, do the ironing, stare at the wall.

(preparing food with ingredients, completing a computer set, or at the beautician.

77. Tooth - by drawing a picture or pointing my tooth - concrete

Tape - draw or bring real tape, describe it that it's made of plastic etc. - concrete

Recorder - using mimes, gestures, pretending to record sbdy on a camcorder - concrete

Charity - give explanation in English or give examples such as Caritas - abstract

Mammal - give explanation in English or define which animals are mammals and which aren't

79. Views on teaching writing

Writing as a means - be able to write down things in order to remember

Writing as an end - your aim is how to write an academic piece of writing (story, letter)

Stages of writing:

1. controlled (copying from the blackboard)

2. doing written answers

3. writing on the basis of a model

4. free writing (letter, note)

Cohesion - correct use of linking words

Coherence - if the text is logic

2 approaches to teach academic writing:

- process writing - all the activities you do in order to achieve the product. You focus on corrections, write a draft, this makes you think how to write and become conscious of how to write to improve your work

- product writing - you focus only on the final product of writing

81. communicative activity - close to real live, there is information or opinion gap, high motivation, students speak a lot at appropriate level.

82. The use of visual aids in the classroom

The lesson is teacher-centered, for beginners, children, simple, concrete vocab, poster, drawing, blackboard, maps, ohp, video, animals

83. Exercises and their function in teaching grammar.

- translation, fill in the gaps, matching, choose the right form, write words In appropriate form

Paraphrasing, error correction, finish a sentence, asking and answering questions, describing a picture, discussion, role play

84. How to test communicative abilities?

By giving them life-like situations and observing how they solve them.

85. speaking activities

Role play, simulation, discussion, debate, memorizing dialogues

86. teaching pronunciation

- Intonation (rising, falling)

- stress (word, sentence)

- individual sounds

- sounds in connected speech

- rhythm

The aim is to understand and to be understood, th, r, lng, short I, divoicing, aspiration

87. stages of teaching pronunciation

- individual sounds

- sounds in connected speech

- stress (word, sentence)

- rhythm

- Intonation (rising, falling)

88. Authentic materials - Prepared by and for native speakers, not for the purpose of teaching a foreign lg. News, Tv shows, newspapers, leaflets maps, posters, ads, postcards, tickets. Authentic activities - Highly probable to deal with in a real life - very close to real life situations. Information or opinion gaps. Very motivating for students to read and understand authentic materials or participate in authentic tasks.

89. Criteria for choosing authentic materials

According to level, age, interests

90. Literature in lg teaching Adv:

- source of authentic lg

- brings different styles of writing

- adds variety

- good basis for vocab expansion

- good context for discussion

- enjoyable

- fosters reading skills, imagination

- critical and creative thinking

- contributes to world knowledge

- cultural development

Krzysiek:

110. Designing ESP Courses

The pre-stage in designing an ESP course consists of the needs analysis, which is a necessary tool in establishing the aims and objectives of the course. In English for Specific Purposes we deal with adult learners, who are conscious of the purpose of learning English and we take into consideration their needs f.i. an accountant will be interested in the field of Business English, a lawyer will dwell the instances of English for Legal Purposes, a doctor will have interest in English for Medical Purposes etc. In establishing the needs we look at whether the students will use English for reading some foreign publications, communicating with other nationalities, negotiating with foreign partners, working abroad etc.

The role of a syllabus in creating an ESP course is essential. `The syllabus is the determiner of the whole course. It is so to speak the crystallization of what the course is all about' The syllabus should be implemented in the course design just after the target situation has been analyzed.

A course can be designed according to a set of questions serving as parameters:

1. Should the course be intensive or extensive?

2. Should the learners' performance be assessed or non-assessed?

3. Should the course deal with immediate needs or with delayed needs?

4. Should the role of the teacher be that of the provider of knowledge and activities, or should it be as a facilitator of activities arising from learners' expressed wants?

5. Should the course have a broad or a narrow focus?

6. Should the course be pre-study or pre-experience or run parallel with that study or experience?

7. Should the material be common-core or specific to learners' study or work?

8. Should the group taking the course be homogeneous or should it be heterogeneous?

9. Should the course design be worked out by the language teacher after consultation with the learners and the institution or should it be subject to a process of negotiation with the learners?

109. Teaching ESP

In teaching ESP we take into account the standard 4 skills - reading, writing, listening and speaking plus the fifth integrated skill of translation. Some methodologists draw attention to the fact that speaking can be combined with listening (in the case of a discussion/negotiation practice) In teaching ESP we must remember that we are parting from GE (general English) and going into the area of special interest for the student. We will surely work on some special vocabulary items, texts from the field of the student's specialization, communication in the sphere of effective negotiation or gentle persuasion (here an example of a doctor of a businessman) While teaching ESP we often anticipate some of the linguistic areas that the students are probably already familiar with. ESP generally is divided into EAP - English for Academic Purposes and EOP - English for Occupational Purposes. A priori, the language learned is purposeful when it comes to the learning process itself. A posterior, English is learned for the sake of using it in work.

While teaching ESP we must remember about all the characteristics common to the adult learners plus the factor of the learners being fully conscious of the purposes and the aims of the course.

108. The role of an ESP teacher

Dudley Evans describes the true ESP teacher or ESP Practitioner (Swales, 1988) as needing to

perform five different roles. These are 1) Teacher, 2) Collaborator, 3) Course designer and materials

provider, 4) Researcher and 5) Evaluator. The first role as 'teacher' is synonymous with that of the

'General English' teacher. It is in the performing of the other four roles that differences between the

two emerge. In order to meet the specific needs of the learners and adopt the methodology and

activities of the target discipline, the ESP Practitioner must first work closely with field specialists.

One example of the important results that can emerge from such a collaboration is reported by Orr

(1995). This collaboration, however, does not have to end at the development stage and can extend

as far as teach teaching, a possibility discussed by Johns et al. (1988). When team teaching is not a

possibility, the ESP Practitioner must collaborate more closely with the learners, who will generally

be more familiar with the specialized content of materials than the teacher him or herself.

Both 'General English' teachers and ESP practitioners are often required to design courses and

provide materials. One of the main controversies in the field of ESP is how specific those materials

should be. Hutchinson et al. (1987:165) support materials that cover a wide range of fields, arguing

that the grammatical structures, functions, discourse structures, skills, and strategies of different disciplines are identical. More recent research, however, has shown this not to be the case. Hansen

(1988), for example, describes clear differences between anthropology and sociology texts, and

Anthony (1998) shows unique features of writing in the field of engineering. Unfortunately, with

the exception of textbooks designed for major fields such as computer science and business studies,

most tend to use topics from multiple disciplines, making much of the material redundant and

perhaps even confusing the learner as to what is appropriate in the target field. Many ESP

practitioners are therefore left with no alternative than to develop original materials. It is here that

the ESP practitioner's role as 'researcher' is especially important, with results leading directly to

appropriate materials for the classroom.

The final role as 'evaluator' is perhaps the role that ESP practitioners have neglected most to date.

As Johns et al. (1991) describe, there have been few empirical studies that test the effectiveness of

ESP courses. For example, the only evaluation of the non compulsory course reported by Hall et al.

(1986:158) is that despite carrying no credits, "students continue to attend despite rival pressures of

a heavy program of credit courses". On the other hand, recent work such as that of Jenkins et al.

(1993) suggests an increasing interest in this area of research.

107. Evaluate a textbook you are currently using.

106. An ideal coursebook

To my mind an ideal coursebook should be easily-modifiable so that it could be adjusted to all the types of learners in the class. It should be interesting, involving, and inspiring for the learner and on the other side it must be easily teachable for the teacher. An ideal coursebook also has a number of add-ons and extra materials, cd-s, tapes, posters, etc.

BTW there is no such thing as an ideal coursebook as it is impossible to satisfy all the student's preferences.

105. Project work

Project work is student-centered and driven by the need to create an end-product. However, it is the way to achieving this end-product that makes project work so worthwhile. The route to the end-product brings opportunities for the students to develop their confidence and independence and to work together in a real world environment by collaborating on a task which they have defined for themselves and which has not been externally imposed (well not always - when the teacher imposes the theme of the project work).

Project work lends itself to many different approaches in a variety of teaching situations. It draws together students of mixed ability and creates opportunities for individuals to contribute in ways which reflect their individual talents and creativity. The less linguistically-gifted students may be talented artists, able to create brilliant artwork, thus gaining self-esteem, which would be unlikely in a more conventional type of lesson. The collaborative process, relying as it does on the involvement and commitment of individual students is the strength of the project work.

Some advantages of project work are:

• Increased motivation - learners become personally involved in the project.

• All four skills, reading, writing, listening and speaking, are integrated.

• Autonomous learning is promoted as learners become more responsible for their own learning.

• There are learning outcomes -learners have an end product.

• Authentic tasks and therefore the language input are more authentic.

• Interpersonal relations are developed through working as a group.

• Content and methodology can be decided between the learners and the teacher and within the group themselves so it is more learner-centered.

• Learners often get help from parents for project work thus involving the parent more in the child's learning. If the project is also displayed parents can see it at open days or when they pick the child up from the school.

• A break from routine and the chance to do something different.

• A context is established which balances the need for fluency and accuracy.
  Haines (1989)

Some possible drawbacks to project work

• Learners using their own language
  If the class are monolingual they may use their L1 a lot (it often happens anyway in YL classes) so you should decide whether the benefits of doing project work outweigh this factor.

• Some learners doing nothing
  By giving more freedom to the learners you may also be giving them the freedom to do nothing! If the project is planned carefully and roles decided at the proposal stage this is less likely to happen.

• Groups working at different speeds
  One group may have 'finished' the project after a couple of hours and say they have nothing to do. Remind them it is their responsibility to fill the time allocated to project work and discuss ways they could extend the work they have already completed.

104. Advantages and disadvantages of using video materials in classroom.

advantages: very interesting for the students

it ads variety to the lesson

it aides memorizing processes

students' free time activity is introduced in a classroom - intimidation is no more

through introducing video in a classroom students can practice all integrated skills

profitable for visual learners as well as for auditory ones

introducing real life situation on the lesson

disadvantages:

there must be ideal conditions for watching a video

accessibility of the hardware

students might be encouraged to misbehave as the situation in the classroom will be approximately close to that at home

it is not suitable for all types of learners

if the material is authentic some students might feel discouraged as they won't understand everything

103. Using video recordings in a classroom (dos and don'ts) I don't know whether it's about recording the classroom or playing a tape.

either way : clear instructions

assurance and explanations

and so on ??

102. Planning a lesson - what factors should be taken into consideration:

First of all we take into consideration all the administrative factors: the age and number of students, their level, what class etc… Next we can provide a brief class profile in which we can state whether the class is divided into groups, whether there are some `troublemakers' etc. Then we can add a description of the teacher's rapport with the students. It is followed by the timetable fit (the place of the lesson we are planning in the course) and the brief listing and description of the materials we are using. Next, very important element of lesson planning, is the enumeration of aims and objectives of the lesson. We can also add some assumptions about the lesson and some anticipated problems and solutions to those problems. The last point worth considering in a lesson plan is the detailed description of the stages of the lesson with the procedures, timing, types of interaction, and possibly the skills that are going to be practiced. In the end we can draw a smiley face.

101. What should a good lesson plan look like?

Well, just look ↑↑↑↑↑↑↑↑↑↑↑↑↑↑↑↑↑↑↑↑↑↑↑↑↑↑↑↑↑↑↑↑↑↑↑↑↑↑↑↑↑↑↑

I mean come on!!!!!!!!!!

100. Guidelines for error correction. (sie duzo nazbierało tego) ;P

There are three basic types of error correction:
1. Teacher correction: The teacher corrects the student.
2. Self-correction: The teacher indicates the student has made a mistake or error (usually by repeating in a quizzical tone) and gives the student an opportunity to self-correct.
3. Peer correction: The teacher asks other students to correct the mistake or error.
A decision to correct or not is based on many factors: the most important criteria is whether the activity you are doing is for accuracy or fluency.

When you are concentrating on accuracy, you are making sure that what the students produce is grammatically correct English with correct vocabulary.

When you are concentrating on fluency, you are helping students to express themselves in English. You are not concerned with errors of grammar and vocabulary.

Typical accuracy activities: grammar presentations, fill-in exercises, frame dialogues.
Typical fluency activities: role plays, speeches, communicative activities, games.

Criteria for dealing with Spoken Errors
In 'Correction' by M.Bartram and R.Walton present these questions as a guide to deciding whether to let an error go or not. Which do you consider to be the most important?

1. Does the mistake affect communication?
2. Are we concentrating on accuracy at the moment?
3. Is it really wrong? Or is it my imagination?
4. Why did the student make the mistake?
5. Is it the first time the student has spoken for a long time?
6. Could the student react badly to my correction?
7. Have they met this language point in the current lesson?
8. Is it something the students have already met?
9. Is this a mistake that several students are making?
10. Would the mistake irritate someone?
11. What time is it?
12. What day is it?
13. What's the weather like?

Practical techniques / ideas for correcting spoken English

• On-the-spot correction techniques.
  These are used for dealing with errors as they occur.

• Using fingers
  For example, to highlight an incorrect form or to indicate a word order mistake.

• Gestures
  For example, using hand gestures to indicate the use of the wrong tense.

• Mouthing
  This is useful with pronunciation errors. The teacher mouths the correct pronunciation without making a sound. For example, when an individual sound is mispronounced or when the word stress is wrong. Of course it can also be used to correct other spoken errors.

• Reformulation
  For example:
  Student: I went in Scotland
  Teacher: Oh really, you went to Scotland, did you?

• Delayed Correction techniques - For example, after a communication activity.

• Noting down errors
  Either on an individual basis i.e. focusing on each student's mistakes or for the class as a whole. 'Hot cards', as Bartram and Walton call individual notes, can be used to focus on recurring mistakes. The student then has a written suggestion of what to work on.

• Recording
  In addition to recording students (individually, in pairs etc.) during a speaking task to make them aware of errors that affect communication we can use a technique from Community Language Learning. Students sit in a circle with a tape recorder in the centre. In monolingual classes they check with the teacher, who is bilingual, about how to say something in English, then rehearse it and record it. At the end of the lesson they listen back to the tape and can focus on specific utterances etc. With higher level multilingual classes students take part in a discussion which they have prepared for in advance. When they have something to say they record themselves and then pause the tape. Just as with monolingual classes they can use the teacher as a linguistic resource. At the end of the discussion students analyse their performance with the teacher. The focus is on improving the quality of what they say and expanding their inter-language. Although this form of discussion may seem a bit artificial it has two main advantages:

• Students pay more attention to what they say as they are taking part in a kind of performance (it is being recorded)

• Students not only become more aware of gaps in their spoken English but also can see how their spoken English is improving.

A model for Correcting Writing
When writing we do not have the chance to rephrase or clarify what we are saying. Our message must be clear the first time. Written errors are also less tolerated than spoken errors outside the classroom.
Look at this model for correcting written work and evaluate it for your teaching situation.

• 1. Comprehensibility

• Can you understand the output?

• Are there areas of incoherence?

• Do these affect the overall message?

• Does communication break down?

• 2. Task

• Has the student addressed the task?

• 3. Syntax and Lexis

• Are they appropriate to the task?

• Are they accurate?

 Correction techniques
It can be difficult to decide on what and how much to correct in a student's piece of writing. Students can develop a negative attitude towards writing because their teacher corrects all their errors or if the teacher only corrects a few, they might feel that the teacher hasn't spent sufficient time looking at their work. Evaluate the following techniques and decide which would be appropriate for your teaching situation.Underline inappropriate language in a piece of writing using a specific colour.

• Using a different colour from above, underline examples of appropriate language.

• Correct errors by writing the correct forms in their place.

• Use codes in the margin to identify the type of error(s), for example, VOC = a lexical error. Students have to identify the error(s) and if possible make a correction.

• Alternatively put crosses in the margin for the number of errors in each line. Students then try to identify the errors and make corrections.

• Put students into pairs / groups. They correct each other's work using one or more of the techniques above.

• From time to time give students an individual breakdown of recurring problems in their written work.

99. The roles of teachers in the classroom.

the teacher is a controller, facilitator, resource, assessor, provider of input, researcher, participant, negotiator, activator and?

98. Various teaching styles - adv and disadv.

Formal Authority

Teachers who have a formal authority teaching style tend to focus on content. This style is generally teacher-centred, where the teacher feels responsible for providing and controlling the flow of the content and the student is expected to receive the content.

One type of statement made by an instructor with this teaching style is "I am the flashlight for my students, I illuminate the content and materials so that my students can see the importance of the material and appreciate the discipline."

Teachers with this teaching style are not as concerned with building relationships with their students nor is it as important that their students form relationships with other students. This type of teacher doesn't usually require much student participation in class. "Sage on the stage" model.

Demonstrator or Personal Model

Teachers who have a demonstrator or personal model teaching style tend to run teacher-centred classes with an emphasis on demonstration and modeling. This type of teacher acts as a role model by demonstrating skills and processes and then as a coach/guide in helping students develop and apply these skills and knowledge.

A teacher with this type of teaching style might comment: "I show my students how to properly do a task or work through a problem and then I'll help them master the task or problem solution. It's important that my students can independently solve similar problems by using and adapting demonstrated methods."

Instructors with this teaching style are interested in encouraging student participation and adapting their presentation to include various learning styles. Students are expected to take some responsibility for learning what they need to know and for asking for help when they don't understand something.

Facilitator

Teachers who have a facilitator model teaching style tend to focus on activities. This teaching style emphasizes student-centered learning and there is much more responsibility placed on the students to take the initiative for meeting the demands of various learning tasks.

This type of teaching style works best for students who are comfortable with independent learning and who can actively participate and collaborate with other students.

Teachers typically design group activities which necessitate active learning, student-to-student collaboration and problem solving. This type of teacher will often try to design learning situations and activities that require student processing and application of course content in creative and original ways.

Delegator

Teachers who have a delegator teaching style tend to place much control and responsibility for learning on individuals or groups of students.

This type of teacher will often give students a choice designing and implementing their own complex learning projects and will act in a consultative role.

Students are often asked to work independently or in groups and must be able to maintain motivation and focus for complex projects. Students working in this type of setting learn more than just course specific topics as they also must be able to effectively work in group situations and manage various interpersonal roles.

97. Discipline problems: origins and ways of dealing with them.

I'll paste a short essay here.

dentifying the causes
"For every person wishing to teach, there are thirty persons not wishing to be taught" (anonymous)

This phrase may be a more real reflection on modern life than we realize. None of us teachers works in a vacuum. Students come to our classroom from their good or dysfunctional families; they also come to us right after a very difficult test in geometry, or right before a hated lesson of P.E. In other words, they come to our classroom in a certain state of mind, in a good or bad mood, and we become the unwilling recipients of the aftermath, or the pre-shock, as the case may be.

One of the most widespread reasons for bad discipline, however, is usually a student's inability to cope with the tasks. The noisiest students will demonstrate their frustration by loud outbursts, disruptive behavior, while the rest of the class may remain passive.


Identifying the ringleader(s)
Watch your class carefully each time a disruption occurs to see if indeed you are dealing with the same student(s) every time. Start your lesson as usual, follow your general plan. At the same time, be ready with an extra task or two for your ringleader.

Example: a girl in one of my senior class who had trouble with Conditionals erupted with, "You talk of those silly conditionals, I only want to talk of sex!" I said at once, "Good. Please come out to the board and write five sentences about your interest in Conditional 3". She capitulated at once and began to do the class exercise. Keep your troublemaker occupied!


Varying the traditional tasks
Your students' disruptive behavior may stem from their inability to cope with any one of the traditional skills. For example, one class may be quite good at speaking, but have trouble listening; or they may like to write, but dislike pair or group work. Try to identify the real source of trouble, and introduce some variety into your work. You may tell your class A, "Hmmm, your Listening Comprehension test is rather weaker than class B's… but you're quite good at grammar. Why don't we listen to similar recordings again and work out some new approaches?" A lesson in a computer lab, where students can use Spell Check and various Web dictionaries while writing, can do wonders for their writing.


Increasing motivation
What does a teacher do when students tell them they do not need this subject, and so they don't want to work at it? The answer depends on their grade level.

• If they still have a few years of school ahead of them, tell them this is a compulsory subject, period.

• If it is their last year of school, remind them they need it for their GCSE (School Certificate). Be matter-of-fact about it.

• Do insert phrases about the role of English, or any other foreign language you may be teaching, in the modern world.

• Extend their horizons by offering some creative tasks

• Find a Web project they may take part in at the European Schoolnet

• look for e-mail correspondence partners

• Be sure to praise them for any and every little success they have.
  

Establishing the priorities
This is your classroom. You are responsible for everything that goes on. Before facing your problem class, do a little auto-training: "I am a good teacher. I know what I am doing. I'll cope".

If your students do not pay attention to the bell, begin the lesson by either writing something on the board, or turning on the recorder at normal volume. Distribute some cards, open your book. Two minutes does it, usually. Define the priorities.

With younger students, you may tell them what it is they are going to master this time. With seniors, you may tell them that a certain aspect is a must because it is part of the final exam, while the other two tasks may be done as optional or group activities. Remember, it is normal for children to laugh at a lesson, sometimes!

Conclusion
"Headmasters have powers at their disposal with which Prime Ministers have never yet been invested." Winston Churchill.

Though not a headmaster, you have the power in your classroom. Even if you are dealing with children from dysfunctional families, or children who "do not want anything", you are the boss. Be sure of yourself, and your students will always feel it.

96. Qualities of a good lg teacher.

I could write that a good teacher has a good rapport with his\ her students, that he is well qualified and his knowledge is broad in many areas, that he is reliable, just, etc. but I found this set of nice responses to the question who is a quality teacher:

Quality teachers are always looking for ways to improve their craft. They don't use the same old units the same old ways. They "tweak," adjust, add, throw away, and constantly revise their curriculum to meet the needs of their kids.

Quality teachers talk about their craft with other teachers who share their passion. They refuse to live in a whiny world (although they MUST vent occasionally so they don't go crazy). They ask other teachers what methods they're using, and they always seek new ideas. They do not allow themselves to be sucked into the dark side with their negative colleagues.

Quality teachers are willing to share their "stuff" and their knowledge with colleagues. Although they may not be mentoring formally, they seek out new teachers and offer help, support, and a listening ear. Their door is always open to colleagues who need to talk about whatever is on their minds.

Quality teachers never rest on their laurels. They do professional development by choice, not by force. They enjoy learning new methods and implementing new ideas. They go for advanced degrees, NB certification, etc., always looking for new ways to challenge themselves.

Quality teachers make their voice heard to administration and central office by offering suggestions and constructive criticism. They cultivate positive relationships with people in power in order to affect positive change in their buildings and systems on behalf of their students.

Quality teachers read professionally and keep up with the latest research in education, always looking for "what works."

Quality teachers set a positive example for their colleagues by following rules set by administration and by honoring and respecting their leaders in the building and in the system. If they disagree with an administrative decision, they do it respectfully and without rancor or malice. They are supportive of their leaders.

Quality teachers see every kid as a parent's most precious possession. They do their best to nurture each student and help him or her grow in all ways possible, even when the kid is unlovable and hard to deal with every day.

Quality teachers realize that the students are the bottom line. Every school-related decision they make in some way demonstrates this understanding. What's best for the kids is the driving force behind their work.

Quality teachers remain positive about doing everything in their power to make sure that every child succeeds to the best of his/her ability. They know how to collaborate effectively with peers to achieve this goal for students.

Quality teachers understand that teaching is about learning. They focus on who's learning, and how they're learning, and how we (and they) know they're learning. Quality teachers also know what to do when students are not learning.

Quality teachers realize that their job is not their life. They don't live at school. They exercise, have relationships with friends and family, rest and recharge, and find things to do that make them happy and have NOTHING to do with school. They feed and care for their spirits and their bodies.

Quality teachers have a deep understanding of the content knowledge they teach and the ability to convey that understanding.

Quality teachers teach the whole child and understand that there is more to the student's life than just school. Teachers put the whole child's well being first and foremost.

Quality teachers:

** do what they feel is best for students while ignoring the politics of the school climate

**are positive about their students when speaking of them - do not join in the lounge litany of how horrible their student(s) are this year

**welcome constructive criticism from their administrators and peers, and actively seek it as a way to improve themselves

**are constantly looking for ways to enhance the learning of their class, whether through formal professional development, reading, web browsing, networking with peers, or continued education

**are life-long learners in all areas, not just those they themselves teach or are interested in

**realize that their students and their parents are the reason they receive their paychecks, and treat them accordingly

**sit in the front, and participate eagerly at staff meetings

**volunteer for roles outside their teaching assignment - whether it is in sports, community, 4-H, chaperoning dances, fun nights, field trips.

**most of all, enjoy their students

95. Good language learners: do they exist?

Here the question is in referral to the issue of aptitude; whether it exists or not. The views are diverse but in general one could state that some learners can be called skilled language learners (or even having this inborn `gift' or talent for learning languages) The true problem emerges when it comes to measuring aptitude and searching for pre-study assumptions.

Of course there is also a number of characteristics that can be easily listed as making a good lg learner and they might be common to all learners in general. These are: being thorough, hard working, having good, trained memory, being able to concentrate etc. Going into the area of language learners we can add that a good learner might (but doesn't have to) be characterized by a good sense of hearing, easiness in communicating, well established ability to verbalize his thoughts, and so on. (this would be my answer)

94. Dealing with mixed ability classes:

Needs Analysis
Use a needs analysis to prompt the students to reflect upon their learning style, learning strategies, language needs, learning enjoyment, motivation, language strengths and weaknesses. Questions that might be included are...

• What kinds of class activities do you enjoy / benefit from?

• Which language skill do you most wish to develop?

• Do you prefer working individually or with a partner?

• Would you rather sit and listen to the teacher all lesson or participate in group work?

Students compare their answers in pairs or small groups. You should collect the information and prepare a statistical representation of the key questions and answers. This will help to develop the sense of shared community in the class.

Explain and discuss
Explain the mixed level situation to the students and give a list of possible approaches to the teaching and learning. In pairs, the students rank the approaches/ideas according to their suitability for the situation.

Following feedback, you should highlight the strategies you plan to use.

A student contract
Developing with the students, or perhaps writing it yourself, a contract of behaviour for activities is a useful device. 'I will help and support my activity partner.' 'I will participate in group work.'

Tell them what you are going to do
If you think your students are not mature enough to carry out this kind of reflection, explain the situation to the class and tell them what strategies you will be using. If students know what to expect, you can hope that they will cooperate.

Student self-awareness
Encourage students to develop an awareness of their own language abilities and learning needs. What are their strengths and weaknesses, and how can they focus on these? How can they measure their own progress?

This may take the form of a learner's diary, regular self-assessment, keeping records of mistakes, keeping a record of things learnt.

Work groupings
Varying the way students work in the class will help meet the variety of levels in the class.

Range of tasks
This involves creating or providing different tasks for different levels.

For example, the number of comprehension questions for a text. You might have two sets of questions, A and B. Perhaps all students have to complete set A, the stronger ones also have to complete set B. Or, they even have an extra reading text.

Extra work / homework
It is straightforward to give different students different homework - unless it is part of a standardised assessment procedure. Give weaker students homework which really does consolidate the class work, and give the stronger students work that will widen their knowledge or put it to the test a little more.

Student nomination

When asking for answers to questions, ask particular students, rather than asking the class in a open fashion e.g. 'What's the answer to number 9?' is an open question, whereas 'What's the answer to number nine, Maria?' is a nominated question. If you ask open questions, the same old strong students will provide the answers. This creates a poor dynamic to the class, for many reasons.

Error correction
In a mixed level class you can have different expectations of the language the different students produce. Sometimes, it can push stronger students if you correct them heavily - although you should be sensitive about this. And for weaker students, be more selective in your error correction.

93. Features of a good homework assignment?

To my mind a good homework assignment should be relevant to the already covered material, should be challenging, but not discouraging, it should be well prepared (by the teacher before giving the task to the learners). The task shouldn't be too long (there are also other subjects to be studied at home) it should be interesting and involving for the students. Homework assignments should be, in my opinion, different from the tasks done in classroom. Homework should also help to develop students' autonomy and are a great way of dealing with heterogeneous classes.

92. The role of homework

Ok,… like I started to write about it in the previous point. Homework also is a way of training the students' brain. It also provides the students with extra tasks in order to train the subject that was covered in the classroom. It is also quite important in developing student-parent relations in school life.

91. Using songs and poetry in language classroom

Crap! A lllllloooooooottttt of writing here. 

cut and paste!;)

Advantages of using songs in the language classroom:

• To present language point, topic, vocabulary;

• To practise language point, lexis, etc.;

• To focus on common learners' errors in a more indirect way;

• To encourage creativity and use of imagination;

• To provide relaxed classroom atmosphere;

• To bring variety and fun to teaching and learning;

• To encourage intensive and extensive listening;

• To stimulate discussion of attitudes and feelings.

Disadvantages of using songs:

• songs contain poor- quality language;

• not everyone can sing;

• it may be too noisy in the classroom;

• songs are not serious;

• time-consuming preparation.

What can we do with a song?

• read or listen to the song;

• listen and discuss;

• brainstorm ideas about the song;

• sing the song and record it;

• write a summary of the song;

• produce a class song book;

• identify poetic elements in the song ;

• read a gapped text and fill in the blanks;

• order the jumbled sentences;

• take dictation;

• change the text;

• invent mimed actions to the song;

• predict the content of the song by reading its title;

• put the pictures in order;

• write to known tunes;

• draw pictures.

POETRY (POTTERY) :

Poems to develop receptive skills:

Active listening
It is crucial for students to be able to get a feel for the rhythm and sounds of a poem - more so than for most pieces of prose. This isn't always easy in a second language, and so listening to their teacher read the poem, or to a professional recording, perhaps by the poet or by an actor, is, I feel, essential.

• As with any listening activity, students will need some kind of preparation and task so that they can be actively engaged. They might be asked to check predictions that arose from a warm-up discussion, to compare their suggested rhyming couplets with the poet's, or to identify stressed words and syllables.

• You might also want to get your students to listen to recorded or live discussions about poems. This can, for example, take the form of a couple of teachers or a group of students giving their views on a poem, or even an interview with the poet.

• I'm a big fan of jigsaw listening because of the natural information gap. If your school has the facilities, you might like to;

• divide your students into two, or even three groups

• give each group a different cassette or CD and tasks to work on

• then they come back together to share what they have learned.

• Remember that your own enthusiasm is a key factor in any activity relating to literature in the classroom.

Finally, don't forget to encourage art for art's sake. Listening for pleasure, to poetry (or to anything else, for that matter), is to be fostered at every opportunity, because of the obvious benefits which include motivation, vocabulary acquisition and learner autonomy. Many good song lyrics could be termed poetry and treated accordingly in the classroom, copyright rules permitting.

Active reading
Reading activities can centre around not only the poems themselves, but also around background reading sources like biography or criticism.

• Some reading texts might be produced by other students, perhaps based on internet research, if your school has the facilities.

• Don't get stuck in literary analysis unless your students have specifically asked for a literature lesson, but do draw attention to useful syntax, grammar and vocabulary, and beware of common poetic conventions like inverted word order, ensuring that students are aware that this is a deviation from the norms of everyday English language.

• Too much analysis can kill enjoyment, and we are aiming for the opposite! As a pre-reading activity, I get the students to predict what they are about to read. With poetry, this can be done with the title as a catalyst, by revealing the lines gradually on an overhead projector, or by looking at the first verse of a longer poem. Refer students back to what they have read in the text so that they are justifying their predictions.

• You might like to prepare some jigsaw reading exercises too. With shorter poems, this might involve different groups working on different, thematically related, poems, each group having the same set of questions.

• Exam students might benefit from some discourse analysis: it's easy to make your own cloze exercise with a poem, and of course I always encourage my students to try to deduce the meaning of new vocabulary from the context.

• More advanced learners might enjoy identifying register and reading between the lines to infer meaning. Once again, exploit the chance to encourage reading for pleasure too.

Some pros and cons
You might need to spend a bit of time finding a poem that links thematically with your scheme of work, and making sure you respect the copyright rules.

• I have rejected poems that are too long, too archaic or too obscure, or that I can't muster any enthusiasm for or that the students may not respond to. The wrong poem is worse than no poem at all.

• I find that I need to explain my pedagogical rationale and the aims of activities very clearly, and students who have disliked studying literature in their own language may need extra motivation.

• I sometimes reassure my students that their other needs, e.g. exam preparation, are being met.

• It's worth taking the risk and using poems though, because poems can foster a love of English, and they are so versatile.

• I have used them as warmers or fillers, and as the catalyst for many different activities with students ranging from Pre-intermediate to Proficiency, and with multilevel classes.

• Students find a poem a welcome, and sometimes inspirational, change from a coursebook. Poems can be involving, motivating and memorable, and they can supplement and enrich just about any lesson.

poems to develop productive skills:

Communicative speaking activities
Before doing any productive work, I like to give my students plenty of pre-reading activities so that they are adequately prepared.

• As a way in to a poem, I might play some background music to create the atmosphere, show some pictures to introduce the topic, and then get students to think about their personal knowledge or experience which relates to this topic.

• They then talk about the poem, first with a partner and then in small groups, perhaps coming together as a class at the end to share ideas. I monitor and feed in ideas and vocabulary if necessary, give brief feedback on language used and note any language problems to be dealt with at a later date.

• I usually prepare worksheets for pre-reading speaking activities which might involve a quiz, a questionnaire, sentence stems to be completed and discussed, statements to be ranked and discussed, and so on.

• Students might predict endings to verses, the whole poem, or events occurring after the end of the poem.

• Afterwards, the students could talk about their personal response to the poem, discuss the characters and theme, or debate the moral issues.

• Role plays work well, interviewing a partner, or even dramatising the poem and making a video. Students could compare poems on related topics, with different groups working on different poems and then regrouping to pool their ideas.

Working on pronunciation
It can be fun to get students to rehearse and perform a poem. I read the poem to them or play a recording, and they identify the stresses and pauses.

• We take a chunk (usually a line, sometimes two) at a time, and one half of the class claps out the rhythm while the other half beats time, and then they swap over.

• I recite while they mumble rhythmically, and then as their confidence grows they could chant in a whisper, a shout, or show a range of emotion. For me, this tends to work best when it is improvised. I keep it snappy - it's a high energy activity, and you have to know and trust each other!

• I sometimes do intensive phoneme work centred on the rhyming patterns in the poem: Some poems are crying out to be exploited in this way. I elicit possible rhymes before revealing the poet's choice, and discuss which suggestions have exactly the same sound and which don't, leading to a minimal pair activity.

Writing activities
A poem can spark off some wonderful creative writing. Students can add more lines or stanzas individually or in pairs or groups.

• They can write a letter to a character in the poem, write about what happened before the beginning or after the ending of the poem and so on.

• Students could use the poem as a starting point and model for some parallel writing: Each group might contribute a verse to a collective poem (or rap).

• Genre transfer presents a lot of opportunities for writing practice; letters, diary entries, radio plays, newspaper articles, agony aunt columns all based on the original text from a poem.

• My students have found reformulation exercises very stimulating, where they switch between formal and informal language.

• Longer poems can be summarised in fifty words.

• It is also fun to get students to transform content words to synonyms or antonyms and then discuss the subtleties of vocabulary.

Some pros and cons
You might need to spend a bit of time finding a poem that links thematically with your scheme of work, and making sure you respect the copyright rules.

• I have rejected poems that are too long, too archaic or too obscure, or that I can't muster any enthusiasm for or that the students may not respond to. The wrong poem is worse than no poem at all.

• I find that I need to explain my pedagogical rationale and the aims of activities very clearly, and students who have disliked studying literature in their own language may need extra motivation.

• I sometimes reassure my students that their other needs, e.g. exam preparation, are being met.

• It's worth taking the risk and using poems though, because poems can foster a love of English, and they are so versatile.

• I have used them as warmers or fillers, and as the catalyst for many different activities with students ranging from Pre-intermediate to Proficiency, and with multilevel classes.

• Students find a poem a welcome, and sometimes inspirational, change from a coursebook. Poems can be involving, motivating and memorable, and they can supplement and enrich just about any lesson.

90. Should we use literature in lg teaching?

Why use drama / theatre texts in the language classroom?
Collie and Slater (1987) focused on the positive contributions language learning through literature could make in that literary texts constituted valuable authentic material as it exposes the learner to different registers, types of language use.

Writers such as Maley, and Duff, (1978) and Wessels, (1987) have pointed to the values and uses of drama:

'Drama can help the teacher to achieve 'reality' in several ways. It can overcome the students' resistance to learning the new language:

• by making the learning of the new language an enjoyable experience

• by setting realistic targets for the students to aim for

• by creative 'slowing down' of real experience

• by linking the language-learning experience with the student's own experience of life

And drama can create in students a need to learn the language:

• by the use of 'creative tension' (situations requiring urgent solutions);

• by putting more responsibility on the learner, as opposed to the teacher.'
  (Wessel: 53-54)

Drama provides cultural and language enrichment by revealing insights into the target culture and presenting language contexts that make items memorable by placing them in a realistic social and physical context.

The rest I know not!

Abbreviations: acc= according, L= learner, LA= lg acquisition, ss= students, SLL= second lg learning

The first stage of the LA process during which students may not speak, but can respond using a variety of strategies including pointing to an object, picture, or person; performing an act, gesturing or nodding; or responding with a simple "yes" or "no."

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