8.Transformational -generative grammar: Problems with phrase-structure grammar - passivization, conjunction, subordination These structures cannot be accommodated in PS grammar, as we only have one symbol on the left side of the arrow; conjunction: The scene of - the movie - was in Chicago.The scene of - the play - was in Chicago. The scene of - ..................................... - was in Chicago. (the phrases must be constituents of the same type)passivization active (input) passive (output) NP1+Aux+ V + NP2 → NP2+ Aux+ V + by+ NP1 ----------------------- ------------------------------- structural description structural change subordination [he said] [that he was coming]- is derived out of two kernel sentences; In TRANSFORMATIONAL GRAMMAR we have:PS rules + lexicon + transformation; new component; Transformations operate on underlying strings which are not sentences yet, e.g: Underlying string: the man + present+ may + have+ en+ open+ the door; Sentences: < The man may have opened the door. < The door may have been opened by the man.deep structure- is produced by inserting words from the lexicon into trees created by the PS rules. Surface structure when all the transformations have been applied (the final shape of the sentence)this distinction helps to disambiguate sentences SS→ The shooting of the hunters was terrible.→DS. 1: the way in which they shoot was terrible →DS. 2: the fact that they were shooting was terrible Four basic transformational processes (operations): < adjunction adding an element XY→XYZ(He could do it→ He could not do it) < substitution substitute one element of a structure with another XBC→XDC < deletion an element is deleted XY→X (English is spoken by people→ English is spoken) < permutation change of elements XY→YX (You can do it. →Can you do it?)

9. Transformations: Phrase structure rules: Transformational rules: They form structure, They organize structure, Meaning forming, Meaning preserving, Lg universal, Lg specific (but the basic processes are universal), Context free or c. Sensitive, Always context sensitive, Obligatory, Obligatory (necessary to produce a well-formed sentence) or optional (e.g. shortened forms: he will- he'll), ordered (one must be applied before another) e.g. imperative sentences You wash you 1.reflexive→You wash yourself ! 2. imperative→ Wash yourself ! 2. DS. vs SS < Disambiguation of sentences: Flying planes can be dangerous.→planes that fly →to fly< Discussion of difference between structures: a) He's eager to please.(1) DS→ He pleases someone.(he - the subject) He's easy to please. (2) DS→ Sb pleases him. He's pleased. (he- the object) b) I expected [the doctor to examine John]. (1) passive is possibleI persuaded the doctor [to examine John] (2) passive is impossible: Functions of transformations:a) transformations bring to the surface the strings of underlying structure: DS→TRANSFORMATIONS→SSb) They are used for testing the analysis of structures, eg.: Charles deceived everybody. Passive: Everybody was deceived by Charles- ( if we get a grammatical sentence it means that the transformations were correct) c) used to identify constituents d) filtering function- relativisation NP S the boy who wrote an exercise the subject of NP is identical to the subject of a relative clause: The following structures are blocked because the transformation cannot be applied:NP NP S the boy the girl wrote an exercise e) provide one of universal principles of human language Model of TG grammar - first version of the theory: the initial component (S)› phrase-structure component› transformational component› morphophonemic component - converts the string of words and morphemes produced into a string of phonological units (e.g. have+s = has, take+ed= took) › phonological representation of sentences (informs how to pronounce a given sentence)

10. Changes in Chomsky' s grammar: the notion of optional transformations was dropped (we no longer transform sentence into passive) passive is generated by Phrase Structure rules: VP→ V + NP + ( by + passive); questions and negations: previously: transformations- now: PS component NEG; Q; Co-occurrence of items within the sentence a) subcategorization rules - eliminating ill-formed sentences from the point of view of grammar b) selectional restrictions - eliminating sentences which are grammatical but do not fit for other reasons (lexical restrictions)Ad a) Subcategorization rules eg. eat→ a monotransitive verb that is followed by an object (NP), so we have a rule that the verb is transitive and can occur in the context of NP V→ transitive / ____ NP; In a dictionary entry “eat” must have the feature “transitive”: EAT [+ V+ __+ NP]; Ad b) selectional restrictions: The verbs are selected with regard to the nouns that precede or follow them. Features help us to characterize lexemes eg. “man” : [+human; +male ; + adult] features which appear generally with nouns. A dictionary entry provides 3 pieces of information: a)phonological b)structural characteristic (occurrence in the sentence) c) semantic information; Model of grammar (second version) - the addition of the semantic component; word meaning is governed by the same grammar; Chomsky's grammar has 3 basic elements: PHONOLOGY←SYNTAX→SEMANTICS; SYNTAX is the central element; it creates an infinite number of sentences which are related to meaning and sound by the semantic and phonological components.

A competitive school- Generative semantics - Fillmore's theory of case DS= Semantics He sliced the salami with a knife. He used knife to slice the salami. The meaning is the same, that's why the deep structure must be semantic Case for Case analyses such sentences 1. John broke the window. 2. Hammer brokJohn broke the window with a hammer.Differences between grammatical and semantic ideas: Ad.1 John- agent; hammer occupies the position of the subject but it's not the agent, it's the Instrument We can distinguish the following semantic relations: -agentive case - the performer , - instrument-sth comes about what thing is used to do sth., - objective case- most neutral case: I bought a house., - beneficiary- I gave the book to John.,- locative- place in which sth is situated or takes place, -factitive- objects resulting from the activity.; extended standard theory (Chomsky 70s); a) impose new restrictions; I believe [the dog is hungry].The dog is believed is hungry; The object becomes the subject. He introduced TENSED S CONDITION rule that blocked the production of such sentences. The condition is that the two NPs must belong to one sentence. If the subordinate clause is tensed it means that the verb phrase is inflected than the NP movement is obstructed . If the clause has a verb that is tensed we just move it to the beginning. John seems to like Bill. The movement is possible only when there's untensed verb in the subordinate clue. It's the surface structure that determines semantic interpretation of the sentence, semantic role of DS lost its significance.; Base : Rules → DS→ Transformations →surface structure← phonological component; Lexicon; Semantic component; We will still have 2 levels of ling. Structure but DS lost its significance.

---