1.Features of Language: arbitrariness- concerns the connection between language and the physical features of the objects they stand for. The connection is not natural. In different languages we have different words for one object (dom, house, la casa, la maison, das Haus). However, there are
onomatopoeic words, where the connection is natural, and is not arbitrary, but conventional (the words follow the rules of a given lg), e.g. buzz=brzęczeć
displacement- we can talk about things or people that are not here duality the forms of language are organized at 2 levels: the phonological level (higher) and the grammatical level (lower) The number of sounds is limited. Meaning appears at the second level. The limited number of sounds create a number of meaningful elements.discreteness- human speech can be divided into smaller units which are discrete. Our speech is linear, forms strings of sounds.productivity-(creative aspect of lg) our ability to combine morphemes and words (using grammatical rules) into an infinite number of structures.
Grammar is a technical term to distinguish syntax from phonology and semantics. For Noam Chomsky grammar consists of 3 components: semantic, syntactic and phonological. The central element is syntax, as the syntactic component produces an infinite number of structures with “help” of phonology and semantics:grammar=phonology+SYNTAX+semantics
Approaches to language: traditional grammar, Structuralism, transformational generative approach, cognitive linguistics
2.Traditional Grammar:word a semantic unit of meaning, a phonological unit, a smallest unit in isolation, Inflection - word/lexeme; 3 types of languages:....................................... (Latin), agglutinative language (Swahili, Turkish), isolating (Chinese); sentence:an expression of a complete thought, consist of a subject and predicate, pattern of sentence NV>NVA.NVNN- all other sentences are derived from the first pattern, a combination of a noun phrase and a verb phrase,ways of linking sentences: coordination and .........................................; grammatical categories - some grammatical notions defined in terms of semantics:number≠ counting (oats are, wheat is), gender ≠ sex, tense ≠ time,person, case, aspect, mood, voice; concord: - in Latin: Verb “agrees” with their subject in person and in number.Adjectives agree in gender, number with a noun they modify
government - verbs and prepositions “govern” the noun, pronoun or noun phrase dependent upon them in a particular case; inflexion- the category remains unchanged (go-goes); derivation - the category changes (write-writer); adjective - usually modifies noun; adverb - modify different categories (how, when, why);
3.Traditional Grammar history: ancient times- Greek grammar:
Plato (N -V distinction), Aristotle (classification of gender, recognition of tense) Stoics - distinction between form and meaning, distinguished 5 parts of speech N (Common and proper), verb, conjunction and article, classified inflexion, distinguished cases, aspect, passive-active, transitive - intransitive verbs
Dionysius Trax 100 BC- the first comprehensive and systematic grammatical description of Greek.Roman grammarians used traditional grammar to interpret Latin. A typical Latin grammar: definition of grammar: the art of correct speech and understanding, parts of speech, discussion of good and bad style medieval times- grammatical categories were derived from philosophy; the task of grammar was to discover the relation of the word, human intellect and the object that is signified by the word:
Sign -Thought- thing
word-concept-referent
Latin in every part of the world.- a foreign language now and primarily a written one; the Renaissance and after - vernacular languages were made by means of traditional grammar's principles. Grammar=the art. of speaking and writing correctly. grammar introduced by teachers from Port Royal France, 17thc.) Grammaire generale et raisone. Lg is a product of reason derived out of logical system; different languages are varieties of a more general logical and rational system; discovery of Sanscrit (18th c.)- (old language used in India, related to Latin and Greek) by W. Jones; Panini (4th BC) the greatest of Indian grammarians.Indian linguistic work was independent of Greco-Roman tradition and in a sense superior to it (at least in phonetics and the study of the structure of words); comparative philology- 19th linguists emphasized the theory of linguistic change and that different languages are related to one another; The “...........-....................” hypothesis - most of the languages of Europe and many languages of Asia belong to one family; Classical fallacy: Classical grammarians didn't take into account levels of linguistic organization; they were concerned with written language; the language of the educated was more “pure” than the “corrupted” usage of the illiterate;
4. Modern linguistics: Structuralism- a new approach to language, language is a system of relations organized in levels.Two schools of structuralism: European (F. de Saussure) and American (L. Bloomfield); Ferdinand de Saussure - a Swiss linguist - the father of modern linguistics -1916- publication of his lectures The Course in General Linguistics.
Four basic distinctions:Langue-a system of relations type- a group of certain features in every token,/sentence- an abstract unit, sphere of lng/parole-the use of language/token - an individual realization of a type; utterance- realization of the language, event in time&space Syntagmatic in praesentia(relation between elements that are present in a sentence); paradigmatic relationsin absentia(relation between elements of a paradigm:
only ........... of them is present in a sentence)synchronic (Description of a lg at a specific moment in time) diachronic (Description of a time development of a particular lg) Signifier- the sound pattern of a word, signified- the concept it stands for (the meaning)
Modern Linguistics:spoken language is primary, ................................. is a means of interpreting speech, linguistics is a descriptive science, not .............................., autonomy of studies, linguists are interested in all languages, there are no ........................ languages, the priority of synchronic description of lg. OTHERS: The Prague Circle - R. Jakobson - theory of communication, N. Trubetzkoy-theory of phoneme; Danish School - l. Hjemslev - developed the concept of phoneme;
London School(constructualism) - Firth - put emphasis on contexts in which language is used(the meaning is derived from a context), B. Malinowski - phatic communion (a lng function- only to maintain contact eg. “how are U”)
5. American structuralism: Structuralism- the most influential school 1930-1950: L. Bloomfield (“Language”1933); Z. Harris, F. Boas; Language is a system of relations (structure)- Definition: it is an arbitrary system of articulated sounds made use of by a group of humans as a means of carrying on the affairs of their society; The task of a linguist- to establish phonological and .morphological structure of lg They wanted to be scientific (results must be verifiable), empirical and objective (no introspection).Indian lgs could not be studied on the basis of Latin (no written texts); linguists had to go out and do “field work” How?; Procedures - gather data (a corpus of utterances), discover the rules that govern the lg ( by the isolation and classification of linguistic units), relate them to the data
Levels of linguistic description: 3.syntactic 2. Morphological 1. phonological
Meaning is ...............................the proper analysis (no tools to analyze it); IC analysis (.immediate constituents); treat sentences consisting of two elements:
[(Poor) (John)] [(ran) (away)]
- labelled bracketing NP VP
[(Poor) (John)] [(ran) (away)]
AP N V PART
6. The goals of Chomskyan linguistics: Syntactic .Structures (1957) - introduced the main ideas of generative grammar.grammar- a model of the competence of the fluent native speaker; linguists' goal: to formulate a finite set of rules specifying how to form, pronounce and interpret sentences of a given lg; these rules will generate the infinite set of well-formed sentences in the languages; Competence vs. performance, grammaticality vs acceptability, Competence:grammatical (knowledge of lg structures, how to create a good sentence), pragmatic(interpretation of sentences it concerns but the use of linguistic structures) performance errors - a linguist has to analyze the so called “raw” data and eliminate elements that a native speaker will claim ungrammatical; nativespeakers' intuition - the ability to make judgments whether a sentence is grammatical or not linguistic productivity/recursion- we are able to produce new sentences; sentences that we have never heard or produced before; lg acquisition is rule governed- it's not the process of imitation; children formulate a set of rules (hypotheses); they overgeneralize; The linguist collects data and tries to make up the hypotheses which accounts for the data then he test the hypothesis a set of evaluation procedures which say what description belongs to a linguistic theory and which doesn't.Definition of L - a set of (infinite or finite) sentences; each finite in length, constructed out of a finite set of elements to generate:Chomsky's grammar must generate an infinite number of sentences out of a finite number of rules and words (LEXICON& RULES) employing a mathematical, explicit terms explicit Generative:projective predictive, describes actual, and potential sentences; .......................formal-no ambiguities(described by set of rules), using finite formulas we generate, an infinite number of sentences
7.Chomsky's model of grammar: Finite state grammar: The generation of the sentence “This man has brought some bread”, Sentences are generated by means of choices, made from left to right; after the first element has been selected, every subsequent choice is determined by the preceding element. The grammar moves through different states (from start to the final stage-stop). Phrase structure grammar:based on rules, (called re-write rules), based on the concept of immediate constituents. We start with a sentence and analyze it into NP and VP. Sentence is an axiom: 1. S→NP+VP (any sentence can be re-written as NP and VP), 2.NP→T+N, 3.VP→V+NP., 4.T→ the, 5.N→man, ball….., 6.V→ hit, run, kick…; Derivation- a finite sequence of strings, beginning with an initial string of S, with each in the sequence being derived from the preceding string by the application of one of the instruction formulas (one at a time) Derivation: NP. + VP(I), T+N + VP(II), T+N + V+NP(III), The+N + V+NP(IV), the+man + V+NP(V), the+man + hit +NP(VI), the+man + hit+T+N(VII), the + man + hit + the +N(VIII), the + man + hit + the+ ball(IX); The process is finished when a string cannot be rewritten any further by the rules
The derivation of the sentence may be represented by a tree-diagram (phrase marker- a visual representation of the constituent structure of the sentence); Phrase markers provide 2 basic pieces of information: they analyze sentences into parts that correspond to certain types, they give a formal representation of the linear relationship of the elements
1.Features of Language: arbitrariness- concerns the connection between language and the physical features of the objects they stand for. The connection is not natural. In different languages we have different words for one object (dom, house, la casa, la maison, das Haus). However, there are onomatopoeic words, where the connection is natural, and is not arbitrary, but conventional (the words follow the rules of a given lg), e.g. buzz=brzęczeć displacement- we can talk about things or people that are not here duality the forms of language are organized at 2 levels: the phonological level (higher) and the grammatical level (lower) The number of sounds is limited. Meaning appears at the second level. The limited number of sounds create a number of meaningful elements.discreteness- human speech can be divided into smaller units which are discrete. Our speech is linear, forms strings of sounds.productivity-(creative aspect of lg) our ability to combine morphemes and words (using grammatical rules) into an infinite number of structures. Grammar is a technical term to distinguish syntax from phonology and semantics. For Noam Chomsky grammar consists of 3 components: semantic, syntactic and phonological. The central element is syntax, as the syntactic component produces an infinite number of structures with “help” of phonology and semantics:grammar=phonology+SYNTAX+semantics Approaches to language: traditional grammar, Structuralism, transformational generative approach, cognitive linguistics |
2.Traditional Grammar:word a semantic unit of meaning, a phonological unit, a smallest unit in isolation, Inflection - word/lexeme; 3 types of languages:....................................... (Latin), agglutinative language (Swahili, Turkish), isolating (Chinese); sentence:an expression of a complete thought, consist of a subject and predicate, pattern of sentence NV>NVA.NVNN- all other sentences are derived from the first pattern, a combination of a noun phrase and a verb phrase,ways of linking sentences: coordination and .........................................; grammatical categories - some grammatical notions defined in terms of semantics:number≠ counting (oats are, wheat is), gender ≠ sex, tense ≠ time,person, case, aspect, mood, voice; concord: - in Latin: Verb “agrees” with their subject in person and in number.Adjectives agree in gender, number with a noun they modify government - verbs and prepositions “govern” the noun, pronoun or noun phrase dependent upon them in a particular case; inflexion- the category remains unchanged (go-goes); derivation - the category changes (write-writer); adjective - usually modifies noun; adverb - modify different categories (how, when, why); |
3.Traditional Grammar history: ancient times- Greek grammar: Plato (N -V distinction), Aristotle (classification of gender, recognition of tense) Stoics - distinction between form and meaning, distinguished 5 parts of speech N (Common and proper), verb, conjunction and article, classified inflexion, distinguished cases, aspect, passive-active, transitive - intransitive verbs Dionysius Trax 100 BC- the first comprehensive and systematic grammatical description of Greek.Roman grammarians used traditional grammar to interpret Latin. A typical Latin grammar: definition of grammar: the art of correct speech and understanding, parts of speech, discussion of good and bad style medieval times- grammatical categories were derived from philosophy; the task of grammar was to discover the relation of the word, human intellect and the object that is signified by the word: Sign -Thought- thing word-concept-referent Latin in every part of the world.- a foreign language now and primarily a written one; the
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Renaissance and after - vernacular languages were made by means of traditional grammar's principles. Grammar=the art. of speaking and writing correctly. grammar introduced by teachers from Port Royal France, 17thc.) Grammaire generale et raisone. Lg is a product of reason derived out of logical system; different languages are varieties of a more general logical and rational system; discovery of Sanscrit (18th c.)- (old language used in India, related to Latin and Greek) by W. Jones; Panini (4th BC) the greatest of Indian grammarians.Indian linguistic work was independent of Greco-Roman tradition and in a sense superior to it (at least in phonetics and the study of the structure of words); comparative philology- 19th linguists emphasized the theory of linguistic change and that different languages are related to one another; The “...........-....................” hypothesis - most of the languages of Europe and many languages of Asia belong to one family; Classical fallacy: Classical grammarians didn't take into account levels of linguistic organization; they were concerned with written language; the language of the educated was more “pure” than the “corrupted” usage of the illiterate; |
4. Modern linguistics: Structuralism- a new approach to language, language is a system of relations organized in levels.Two schools of structuralism: European (F. de Saussure) and American (L. Bloomfield); Ferdinand de Saussure - a Swiss linguist - the father of modern linguistics -1916- publication of his lectures The Course in General Linguistics. Four basic distinctions:Langue-a system of relations type- a group of certain features in every token,/sentence- an abstract unit, sphere of lng/parole-the use of language/token - an individual realization of a type; utterance- realization of the language, event in time&space Syntagmatic in praesentia(relation between elements that are present in a sentence); paradigmatic relationsin absentia(relation between elements of a paradigm: only ........... of them is present in a sentence)synchronic (Description of a lg at a specific moment in time) diachronic (Description of a time development of a particular lg) Signifier- the sound pattern of a word, signified- the concept it stands for (the meaning)
|
Modern Linguistics:spoken language is primary, ................................. is a means of interpreting speech, linguistics is a descriptive science, not .............................., autonomy of studies, linguists are interested in all languages, there are no ........................ languages, the priority of synchronic description of lg. OTHERS: The Prague Circle - R. Jakobson - theory of communication, N. Trubetzkoy-theory of phoneme; Danish School - l. Hjemslev - developed the concept of phoneme; London School(constructualism) - Firth - put emphasis on contexts in which language is used(the meaning is derived from a context), B. Malinowski - phatic communion (a lng function- only to maintain contact eg. “how are U” |
5. American structuralism: Structuralism- the most influential school 1930-1950: L. Bloomfield (“Language”1933); Z. Harris, F. Boas; Language is a system of relations (structure)- Definition: it is an arbitrary system of articulated sounds made use of by a group of humans as a means of carrying on the affairs of their society; The task of a linguist- to establish phonological and .morphological structure of lg They wanted to be scientific (results must be verifiable), empirical and objective (no introspection).Indian lgs could not be studied on the basis of Latin (no written texts); linguists had to go out and do “field work” How?; Procedures - gather data (a corpus of utterances), discover the rules that govern the lg ( by the isolation and classification of linguistic units), relate them to the data Levels of linguistic description: 3.syntactic 2. Morphological 1. phonological Meaning is ...............................the proper analysis (no tools to analyze it); IC analysis (.immediate constituents); treat sentences consisting of two elements: [(Poor) (John)] [(ran) (away |
6. The goals of Chomskyan linguistics: Syntactic .Structures (1957) - introduced the main ideas of generative grammar.grammar- a model of the competence of the fluent native speaker; linguists' goal: to formulate a finite set of rules specifying how to form, pronounce and interpret sentences of a given lg; these rules will generate the infinite set of well-formed sentences in the languages; Competence vs. performance, grammaticality vs acceptability, Competence:grammatical (knowledge of lg structures, how to create a good sentence), pragmatic(interpretation of sentences it concerns but the use of linguistic structures) performance errors - a linguist has to analyze the so called “raw” data and eliminate elements that a native speaker will claim ungrammatical; nativespeakers' intuition - the ability to make judgments whether a sentence is grammatical or not linguistic productivity/recursion- we are able to produce new sentences; sentences that we have never heard or produced before; lg acquisition is rule governed- it's not the process of imitation; children formulate a set of rules (hypotheses); they overgeneralize; The linguist collects data and tries to make up the hypotheses which accounts for the data then he test the hypothesis a set of evaluation procedures which say what description belongs to a linguistic theory and which doesn't.Definition of L - a set of (infinite or finite) sentences; each finite in length, constructed out of a finite set of elements to generate:Chomsky's grammar must generate an infinite number of sentences out of a finite number of rules and words (LEXICON& RULES) employing a mathematical, explicit terms explicit Generative:projective predictive, describes actual, and potential sentences; .......................formal-no ambiguities(described by set of rules), using finite formulas we generate, an infinite number of sentences |
7.Chomsky's model of grammar: Finite state grammar: The generation of the sentence “This man has brought some bread”, Sentences are generated by means of choices, made from left to right; after the first element has been selected, every subsequent choice is determined by the preceding element. The grammar moves through different states (from start to the final stage-stop). Phrase structure grammar:based on rules, (called re-write rules), based on the concept of immediate constituents. We start with a sentence and analyze it into NP and VP. Sentence is an axiom: 1. S→NP+VP (any sentence can be re-written as NP and VP), 2.NP→T+N, 3.VP→V+NP., 4.T→ the, 5.N→man, ball….., 6.V→ hit, run, kick…; Derivation- a finite sequence of strings, beginning with an initial string of S, with each in the sequence being derived from the preceding string by the application of one of the instruction formulas (one at a time) Derivation: NP. + VP(I), T+N + VP(II), T+N + V+NP(III), The+N + V+NP(IV), the+man + V+NP(V), the+man + hit +NP(VI), the+man + hit+T+N(VII), the + man + hit + the +N(VIII), the + man + hit + the+ ball(IX); The process is finished when a string cannot be rewritten any further by the rules The derivation of the sentence may be represented by a tree-diagram (phrase marker- a visual representation of the constituent structure of the sentence); Phrase markers provide 2 basic pieces of information: they analyze sentences into parts that correspond to certain types, they give a formal representation of the linear relationship of the elements
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1.Features of Language: arbitrariness- concerns the connection between language and the physical features of the objects they stand for. The connection is not natural. In different languages we have different words for one object (dom, house, la casa, la maison, das Haus). However, there are
onomatopoeic words, where the connection is natural, and is not arbitrary, but conventional (the words follow the rules of a given lg), e.g. buzz=brzęczeć
displacement- we can talk about things or people that are not here duality the forms of language are organized at 2 levels: the phonological level (higher) and the grammatical level (lower) The number of sounds is limited. Meaning appears at the second level. The limited number of sounds create a number of meaningful elements.discreteness- human speech can be divided into smaller units which are discrete. Our speech is linear, forms strings of sounds.productivity-(creative aspect of lg) our ability to combine morphemes and words (using grammatical rules) into an infinite number of structures.
Grammar is a technical term to distinguish syntax from phonology and semantics. For Noam Chomsky grammar consists of 3 components: semantic, syntactic and phonological. The central element is syntax, as the syntactic component produces an infinite number of structures with “help” of phonology and semantics:grammar=phonology+SYNTAX+semantics
Approaches to language: traditional grammar, Structuralism, transformational generative approach, cognitive linguistics
2.Traditional Grammar:word a semantic unit of meaning, a phonological unit, a smallest unit in isolation, Inflection - word/lexeme; 3 types of languages:....................................... (Latin), agglutinative language (Swahili, Turkish), isolating (Chinese); sentence:an expression of a complete thought, consist of a subject and predicate, pattern of sentence NV>NVA.NVNN- all other sentences are derived from the first pattern, a combination of a noun phrase and a verb phrase,ways of linking sentences: coordination and .........................................; grammatical categories - some grammatical notions defined in terms of semantics:number≠ counting (oats are, wheat is), gender ≠ sex, tense ≠ time,person, case, aspect, mood, voice; concord: - in Latin: Verb “agrees” with their subject in person and in number.Adjectives agree in gender, number with a noun they modify
government - verbs and prepositions “govern” the noun, pronoun or noun phrase dependent upon them in a particular case; inflexion- the category remains unchanged (go-goes); derivation - the category changes (write-writer); adjective - usually modifies noun; adverb - modify different categories (how, when, why);
3.Traditional Grammar history: ancient times- Greek grammar:
Plato (N -V distinction), Aristotle (classification of gender, recognition of tense) Stoics - distinction between form and meaning, distinguished 5 parts of speech N (Common and proper), verb, conjunction and article, classified inflexion, distinguished cases, aspect, passive-active, transitive - intransitive verbs
Dionysius Trax 100 BC- the first comprehensive and systematic grammatical description of Greek.Roman grammarians used traditional grammar to interpret Latin. A typical Latin grammar: definition of grammar: the art of correct speech and understanding, parts of speech, discussion of good and bad style medieval times- grammatical categories were derived from philosophy; the task of grammar was to discover the relation of the word, human intellect and the object that is signified by the word:
Sign -Thought- thing
word-concept-referent
Latin in every part of the world.- a foreign language now and primarily a written one; the Renaissance and after - vernacular languages were made by means of traditional grammar's principles. Grammar=the art. of speaking and writing correctly. grammar introduced by teachers from Port Royal France, 17thc.) Grammaire generale et raisone. Lg is a product of reason derived out of logical system; different languages are varieties of a more general logical and rational system; discovery of Sanscrit (18th c.)- (old language used in India, related to Latin and Greek) by W. Jones; Panini (4th BC) the greatest of Indian grammarians.Indian linguistic work was independent of Greco-Roman tradition and in a sense superior to it (at least in phonetics and the study of the structure of words); comparative philology- 19th linguists emphasized the theory of linguistic change and that different languages are related to one another; The “...........-....................” hypothesis - most of the languages of Europe and many languages of Asia belong to one family; Classical fallacy: Classical grammarians didn't take into account levels of linguistic organization; they were concerned with written language; the language of the educated was more “pure” than the “corrupted” usage of the illiterate;
4. Modern linguistics: Structuralism- a new approach to language, language is a system of relations organized in levels.Two schools of structuralism: European (F. de Saussure) and American (L. Bloomfield); Ferdinand de Saussure - a Swiss linguist - the father of modern linguistics -1916- publication of his lectures The Course in General Linguistics.
Four basic distinctions:Langue-a system of relations type- a group of certain features in every token,/sentence- an abstract unit, sphere of lng/parole-the use of language/token - an individual realization of a type; utterance- realization of the language, event in time&space Syntagmatic in praesentia(relation between elements that are present in a sentence); paradigmatic relationsin absentia(relation between elements of a paradigm:
only ........... of them is present in a sentence)synchronic (Description of a lg at a specific moment in time) diachronic (Description of a time development of a particular lg) Signifier- the sound pattern of a word, signified- the concept it stands for (the meaning)
Modern Linguistics:spoken language is primary, ................................. is a means of interpreting speech, linguistics is a descriptive science, not .............................., autonomy of studies, linguists are interested in all languages, there are no ........................ languages, the priority of synchronic description of lg. OTHERS: The Prague Circle - R. Jakobson - theory of communication, N. Trubetzkoy-theory of phoneme; Danish School - l. Hjemslev - developed the concept of phoneme;
London School(constructualism) - Firth - put emphasis on contexts in which language is used(the meaning is derived from a context), B. Malinowski - phatic communion (a lng function- only to maintain contact eg. “how are U”)
5. American structuralism: Structuralism- the most influential school 1930-1950: L. Bloomfield (“Language”1933); Z. Harris, F. Boas; Language is a system of relations (structure)- Definition: it is an arbitrary system of articulated sounds made use of by a group of humans as a means of carrying on the affairs of their society; The task of a linguist- to establish phonological and .morphological structure of lg They wanted to be scientific (results must be verifiable), empirical and objective (no introspection).Indian lgs could not be studied on the basis of Latin (no written texts); linguists had to go out and do “field work” How?; Procedures - gather data (a corpus of utterances), discover the rules that govern the lg ( by the isolation and classification of linguistic units), relate them to the data
Levels of linguistic description: 3.syntactic 2. Morphological 1. phonological
Meaning is ...............................the proper analysis (no tools to analyze it); IC analysis (.immediate constituents); treat sentences consisting of two elements:
[(Poor) (John)] [(ran) (away)]
- labelled bracketing NP VP
[(Poor) (John)] [(ran) (away)]
AP N V PART
6. The goals of Chomskyan linguistics: Syntactic .Structures (1957) - introduced the main ideas of generative grammar.grammar- a model of the competence of the fluent native speaker; linguists' goal: to formulate a finite set of rules specifying how to form, pronounce and interpret sentences of a given lg; these rules will generate the infinite set of well-formed sentences in the languages; Competence vs. performance, grammaticality vs acceptability, Competence:grammatical (knowledge of lg structures, how to create a good sentence), pragmatic(interpretation of sentences it concerns but the use of linguistic structures) performance errors - a linguist has to analyze the so called “raw” data and eliminate elements that a native speaker will claim ungrammatical; nativespeakers' intuition - the ability to make judgments whether a sentence is grammatical or not linguistic productivity/recursion- we are able to produce new sentences; sentences that we have never heard or produced before; lg acquisition is rule governed- it's not the process of imitation; children formulate a set of rules (hypotheses); they overgeneralize; The linguist collects data and tries to make up the hypotheses which accounts for the data then he test the hypothesis a set of evaluation procedures which say what description belongs to a linguistic theory and which doesn't.Definition of L - a set of (infinite or finite) sentences; each finite in length, constructed out of a finite set of elements to generate:Chomsky's grammar must generate an infinite number of sentences out of a finite number of rules and words (LEXICON& RULES) employing a mathematical, explicit terms explicit Generative:projective predictive, describes actual, and potential sentences; .......................formal-no ambiguities(described by set of rules), using finite formulas we generate, an infinite number of sentences
7.Chomsky's model of grammar: Finite state grammar: The generation of the sentence “This man has brought some bread”, Sentences are generated by means of choices, made from left to right; after the first element has been selected, every subsequent choice is determined by the preceding element. The grammar moves through different states (from start to the final stage-stop). Phrase structure grammar:based on rules, (called re-write rules), based on the concept of immediate constituents. We start with a sentence and analyze it into NP and VP. Sentence is an axiom: 1. S→NP+VP (any sentence can be re-written as NP and VP), 2.NP→T+N, 3.VP→V+NP., 4.T→ the, 5.N→man, ball….., 6.V→ hit, run, kick…; Derivation- a finite sequence of strings, beginning with an initial string of S, with each in the sequence being derived from the preceding string by the application of one of the instruction formulas (one at a time) Derivation: NP. + VP(I), T+N + VP(II), T+N + V+NP(III), The+N + V+NP(IV), the+man + V+NP(V), the+man + hit +NP(VI), the+man + hit+T+N(VII), the + man + hit + the +N(VIII), the + man + hit + the+ ball(IX); The process is finished when a string cannot be rewritten any further by the rules
The derivation of the sentence may be represented by a tree-diagram (phrase marker- a visual representation of the constituent structure of the sentence); Phrase markers provide 2 basic pieces of information: they analyze sentences into parts that correspond to certain types, they give a formal representation of the linear relationship of the elements