LING - LINGUISTICS
LNG - LANGUAGE
BRANCHES OF LING: phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics.
TRADITIONAL GRAMMA VS MODERN LING
TR: latin based, perspective, primacy of the written lng
MD: lng specific approach -> understandable, descriptive, primacy of the spoken lng.
LANGUAGE - 1)specialized sound signaling system which seems to be genetically programmed to develop in humans; 2) it's a human non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, feelings, desires by means of a sys of sounds and sound symbols.
THE ORIGINS OF LNG:
1) divine source - if infants ale allowed to grow up without hearing any lng then they would spontaneously begin using the original God-given lng;
2) natural source th - primitive words can be imitations of the natural sounds which early men and women heard around a) bow-wow th (cuckoo, bzz, splash, hiss) b) pooh-pooh (emotional sounds -wykrzyknienia) c)yo-heave-yo (physical tasks) d) la-di-da (singing).
3) oral gesture th - ta-ta theory - mouth imitating physical gesture;
4) glossogenetics (biological basis of the formation and development of a lng).
THE PROPERTIES OF LNG:
1) displacement (beyond here and now)
2) duality organized on two levels a) distinct sounds - consonant and vowel organized in multiple ways to produce infinite meaning combinations. Never one sound = one meaning throughout a language; 3) productivity (human's ability to produce and understand infinite number of words) 4) cultural transmission (we acquire a lng in a culture, with other speaker, not from parental genes) 5) discreteness (sounds used to produce language are distinct from one another (in our minds) Contrast voiced bilabial b with voiceless bilabial p) 6) arbitrariness (no natural connection between a ling form and its meaning, connection is arbitrary) 7) pattering (lng is a system based on structures, it's not a random collection of words)
JACOBSON'S TH OF LNG FUNCTIONS:
6 factors necessary components in communication and corresponding funcion of lng:
1) sender, addresser (emotive) 2) code (metalinqual); message (poetic); context (referential), contact (phatic). 3) receiver, addressee (conative)
PHONETICS - physical production of speech, sounds in our speech, how does our body produce sounds?
BRANCHES OF PHONETICS: articulatory (how speech sounds are made and articulated), acoustic (physical properties of speech as sound waves in the air) auditory (perception via the ear of speech sounds) forensic (has application in legal cases involving speaker identification & the analysis of recorded utterances)
THE NOTION OF DISTRIBUTION: free variation - sounds have all or some context in common eg. Pig, big. Complementary distribution - sounds do not have -||- eg n(g), n
SPEECH ORGANS - nasal cavity, alveolar ridge, tongue, larynx, soft palate, pharynx, lungs
DESCRIPTION & CLASSIFICATION OF THE SPPECH SOUNDS
1) the origin of the air stream - plumonic, non-plumonic, 2) the direction of the air flow - eggresive, ingressive, 3) the action of the vocal cords - voiced, voiceless, 4) the position of the soft palate - oral, nasal, 5) the position of the movable organs in the oral cavity - vowels, consonants.
PHONOLOGY - studies system of lng, patterns of sounds in a lng; limited nr of sounds, how the sounds are arranged.
Phone- substituting one phoneme by author will result in a word different meaning.
phoneme- basic, smallest, contrastive ling unit which can cause the change of meaning. single sound which come to be represented by a single symbol.
allophone a set of phones all of which are versions of one phone.
minimal pair - words are identical in form except from a contrast in one phoneme, occurring in the same position
minimal set - groups of words that can be differentiated, each one from the others, by changing one phoneme (always in the same position).
Phonotactics deals with restrictions in a language on the permissible combinations of phonemes. Phonotactics defines permissible syllable structure, consonant clusters, and vowel sequences by means of phonotactical constraints.
assimilation when 2 phonemes occur in sequence and some aspect of one phoneme is taken or occupied by the other (d + j = d3)
elision omission of a sound segment which would be present in the deliberate pronunciation of a word.
MORPHOLOGY - it studies all `basic' elements that are used in lng; studies the internal structure of words.
Morpheme-minimal unit of meaning & grammatical function.
free - can stand by itself as a single word (ex. Book)
bound - cannot -||- (ex. -s, -ed)
lexical - a set of ordinary nouns, adj, verbs.
functional - functional words in lng (conjuctions, prepositions, articles, pronouns)
derivational - use to make new words or to make words of different grammatical category (ex. We add -ness to word good = goodness; adj becomes a noun) -ish, -ly, -ment, re-, pre-,ex-,-co.
inflectional - indicate aspects of the grammatical function of a word. use to show if a word is plural, singular, past tense or not. -s, -es, -ed, -ing.
empty - without function and meaning (brzuch-o-mówca)
Morphs - different realization of morpheme in a context (ex -s, after voiceless /s/, after voiced /z/)
Allomorphs - different realization of a particular morpheme, ex. Plural morpheme.
Lexeme - corresponds to a set of forms taken by a single word. For example, in the English language, run, runs, ran and running are forms of the same lexeme `RUN'.
Word form - concrete the shape that lexeme takes in the specific context.
Derivational morpheme never change the grammatical category of word (old-older - adj) Grammatical morpheme can change the grammatical category of a word (teach-teacher).
WORD FORMATION PROCESS:
coinage new words
borrowing taking over from other lng
- loan translation direct translation from other lng
compounding separate elements joined to produce single form (textbook)
blending taking only the beginning of the one word and joining to the end of another (brunch = breakfast+lunch)
clipping word is reduced to one syllable (advertising = ad)
backformation word of one type is reduced to the word of different type (donation - donate, emotion - emote)
impocorism longer word is reduced to one syllable then -y or -ie is added (television-telly)
conversion change in the function of word (noun as a verb)
acronyms new words formed from the initial letters of a set of other words - CD, NASA.
derivation connected with affixes
- prefixes the beginning (ex-, un-)
-suffixes the end (-ish)
-interfixes not in English, added inside the word.
SYNTAX - concentrates on the structure and ordering the component within a sentence.
GRAMMAR - a way of describing the structure of phrases and sentences which acount for all of the grammatical sequences.
`mental' grammar - a form of internal linguistic knowledge which operates in the production and recognition of appropriately structured expressions in language.
`linguistic' etiquette - the best structures to be used in a language.
PARTS OF SPEECH = LEXICAL CATEGORIES
NOUNS - refer to people, objects, creatures, places, qualities, phenomena and abstract ideas as if they are things.
VERBS - used to refere to various kinds of action, states, involving things in event.
ADJECTIVES (przymiotniki) - words used with noun to provide more information about things.
ADVERBS (przysłówki) - used to provide more information about actions and events, some are used with adjectives to modify information about things.
PREPOSITIONS (przyimki) - used with nouns in phrases, providing information about time, place and other connections involving actions & things.
PRONOUNS (zaimki) - words used in place of nouns, reffering to things already known.
CONJUCTIONS (spójniki) - used to connect indicate relationships between things and events.
INTERJECTIONS - wykrzyknienia, wow!, ouch! etc.
ACCEPTABILITY - the degree to which proposed sentence or utterance is announced permissible and interpretable by native speaker.
GRAMMATICALITY - devoting a structure particularly a sentence which is consistent with (zgodny z) requirements of the grammar of a particular language.
COMPETENCE - your knowledge => what the learner can do under test conditions.
PERFORMANCE - real life => what the learner of the language does do habitually under day-to-day conditions.
CONSTITUENTS - ! functional unit of grammatical construction as a verb, noun phrase or clause.
IMMEDIATE CONSTITUENT - a meaningful constituent such as a word that enters directly into the formation of a linguistic construction, such as phrase.
Properties of grammar:
- GENERATIVE - it should be able to produce all&only good sentences of a lg.
- EXPLICIT - clear/easy to use (even if we don't know a lg), if grammar isn't explicit we aren't be able to produce sentence.
- CAPTURING PRODUCTIVITY - infinitive number of sentences
- RECURISIVE - you can add as many words as you wish
- ACCOUNTING FOR STRUCTURAL AMBIGUITIES
- EXPLAINING WHY SOME SUPERFICICALLY SIMILAR STRUCTURES DIFFER IN MEANING
- EXPLAINING WHY DIFFERENT SENTENCES MEAN THE SAME
SEMANTICS -study of meaning of words, phrases and sentences. It focuses on what word really mean.
1st referential theory of meaning -every linguistic expression refers to some non-linguistic entity which exist in reality. meaning of an expression is what the expression refers to.meaning of 2 expressions is the same only if they refer to the same object
2nd ideational theory of meaning based of the notion of idea. Meaning of an expression is the idea associated with it via person's mind. Expression is meaningful only if it's associated with the same idea
3rd behavioral theory of meaning- meaning of an expression is the stimuli which cause its utterance and behavioral response it evades. 2 expressions have the same meaning if they are evoked by the same stimulus and or produce the same response.
Sense-relation between an expression and other expression in language.
Reference- relation between expression and extra linguistic word
Grammatical categories
Voice (verbs) active /passive/middle /causative/
Tense present/past/future
Person 1st / 2nd /3rd /4th (inclusing/exclusing we)
Speaker addressee 3rd party 4th party
Number (nouns/verbs/pronouns)
Singular/ dual/ trial/ plural
Mood indacitve /subjunctive/optative
Factuality/ possibility /uncertanity/ likelihood
Gender (nouns,verbs, adjectives) Masculine, feminine, neuter, animate, inanimate
Male/female/sexless/living
Case /nouns pronouns/ adjectives Nominative, vocative, accusative, genitive, partitive
Actor/possession/naming/location/motion towards
Aspect(verbs)
Perfect(ive) imperfect(ive)
Completeness/habituality/continuousness/duration/progressiveness
SENSE RELATIONS
Synonymy-two or more forms with very closely related meanings which are often intersubstitutable in sentences
Paraphrase- one thing but described in different ways
Antonymy- forms with opposite meanings
Contradictoriness- meaning of subject contains information incompatible with what is attributed to it in the predicate
Hyponymy- meaning of one form is included in the meaning of another one
Entailment - relation between sentences under which if one is true then the other one must also be true
Polysemy- one form has multiple meanings which all are related by extension
Homonymy- one form written or spoken has two or more unrelated meanings
TRUTH CONDITIONAL SEMANTICS
Theories of:
Meaning& truth, meaning&necessity, meaning&use
Analytic sentence- either true or false-it depends on a language
Synthetic sentence- depends on world consistory
Contradict sentence- look contradictoriness
SEMANTIC REPRESENTATION - also called logical form. Sentence provide a set of truth conditions. Logical form of a set sentence should be constructed in such a way that all the entitlements of a sentence should be derived from it in a formal way.
PRAGMATICS study of nowadays language is used to communicate, study not the meaning of words but what the writer or speaker of those words intended to convey
Performatives- perform/act/thing verbs in sentences such as apologize, promise. Word is performative when it is in present tense and have 1st person subject. In the same time say sth and do sth
Constatives- verbs in sentences that describe reference in the word, we only say about sth
COMPONENTS OF A SPEECH ACT Locutionary act- act of saying sth, description of what speaker says
Illocutionary act- description of doing sth , includes promising, apologizing, requesting, ordering
Prelocutionary act- act of affecting sb, effect on the hearer of what speaker says. Includes acts of persuading, embarrassing, boring.
FELICITY CONDITIONS
1 person & circumstances must be appropriate
2 act must be executed completely and correctly by all participants otherwise act is valid
3 participants must have appropriate intentions
IMPLICATURE <paul grice> an utterance can imply a proposition, that isn't a part of the utterance & doesn't follow as a necessary consequence of the utterance
The cooperative principle & maxims of conversation- underlying assumption in most conversational exchanges is the cooperation of participants
quantity - make contributions as informative as requires but no more or less that it's required
quality - don't say what you believe to be false or which you lack evidence
relation-participant's contribution should be relevant to the subject of contributions
manner- be clear, brief & orderly
UTTERANCE FUNCTION & SENTENCE TYPES:
asserting -> decelerate
asking - interrogative
ordering -> imperative