ALVEOLAR(t,d,n,l,s,z) - the tip and blade or the blade only of the tongue articulate with the alveolar ridge.
ALLOMORPHS- a number of variants or alternate phonetic forms of a morpheme,depending on the context.
-phonologically conditioned allomorphs-when their form is dependent on the adjacent phonemes
-a plural morpheme can be realized differently(cats,but also men,oxygen,deer,children-the difference between the singular and the plural is signaled in a way that departs from the regular or is not signaled at all)
-suppletion-two forms related by a morphological rule cannot be explained as being related on a phonological basis.
ANTICIPATORY LANGUAGE-in English an articulator that is not necessarily involved in a given sound will nearly always start moving toward its position in the next sound in which it is the primary articulator.This phonemon is known as AL
ALLOPHONES-The crucial distinction between phonemes and allophones is that substituting one phoneme for another will result in a word with a different meaning,but substituting allophones only result in a different pronunciation of the same word.
AFFRICATE (ʧ, dʒ ) - a complete closure is made at some point in the mouth, behind which the air pressure builds up.The separation of the organs is slower comared to that of the closive so that friction is the characteristic cesond element of the sound.
APPROXIMONTS (w,j,r)-articulators are closed but there is no friction
ANTERIOR/NONANTERIOR[+ANT] - Anterior sounds are produced with a primary constriction at or in front of the alveolar ridge,while posterior sounds are produced with a primary constriction behind the alveolar ridge(labials, dentals,alveolars vs. palate-alveolars,palatas,velars,uvulars, pharygeals)
ASPIRATION - a period of voicelessness after the stop articulation and before the start of the voicing for the vowel.In a narrow transcription, A.may be indicated by a small raised h, [h],e.g.[phat]. Phonemes /p,t,k/are aspirated: *after a vowel *at the beginning of a stressed syllable
AMBISYLLABIC (of a single speech sound or cluster) shared phonetically by two contiguous syllables, as the single n -sound of any or the pl -cluster of grappling.
AMBISYLLABIC CONSONANT- part of permissible onset, and immediately follows a shessed lax, short vowel, eg. `apple'-> ć (pe), p (Cd, on), l (pe)-> pe+Cd=Rh=syl; pe=Rh; Rh+on=syl. ć is lax
AFFIX- bound morphemes are called affixes. It is small unit that can't occur by themselves but is must be attached to other words. Affixes : prefixes at the beginning of the word disobedicut; ; suffix at the end of the word , eg. Judgement ; infixes in the middle of the word.
ACRONYMS- formed from the initial letters of a set of words. They are pronounced in two ways:1)pronunciation consists of the set of letters (TV,VCR,CD,DJ,VIP,BMX,OK) 2)pronounced as single words ( NATO,NASA, UNESCO, AIDS, laser, radar, scuba). One of the types of backformation are hypocorisms -first a longer word is reduced to one syllable and then -y or -ie is added to the end (telly, barbie, bookie, brekky, Aussie, hankie)
ADVANCED.UNDVANCED TONGUE ROOT[+ATR] - as its name implies, this feature is implemented by drawing the root of the tongue forward, enlarging the pharyngeal cavity and often raising the tongue body as well; [-ART] sounds do not involve this gesture.([+ART] vowels such as [I,u,e,o] vs. [ART] vowels such as)
BILABIAL(p,b,m) - two lips are brought together.
BOUND ROOTS/STEMS - stems that never occur alone like -mit
BACK/NONBACK[+BACK] - back sounds are produced with the tongue body relatively retracted; nonback or front sounds are produced with the tongue body relatively advanced(velars,uvulars,pharyngeals,v elarized and pharyngealized consonants,central vowels and glides,back vowels and glides vs all other)
BOUND MORPHME- closed class of morphemes which is divided into international and derivational morphemes. Inflectional morphemes can't change the grammatical category but the can be used to build plural or past from eg. dog-> dogs. Derivational morpheme (affixes, infixes, suffixes) - can change the grammatical category eg. write-> writer.
BLENDING- combining of two separate forms to produce a single new term, usually beginning of the word and ending of other chunnel,somg,motel,workaholic,brunch,Oxbridge)
BACKFORMATION- one of the word formation process; back of the word is changed, usually from noun to a verb like editor- edit, babysitter- babysit, and one part of back formation is hypocorisms -> word is shortened to a one syllable word and we add -ly like tellyor -ie like Barbie.
COALESCENCE The act or state of growing together, as similar parts; the act of uniting by natural affinity or attraction; the state of being united; union; concretion.CONTINUANT/STOP[+CONT] - Continuants are formed with a vocal tract configuration allowing the airstream to flow through the midsaggital regin of the oral tract;stops are produced with a sustained
CONSTRICTED/NONCONSTRICTED GLOTTIS[+CONSTR] - constricted or glottalized sounds are produced with the vocal cords drawn together,preventing normal vocal cord vibration; nonconstricted sounds are produced without such a gesture(Ejectives,implosives,glottalized or laryngealized consonants,vowels and glides vs. all other)
CLIPPING- shortening the word which consist of many syllables to one syllable word eg. front (plane, phone, bus) ; back (ad, pop, lab); front and back ( fridge, flue ); middle ( vegan).
CARTILAGE - a strong substance that can bend which is arrowed the joints in your body and in your outer ear
CONSONANT -is a sound in spoken language that is characterized by a closure or stricture of the vocal tract sufficient to cause audible sufficient. There are many types of consonant.
CONVERSION- zero derivation , the change of grammatical category without changing , the written form eg. verbs into nouns (guess, spy); nouns- verbs (butter, bottle, paper); adj-verb (dirty, empty, total); the head of department- to head the department.
COMPOUNDING- putting together two lexemes and a creation of new word. Endocentric- the second part is the main part and the first given menaing (armchair- a kind of a chair). Exocentric- none of words has got an impact on meaning (pocketmoney). Opposition- two words convey the meaning (boyfriend).
COALESCENCE The act or state of growing together, as similar parts; the act of uniting by natural affinity or attraction; the state of being united; union; concretion.
CALQUE- one of the borrowing processes, it is connected with loan shift. It is direct translation from other language to borrowing language eg. akademische Frechheit -> to English academic freedom.
COINAGE- one of the word formation process ; words that belonged to particular thing nowadays are perceived as word which determines a group of word eg. Aspirin- firstly it was a particular medicine but today we name aspirin as a group of painkillers. Other examples are Teflon, Kleenex, etc.
CARDINAL VOWEL -accurate way of classifying vowels and have developed set of vowels. It is a standard reference system. WE have two kind of cardinal vowels: * primary c.v (these are the vowels that are most familiar to the speakers of most European language) *secondary c.v. (sounds less familiar). People being trained in phonetics at an advanced level have to learn to make them accurately and recognize them correctly.
COMMONIZATION ( EPONYMY) - words derived from names of people or places :sandwich, lync, boycott, derby, bobby, platonic, china.
CONSONANTIAL/NONCONSONANTIAL[+CONS] - consonantial sounds are produced with a sustained vocal tract constriction at least equal to that reqired in the production of fricatives,nonconsonantial sounds are produced without such a constriction(obstruents,nasals,liquids vs. vowels and glides)
CORONAL/NONCORONAL[+COR] - coronal sounds are produced by raising the tongue blade toward the teeth or the hard palate; noncoronal sounds are produced without such a gesture (dentals, alveolars, palate-alveolars, palatas vs. labials, velars, uvulars, pharygeals)
DERIVATION- word formation consist of derivation and compounding. Derivation consist of: prefixes, suffixes, infixes, derivational changes and conversion. It is word formation process in which words are changed by adding to them affixes what's more afford this change they change their grammatical category. Eg. Play-player, judge-judgement.
DENTAL(θ,ð) - the lip of the tongue is raised against the upper teeth or put on between the upper and lowe teeth
DISTRIBUTED/NONDISTRIBUTED[+DISTR] - Distributed sounds are produced with a constriction that extends for a considerable distance along the midsaggital axis of the oral tract,nondistributed sounds are produced with a constriction that extends for only a short distance in this direction(sounds produced with the blade or front of the tongue vs.sounds produced with the tip of the tongue. This feature may also distinguish bilabial sounds from labiodentals sounds)
DELAYED RELEASE/NONDELAYED RELEASED [+DEL REL] - delayed realized stops have a slow release of the stop closure,resulting in local friction noise(delayed release) is used to distinguish affricates ([+del rel] from plosives [-del rel])
DERIVATIONAL MORPHEME- a morpheme which can be added as affix- prefix, suffix infix and can change the grammatical category of the word eg. verb- noun ( type- typist); verb- adj (read- readable) .
DIRECT BORROWING- opposite of indirect borrowing. Eg. English borrowed word palm from Latin -> palma. So the word which is borrowed is the native word for language from which it was borrowed. In this case from Latin.
DIPHTONG - sounds which consist of a movement or glide from one vowel to another. They are like the long vowels. The most important thing to remember about all the diphthongs is that the first part is much longer and stronger than the second part. The total number of d. is eight
FREE MORPHEME- opposite of bound morpheme, a free morphemes are independent minimal units, a free morphemes are divided into two groups: lexical which is the open class of them, they can occur by themselves and grammatical which can also occur by themselves but there is closed class of them. Free lexical: boy, lullaby, tall. Free grammatical: and, above, he.
FUNCTIONAL closed class of function words usually conjunctions prepositions articles- but, when, on, near
FLAP -this is a single side rapid contact mage by a flexible organ on a form services
FINAL STOP CONSONANTS-producing an extra vowel at the end in own language
FINAL STOPS ARE UNEXPLODED-are when the next word begins with a nasal.The same is true if the next word begins with a stop.The final /t/in cat is nearly always unexploded in phrase like “the cat pushed..” In a narrow transcription we can symbolize the fact that a consonant is unexploded by adding a small raised circle[o].We could therefore transcribe the phrase as / `kh to `ph ∫t/
FRICATE (f,v,s,z,h, ʃ ,ʒ, θ,ð) - two organs are closed to each other to such an extent that the air passed through between them with friction.
GLOTTAL(h, ) - the postruction causing friction but not vibration between the vocal folds
HIGH/NONHIGH[+HIGH] - high sounds are produced by raising the body of the tongue toward the palate,nonhigh sounds are produced without such a gesture(palatas,velars,palatalized and velarized consonants,high vowels and glides vs. all other sounds)
INFIX- bound morpheme added inside the word in English not so popular eg. a - whole- nother.
INFLECTIONAL- change the form of a word in order to express its relationship to other words in the sentence, never changing its grammatical category. Walk-walking, drop-dropped
LOAN SHIFT- CALGUE - a direct borrowings of all elements of a word into the other language eg. Übermensch (German)- superman; akademische Frechheit - academic freedom.
LABIALIZATION - this particular one in which the action of the lips is added to another articulation. English fricatives [ʃ, ʒ] are strongly labialized,but [s,z] are slightly.
LATERAL(l)-a porcial closure is made of some point in the mouth the air-stream being allowed to escape on one or both side of the contact.
LABIO-DENTAL(f,v) - the lower lip is raised against the upper teeth.
LOW/NONLOW[+LOW] - low sounds are produced by drawing the body of the tongue down a way from the roof of the mouth;nonlow sounds are produced without such a gesture(pharyngeal and pharyngealized consonants,low vowels vs. all others)
LATERAL/CENTRAL[+LAT] - lateral sounds,the most familiar of which is (1),are produced with the tongue placed in such a way as to prevent the airstream from flowing outward through the center of the mouth,while allowing it to pass over one or both sides of the tongue;central sounds do not involve such a constriction(lateral sonorants,fricatives and affricatives vs. all other sounds)
LEXICAL which is the open class and they can occur by themselves and carry the content -boy, car
LABIAL/NONLIBIAL[+LAB] - as a term implies,labial sounds are formed with a constriction at the lips,while nonlabial sounds are formed without such a constriction(labial consonants,rounded vowels vs.all other sounds)
LAISON - an instance or a means of communication between different groups or units of an organization, especially in the armed forces.
LONG VOWELS - they tend to be longer than the short vowels in the contexts, these vowels tend to be long, symbols consist of one vowel symbol plus a length mark made of two dots :
MORPHOLOGY: the set of rules governing the internal structure of words, the study of their free and bound forms, their modification in relation to one another in a specific language.
MORPHEME: the smallest, most elemental unit of a language which has a grammatical function and an independent meaning-a minimal meaningful unit. The term is derived from the Greek word morpheme meaning form.
MANNER OF ARTICULATION-One of the most important things that we need to know about a speech sound is what sort of obstruction it makes to the flow of air: a vowel makes very little obstruction, while a plosive consonant makes a total obstruction. The type of obstruction is known as the manner of articulation. Apart from vowels, we can identify a number of different manners of articulation, and the consonant chart of the International Phonetic Association classifies consonants according to their manner and their place of articulation.
MIXED TYPES - more then one process may be at work to create a particular word ( deli < delicatessen (borrowing,clipping), to snowball <snow, ball (compounding, conversion), waspish<White Anglo-Saxon Protestant(acryonym,derivation)
MINIMAL PAIR - when two words such as pat and but are indentical in from except for a contrast in one phoneme,occurring in the same position,the two words are described as a minimal pair. Other examples of English minimal pairs are: fan-van, bet-bat,site-side.
MAXIMUM ONSET PRINCIPLE- any consonants between two syllables should be attacked to the right-hand syllable, not the left as far as possible( max 3 consonants). `extre' e.kstre/ek.stre/eks.tre/ekst.re/ekstr.e. - e (Pe) , k (cd) str (on) szła (pe)->pe+cd=rh=syl; pe=rh; rh+on=syl. [C[C[C[V][C[C[C[C
NASAL STOPS (m,n,ŋ) - a complete closer at some point in the mouth is made but the soft palate being lowered the air is escapes through the nose
NASAL/ORAL[+NAS] - nasal sounds are produced by lowering the velum and allowing the air to pass outward through the nose;oral sounds are produced with the velum raised to prevent the passage of air through the nose(nasal stops,nasalized consonants,vowels and glides vs. all other sounds)
OBSTRUENT - a natural class of sounds to which fricatives and stops to stop together; the characteristic feature is obstructed somewhere; this sounds act together on phonological rules
PLACE OF ARTICULATION-Consonants are made by producing an obstruction to the flow of air at some point in the vocal tract, and when we classify consonants one of the most important things to establish is the place where this obstruction is made; this is known as the place of articulation, and in conventional phonetic classification each place of articulation has an adjective that can be applied to a consonant.
PALATAL (j) - the front of the tongue articulate with the hard palate
PALATE ALVEOLAR (∫,ʒ, ʧ, dʒ) - the blade or the tip and blade of the tongue articulate with the alveolar rigde and there is the same time a rising of the front of the tongue
POST-ALVEOLAR(r) - the tip and blade of the tongue articulate with the back part of the alveolar ridge
PLOSIVE(p,b,t,d,k,g) - a complete closure is made at some point in the vocal track, behind which the air pressure builds up and can be released with a suddenly burst.(pass, flip)
PHONEME - is the smallest unit distinguishing meaning. They change the meaning Phoning are abstract. We have 26 phonemes in our alphabet. This is the fundamental unit of phonology, which has been defined and used in many different ways. Most phonemes can be put into groups; for example, in English we can identify a group of plosive phonemes p, t, k, b, d, g a group of voiceless fricatives f, θ, s, ʃ, h, and so on
PHONETICS- is the scientific study of speech. It has a long history, going back certainly to well over two thousand years ago. The central concerns in phonetics are the discovery of how speech sounds are produced, how they are used in spoken language, how we can record speech sounds with written symbols and how we hear and recognise different sounds.
PHONOLOGY- is a branch of linguistics concerned with the systematic organization of sounds in languages. It has traditionally focused largely on study of the systems of phonemes in particular languages, but it may also cover any linguistic analysis either at a level beneath the word (including syllable, onset and rhyme, articulatory gestures, articulatory features, mora, etc.) or at all levels of language where sound is considered to be structured for conveying linguistic meaning. Phonology also includes the study of equivalent organizational systems in sign languages.
PRODUCTIVITY - some affixes are more productive then others ex: -er, -ed, -s
ROUNDED/UNROUNDED[+ROUND] - rounded sounds are produced with protrusion of the lips;unrounded sounds are produced without such protrusion (rounded consonants and vowels vs unrounded consonants and vowels)
ROOT- the smallest part of word that can't be divided into smaller parts , for example hospital is a root because we can't divided this word-> root on smaller parts.
RETROFLEX- the tip of the tongue is curled back to articulare with the part of the hard palate immiediately behind the alveolar ridge.
STEM- this is the root form to which affixes can be addend eg. Hospital is the stem for hospitalize.
STRIDENT/NONSTRIDENT[+STRID] - strident sounds are produced with a complex constriction forcing the airstream to strike two surfaces, producing high-intensity fricative noise;nonstrident sounds are produced without such a constriction.(sibilants,labiodentals,uvulars vs all other sounds)
SUPPLETION- two forms related by a morphological rule cannot be explained as being related on a phonological basis ex go-went
SPREAD/NONSPREAD GLOTTIS[+SPREAD] - spread or aspirated sounds are produced with the vocal cords drawn apart,producing a nonperiodic(noise) component in the acoustic signal; nonspread or unaspirated sounds are produced without this gesture(aspirated consonants,breathy voiced or murmured consonants,voiceless vowels and glides vs all others
SYLLABIC/NONSYLLABIC[+SYL] - syllabic sounds are these that constitute syllable peaks,nonsyllabic sounds are those that do not.Syllabic sounds are typically more prominent than contiguous nonsyllabic sounds(vowels,syllabic consonants vs. glides, nonsyllabi consonants)
SONORANT/OBSTRUENT[+SON] - sonorant sounds are produced with a vocal tract configuration sufficiently open that the air pressure inside and outside the mouth is approximately equal. Obstruent sounds are produced with a vocal tract constriction sufficient to increase the air pressure inside the mouth significantly over that of the ambient air (vowels, glides, liquids, nasals vs. stops and fricatives)
SHORT VOWELS - are only relatively short, can have quite different lengths in different context
TENSE/LAX[+TENSE] - tense vowels are produced with a tongue body or tongue root configuration involving a greater degree of constriction than that found in their lax counterparts; this greater degree of constriction is frequently accompanied by greater length(these vowels vs lax vowel)
TRIAL/ROLL - a serious of rapid intermittent made by a flexible organ on a form services.
TRIPHTONG -is a glide from one vowel to another and then to a third, all produced rapidly and without interruption; they can be difficult to pronounce and very difficult to recognize. It is composed of the five closing diphthongs described in the last section with added on the end.
UVULAR- the back of the tongue articulate with the uvular.
UVULA - a small soft piece of flesh which hangs down from the top of your mouth at the back
VOICED/VOICELESS[+VOICED] - voiced sounds are produced with a laryngeal configuration permiting periodic vibration of the vocal cords; voiceless sounds lack such periodic vibration(voiced vs. voiceless consonants)
VOCALIC/NONVOCALIC[+VOCALIC] - vocalic sounds are produced with an oral cavity constriction no greater than that associated with the vowel/i/ and /u/ and with adducted vocal folds. Vocalic sounds include the vowels and liquids.
VELAR(k,g, ŋ) - the back of the tongue articulate with the soft palate.
VOICELESS - without voice; voiceless sounds are made without using the vocal folds . When the vocal cords are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes between them unimpeded. Sounds produces in this way are described as voiceless
VOICED - when the vocal cords are drawn together, the air from the lungs repeatedly pushes them apart as it passes through, creating a vibration. Sounds produced in this way are described as voiced.
VELARISATION-the back of the tongue is considerably raised toward the soft palate. Contact of the alveolar ridge is primary articulation is raised it's called secondary articulation. The symbol of velarisation is the mark [-] through the middle of the symbol.
VOWELS - are sounds in which there is no obstruction to the flow of air as it passes from the larynx to the lips. A doctor who wants to look at the back of a patient`s mouth often asks them to say “ah” making this vowel sound is the best way of presenting an unobstructed
VOICELESSS GLOTTAL FRICATIVE - is a type of sound used in some spoken language which often behaves like a fricative, but sometimes behaves more like an approximat or is indetermine in its behavior. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is h and the equivalent X-SAMP symbol is h