FIRST LANGUAGE / NATIVE LANGUAGE / MOTHER TONGUE

native language- (usually) the language which a person acquires in early childhood because it is spoken in the family and/ or it is the language of the country where he or she is living. The native language is often the first language a child acquires but there are exceptions. Children may, for instance, first acquire some knowledge of another language from a nurse or an older relative and only later on acquire a second one which they consider their native language. Sometimes, this term is used synonymously with FIRST LANGUAGE.

A first language (L1) or native language is a basis for sociolinguistic identity.

In linguistics first language can be referred to as arterial language, mother tongue (MT), or L1.

Sometimes the term first language is used for the language that the speaker speaks best (his second language then being the language he speaks less well than his first language, etc).

Sometimes the terms first language, second language and third language are used to indicate various levels of skill in a language, so that it can be said that a person knows more than one language at first or second language level.

Sometimes the term native language is used to indicate a language that a person is as proficient in as a native inhabitant of that language's base country, or as proficient as the average person who speaks no other language but that language.

Sometimes the term mother tongue or mother language is used for the language that a person learnt at home (usually from his parents). Children growing up in bilingual homes can according to this definition have more than one mother tongue.

The term "mother tongue" should not be interpreted to mean that it is the language of one's mother. In some paternal societies, the wife moves in with the husband and thus may have a different first language, or dialect, than the local language of the husband. Yet their children usually only speak their local language. Only a few will learn to speak their mothers' languages like natives. Mother in this context probably originated from the definition of mother as source, or origin; as in mother-country or land.

SECOND LANGUAGE

A second language (L2) is any language learned after the first language or mother tongue (L1). It is also a language spoken in the country where the given person live, i.e. a Polish speaker who learns English in England can say that English is a second language to him or her. Some languages, often called auxiliary languages, are used primarily as second languages or lingua francas.

It is quite possible that the first language a person learns may no longer be their dominant language, that is, the one he or she uses most or the one with which he or she is most comfortable in. For example, the Canadian census defines first language for its purposes as "the first language learned in childhood and still spoken", recognizing that for some, the earliest language may be lost, a process known as language attrition. This can happen when young children move, with or without their family (because of immigration or international adoption), to a new language environment.

FOREIGN LANGUAGE

A foreign language is a language not spoken by the indigenous people of a certain place: for example, English is a foreign language in Japan or Poland. It is also a language not spoken in the native country of the person referred to, i.e. a Polish speaker learning English in Poland can say that English is a foreign language to him or her.

Some children learn more than one language from birth or from a very young age: they are bilingual. These children can be said to have two mother tongues: neither language is foreign to that child, even if one language is a foreign language for the vast majority of people in the child's birth country. For example, a child learning English from her English mother and Japanese at school in Japan can speak both English and Japanese, but neither is a foreign language to her.

The Target Language - the one we aim to teach / learn / acquire.

STANDARD LANGUAGE - (also standard dialect or standardized dialect) is a particular variety of a language that has been given either legal or quasi-legal status. As it is usually the form promoted in schools and the media, it is usually considered by speakers of the language to be more "correct" in some sense than other dialects.

Usually, but not always, based on the tongue of a capital city, a standard language is defined by the selection of certain regional and class markers, and the rejection of others. This is the version of a language that is typically taught to learners of the language as a foreign language, and most texts written in that language follow its spelling and grammar norms.

Some of the features that identify a standard language include:

• A recognized dictionary or group of dictionaries which embody a standardized spelling and vocabulary;

• A recognized grammar which records the forms, rules and structures of the language, and which commends some forms and castigates others;

• A standard system of pronunciation, which is considered "educated" or "proper" speech by the speakers, and which is considered free from regional marking;

• An institution promoting the use of the language and given some authority in defining the norms of its use, such as the Académie française or the Royal Spanish Academy;

• Statutes or constitutions giving that language an official legal status in a country's system of law;

• The use of the language in public life, such as in the work of courts and legislatures;

• A canon of literature;

• Translations of important sacred texts such as the Bible into that language, which are considered to be authoritative by their believers;

• The teaching of the language's standards of grammar and spelling in schools;

• The selection of this particular dialect of a language as being especially appropriate to be taught to learners of foreign languages.

The creation of a standard language represents the triumph of a certain variety of linguistic prescription; its selection means that the speech of areas with features that vary from the standard so upheld are devalued or "deprecated." This means that in some countries, the selection of a standard language is a social and political issue. The act of seeking to define a language standard can be an act of nationalism or support of political devolution.

Problems with standard English: Standard English is an ambiguous term generally used to denote a form of the English language that is thought to be normative for educated users. There are no set rules or vocabulary for any putative "Standard English" because, unlike languages such as French, Italian, Spanish or Dutch, English does not have a governing body (see Académie française, Accademia della crusca, Real Academia Española, Nederlandse Taalunie) to establish usage.

Moreover, the contention is that one should rather speak of "standard Englishes", or "standard English dialects", given that there are large, distinct English language communities with distinct standards.

Another complication is that English has become the most widely used second language in the world and it is subject to the most alteration by non-native speakers. Numerous "non-native dialects" are developing their own standards - those, for example, of English language publications published in countries where English is generally learned as a foreign language.

According to Peter Trudgill, "Standard English is that set of grammatical and lexical forms which is typically used in speech and writing by educated native speakers. It includes the use of colloquial and slang vocabulary, as well as swear words and taboo expressions." This definition is also often given by American linguists. Most linguists recognise that the notion of a standard English that covers all native speakers, educated or not, would be very difficult to articulate.

This definition refers to grammar and vocabulary and not to pronunciation. Trudgill claims that Standard English is only spoken by a very small part of the population of the British Isles (about 12-15%). This means it is spoken by an even smaller fraction of all native speakers. Further, Standard English speakers often speak in regional and class accents. One might expect that Standard English speakers would use a particular pronunciation, for example Received Pronunciation (RP) in the UK, or General American in the US. In fact, only a third of the speakers of UK Standard English have an RP accent, with the rest of the speakers using their own regional accents, which shows that standard dialect and regional accent do not exclude each other. In the US, regional variations in pronunciation are smaller; thus there is a great tendency of Americans to speak in General American. Trudgill concludes in this matter, that "Standard English is a dialect that differs from the others in that it has greater prestige, does not have an associated accent and does not form part of a dialect continuum". Hence, Standard English is purely a social dialect.

The two most commonly recognised varieties of English are British English and American English. However, notwithstanding the various historical migrations of English-speaking populations, colonisation and the effects of local native languages on the creation of creoles or pidgins, English has risen to the status of a global lingua franca, primarily due to its predominant use as the international language of trade and commerce, and its widespread use outside exclusively English-speaking countries has accounted for the development of many local varieties of English.

LANGUAGE SUBSYSTEMS

This is a terminological list that collects terms used to denote (types of) “communicative subsystems” of a language (a communicative system). Each of them may have its sphere of application, some of them might be synonymous, and also, when language is used in a broad sense, the objects denoted by the terms are languages.

There are five major language subsystems that are common to competent speakers of a language:

• Phonology- the system of sounds in a language, the rules for combining these sounds into words and proper stress and intonation of sentences.

• Semantics- the meaning attached to words and sentences.

• Morphology- the system for combining units of meaning to make words or modify word meaning.

• Syntax- rules for organizing words into phrases.

• Pragmatics- a set of rules governing when to use language and what sort of language should be used in front of members of certain groups.

LANGUAGE ACQUISITION vs. LANGUAGE LEARNING

Language acquisition (LA) is the process by which the language capability develops in a human. It happens unconsciously, thus information or knowledge is better recalled and more permanently stored than if it was only learned. First language acquisition concerns the development of language in children, while second language acquisition focuses on language development in adults as well. The term acquisition is often preferred to learning [which is conscious and controlled] because the latter term is sometimes linked to a behaviourist theory of learning.

BEHAVIOURISM

Behaviourism is a theory of psychology which states that human and animal behaviour can and should be studied in terms of physical processes only. It let to theories of learning which explained how an external event (a stimulus) caused a change in the behaviour of an individual (a response) without using concepts like MIND or IDEAS, or any kind of mental behaviour. This theory was an important influence on psychology, education, and language teaching, and was used by psychologists like Skinner, Osgood, and Staats to explain first language learning.

COGNITIVISM

The cognitivism (sometimes referred to as mentalism) refers to a group of psychological theories which draw heavily on the work in linguistics of Noam Chomsky. In his works he strongly rejected Skinner and other behaviorists' view of language acquisition (how a baby learns a language) on the basis of his model of competence and performance. Many felt that the strict focus on observable behavior demanded by the behaviorist school restricted the usefulness of its theories. While the behaviorist view concentrated on investigating the observable behavior of organisms (humans, animals) resulting from exposure to different stimuli (reinforcement, punishment, conditioning etc), the cognitivist school explored an area that were explicitly taboo for behavioristic experiments.

The cognitivistic school "went inside the head of the learner" so to speak in that they made mental processes the primary object of study and tried to discover and model the mental processes on the part of the learner during the learning-process. In Cognitive theories knowledge is viewed as symbolic, mental constructions in the minds of individuals, and learning becomes the process of committing these symbolic representations to memory where they may be processed. The development of computers with a strict "input - processing - output architecture" from the 1960s and up till today certainly have inspired these "information-processing" views of learning.

In sum the cognitive approach & cognitive theories emerged as a new perspective employing "information-processing ideas" rather than the behavioristic assumptions that the learner is determined by his environments and so passively adapts to the circumstances. This cognitivistic view emphasized the active mental processing on the part of the learner. However knowledge was still viewed as given and absolute just like in the behavioristic school.

Language teaching has never adopted a methodology based on Chomsky's work or strictly upon Cognitivism. But the idea that language is not a set of `habits' - that what matters for a language learner is to learn a rule and that this will allow for creative performance - has informed many teaching techniques. Thus students are often encouraged to use rules to create new sentences of their own.

STEPHEN KRASHEN - /American language linguist and teacher/

Acquisition is a sub-conscious process which results in the knowledge of a language.

Learning is only `knowing' about the language.

The suggestion Krashen made (1970's) is that second (or foreign) language learning needs to be more like the child's acquisition of its native language. They are never consciously taught is or learn it, instead they hear and experience a considerable amount of the language in situations where they are involved in communicating with an adult - usually a parent. They have not consciously set out to learn a language; it happens as a result of the input they receive and the experiences which accompany this input. Much FL teaching, on the other hand, concentrate on getting an adult student to consciously learn items of language in isolation - so the exact opposite. Input is a term used to mean the language that students hear or read. This input should contain language the students already know as well as language/ material they have not been familiar with yet - Krashen called it roughly-tuned input. Perhaps if language students constantly receive this roughly-tuned input - so slightly above their level and comprehensible for them - they will unconsciously acquire those items of language that they did not previously know. In conscious learning students get finely-tuned input so exactly to their level. According to Krashen, one can only be said to master a language when it has been acquired. Formal learning may give us the rules of grammar, but it does not mean that we will use them correctly. He points to the fact that students may score well on formal grammar tests, but, when they are concentrating on content rather than form, make mistakes that they do not make in the tests. Krashen claimed that such language was not acquired and can only be used to monitor what someone is going to say. In other word, whereas language which is acquired is part of the language store we use when we want to communicate, the only use for consciously learn language is to check the acquired language we are about to use. Krashen's Hypothesis: Input / Monitor / Effective filter / Order / Acquisition vs. Learning [one of them follows]…

The Monitor Hypothesis

• Krashen does not think that formal grammar teaching is entirely pointless. The formal rule system feeds in to what he calls the Monitor - we may think of this as a minute grammar teacher that sits inside our brains and listens to what we say, or reads what we write and yells out whenever he hears a mistake.

• The Monitor is a dangerous ally - some people over-use it, and their speech becomes slow, and hesitant - their interlocutors are likely to give up on them, and go and talk to somebody else. This, as we shall see, is important, because a language learner needs to hear a lot of language from native speakers.

• The Monitor is best used when we have to be very careful - when language is necessarily formal. This is obviously the case when writing letters of application, for example, or when speaking to a hierarchical superior in a formal situation.

• Most of the time, however, Krashen suggests that we should leave the monitor unemployed, and concentrate upon the meaning that we wish to convey, rather than on the form of our utterances.

LANGUE AND PAROLE - by Ferdinand de Saussure

Langue (French word for “language”), is a linguistic term used by the linguists Ferdinand de Saussure to mean the system of a language, that is the arrangement of sounds and words which speakers of a language have a shared knowledge of or, as Saussure said, “agree to use”. Langue is the IDEAL form of language.

Parole (French, meaning "speech") is a linguistic term used by Saussure which, as opposed to langue, describes language in use (in both, spoken and written form) rather than language as a system. Parole is a dynamic, social activity in a particular time and space.

Saussure's distinction between langue and parole is similar to Chomsky's distinction between competence and performance. But whereas for Saussure the repository of langue is the speech community, for Chomsky the repository for competence is the ideal speaker/hearer. So Saussure's distinction is basically sociolinguistic whereas Chomsky's is basically psycholinguistic.

COMPETENCE AND PERFORMANCE

In Transformational Generative Grammar (TG - proposed by an American linguist Noam Chomsky) competence is a person's internalized grammar of a language. This means a person's ability to create and understand sentences, including sentences they have never heard before. It also includes a person's knowledge of what are and what are not sentences of a particular language. For example, a speaker of English would recognize I want to go home as an English sentence but would not accept a sentence such as I want going home even though all the words in it are English words. Competence often refers to the ideal speaker/hearer, that is an idealized but not a real person who would have a complete knowledge of the whole language.

Performance is the actual use of the language by individuals in speech and writing. Language performance is not an ideal factor, there are a lot of overlaps, falstarts or unfinished sentences, even though the speaker may posses near-ideal language competence.

INTERLANGUGAE

An interlanguage is an emerging linguistic system that has been developed by a learner of a second language (L2 or FL) who has not become fully proficient yet but is only approximating the target language: preserving some features of their first language (or L1) in speaking or writing the target language and creating innovations. An interlanguage is idiosyncratically based on the learners' experiences with the L2. It can ossify in any of its developmental stages. The learner creates an interlanguage using different learning strategies such as language transfer, overgeneralisation and simplification.

INTERLANGUAGE PRAGMATICS

- IP - the study of how non-native speakers communicate in a second language.

APPROACH / METHOD / TECHNIQUE

In 1963 the American applied linguist Edward Anthony identified three level conceptualization and organization, which he termed approach, method, and technique :

The arrangement is hierarchical. The organizational key is that techniques carry out method which is consistent with an approach. …

… An approach is a set of correlative assumptions dealing with the nature of language teaching and learning. An approach is axiomatic. It is axiomatic: it describes the nature of the subject to be taught. It states a point of view, a philosophy, and a belief…

… Method is an overall plan for the orderly presentation of language material, no part of which contradicts, and all of which is based upon, the selected approach. An approach is axiomatic, a method is procedural. Within one approach there can be many methods.

Within one approach, there can be many methods. …

… A technique is implementational - that which actually takes place in a classroom. It is a particular strategy, trick, or contrivance (sprytne posunięcie) used to accomplish an immediate objective (cel). Techniques must be consistent with a method, and therefore in harmony with an approach as well. Techniques depend on the teacher, his/her individual artistry, and on the composition of the class.

The arrangement of the above trio of terms is hierarchical. The organizational key is that techniques carry out a method which is consistent with an approach.

[Anthony, E. M. (1963) Approach, method and technique. English Language Teaching 17: 63-67]

According to Anthony's model, approach is the level at which assumptions and beliefs abort language and language learning are specified; method is the level at which theory is put into practice and at which choices are made about the particular skills to be taught, the content to be taught, and the order in which the content will be presented; technique is the level at which classroom procedures are described.

/Axiomatic - aksjomatyczny / aksjomat- sąd logiczny, który bez dowodu przyjmuje się jako prawdziwy w systemie dedukcyjnym; jedno z pierwotnych naczelnych twierdzeń systemu dedukcyjnego, z których wynikają wszystkie tezy, czyli twierdzenia pochodne; postulat./

COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE

The ability not only to apply the grammatical rules of a language in order to form grammatically correct sentences but also to know when and where to use these sentences and to whom.

Communicative competence includes:

1. knowledge of the grammar and vocabulary of the language

2. knowledge of the rules of speaking (how to begin and end conversation, knowing what topics may be talked about in different types of speech events, knowing which address forms should be used with different persons one speaks to and in various situations

3. knowing how to use and respond to different types of speech acts, such as requests, compliments, apologies, thanks, and invitations

4. knowing how to use language appropriately (according to the given situation)

When someone wishes to communicate with others, they must recognize the social setting, their relationship to the other person(s), and the types of language that can be used for a particular occasion. They must also be able to interpret written or spoken sentences within the total context in which they are used.

ASPECTS OF COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE:

Discourse competence - describes the ability to produce unified written or spoken discourse that shows coherence and cohesion and which conforms to the norms of different genres (e.g. a business letter, a scientific essay etc.)

Strategic competence - describes the ability of speakers to use verbal and non-verbal communication strategies to compensate for breakdowns in communication or to improve the effectiveness of communication.

LINGUISTIC UNITS

- parts of a language system. Linguistic units can be the distinctive sounds of a language (PHONEMES), words, phrases or sentences, or they can be larger units such as the utterances in a conversation.

LINGUISTIC COMPETENCE

Linguistic competence is defined as a speaker-hearer's ability to speak and understand language in a grammatically-correct manner (Ottenheimer, 2006, p. 95). It is one of the two elements in Chomsky's performance/competence distinction. Linguistic competence is an area of study in the field of intercultural communication founded by the linguistic anthropologist Noam Chomsky. Linguistic competence is the use of grammatical rules of a language, whereas communicative competence is the use of social language rules. This broader knowledge to communicate successfully within the norms of a culture's language was introduced by the linguist Dell Hymes. Dell Hymes expanded on Noam Chomsky's view of linguistic competence by considering the social factors of the culture's language.

DISCOURSE ANALYSIS

DA - the study of a language use with reference to the social and psychological factors that influence communication.

DISCOURSE

Discourse is communication that goes back and forth (from the Latin, discursus, "running to and fro"), such as debate or argument. The term is used in semantics and discourse analysis. In semantics, discourses are linguistic units composed of several sentences — in other words, conversations, arguments or speeches.

Discourse encompasses the use of spoken, written and signed language and multimodal/multimedia forms of communication, and is not restricted to `non-fictional' nor verbal materials.

In the social sciences, a discourse is considered to be an institutionalized way of thinking, a social boundary defining what can be said about a specific topic, or, as Judith Butler puts it, "the limits of acceptable speech"—or possible truth. Discourses are seen to affect our views on all things; it is not possible to escape discourse. For example, two notably distinct discourses can be used about various guerrilla movements describing them either as "freedom fighters" or "terrorists". In other words, the chosen discourse delivers the vocabulary, expressions and perhaps also the style needed to communicate. Discourse is closely linked to different theories of power and state, at least as long as defining discourses is seen to mean defining reality itself.

Structuralist theorists, such as Ferdinand de Saussure and Jacques Lacan, argue that all human actions and social formations are related to language and can be understood as systems of related elements (Howarth, 2000). This means that the “...individual elements of a system only have significance when considered in relation to the structure as a whole, and that structures are to be understood as self-contained, self-regulated, and self-transforming entities” (Howarth, 2000, p. 17). In other words, it is the structure itself that determines the significance, meaning and function of the individual elements of a system. Structuralism has made an important contribution to our understanding of language and social systems. Saussure's theory of language highlights the decisive role of meaning and signification in structuring human life more generally (Howarth, 2000).

PRE-TEACHING

-selecting new or difficult items that students will meet in a future classroom activity, and teaching such items before the activity. E.g., difficult words in a listening-comprehension exercise may be taught before students do the exercise.

BACKWASH EFFECT (WASHBACK EFFECT)

- (in testing) the effect of a test on teaching. In some countries, e.g., national language examinations have a major impact on teaching and teachers often `teach to the tests'.

ASSESSMENT

- the measurement of the ability of a person or the quality or success of a teaching course. It may be done by test, interview, questionnaire, observation, etc.

CARETAKER TALK

- parents as carers talk to help the development of their child's lg - they repeat a lot, use simple expressions and correct mispronounced (by the child) words. When caretakers speak to babies , the babies respond, most often nonverbally. From this rudimentary form of dialogue with its parent, the baby picks up a great deal about lg. For one thing, it learns that lg. is based almost entirely on speech and that speaking is intentional and meaningful. Unlike other oral sounds (e.g. belching) speech is not random but purposeful behaviour. Babies also learn that conversation consists of timed responses on the part of the interlocutor and that dialogue involves turn taking. Their primitive reactions to speech encourage the caretaker to continue.

TEACHER TALK

- that variety of language sometimes used by teachers when they are in the process of teaching. In trying to communicate with learners, teachers often simplify their speech.

FOREIGNER TALK

(FT) - that is, the simplified version of a language that native speakers use in order to address other speakers for whom this language is not a native one, especially speakers who do not know the language at all. Because of the similarities found in this type of speech and the speech which is usually directed at children, it is also sometimes called `baby talk'.

REFERENTIAL QUESTION

- a question which asks for information which is not known to the teacher, such as What do you think about animal rights ?

DISPLAY QUESTION

- a question which is not a real question (i.e. which does not seek information unknown to the teacher) but which serves to elicit language practice. For example: Is this a book ? Yes, it's a book. It has been suggested that one way to make classes more communicative is for teachers to use fewer display questions and more referential questions.

PROCEDURAL QUESTION

• a question which refers to the process/conduct of a lesson eg. Have you finished ? Who wants to start ?

LEARNING STRATEGY

1 (in language learning) a way in which a learner attempts to work out the meanings and uses of words, grammatical rules, and other aspects of a language, for example by the use of GENERALIZATION and INFERENCING.

In first language (L1) learning, a child may not pay attention to grammatical words in a sentence, but in trying to understand a sentence may use the learning strategy that the first mentioned noun in a sentence refers to the person or thing performing an action. The child may then think that the sentence The boy was chased by the dog means the same thing as The boy chased the dog.

2 (in second language learning, studying, reading etc.) intentional behaviour and thoughts that learners make use of during learning in order to better help them understand, learn or remember new information. These may include focusing on certain aspects of new information, analyzing and organizing information during learning to increase comprehension, evaluating learning when it is completed to see if further action is needed. Learning strategies may by applied to simple tasks such as learning a list of new words, or more complex tasks involving language comprehension and production. The effectiveness of second language learning is thought to be improved by teaching learners more effective learning strategies.

SYLLABUS (ALSO CURRICULUM)

a description of the contents of a course of instruction and the order in which they are to be taught. Language-teaching syllabuses may be based on (a) grammatical items and vocabulary

(see STRUCTURAL SYLLABUS) (b) the language needed for different types of situations ( see SITUATIONAL METHOD) (c) the meanings and communicative functions which the learner needs to express in the TARGET LANGUAGE.

CURRICULUM

an educational programme which states;

a the educational purpose of the programme (the ends)

b the content, teaching procedures and learning experiences which will be necessary to achieve

this purpose (the means)

c some means for assessing whether or not the educational ends have been achieved.

BRAIN

the organ of the body, in the upper part of the head, which controls thought and feeling.

The brain consists of two main parts, the left hemisphere and the right hemisphere. As the brain develops, it is thought that different bodily functions (e.g. speech, hearing, sensations, actions0 are gradually brought under the control of different areas of the brain. The development of control over different functions in different parts of the brain is known as cerebral dominance or lateralization. Those parts of the brain which control language are usually in the left hemisphere. One area in the left hemisphere is known as Broca's area, or the speech centre, because it is an important area involved in speech. Damage to this area of the brain leads to different types of APHASIA. Another area called Wernicke's area is thought to be involved in understanding language. The exact role of these two areas in language is not yet fully understood however.

LANGUAGE IMMERSION

- [zanurzenie w język/obcowanie z językiem] is a method of teaching a second language (also called L2, or the target language). Unlike a more traditional language course, where the target language is simply the subject material, language immersion uses the target language as a teaching tool, surrounding, or "immersing" students in the second language. On one hand, in-class activities, such as math, social studies, and history, and those outside of the class, such as meals or everyday tasks, are all conducted in the target language. On the other hand, children may be involved in a game, drawing, painting or any other artistic activities while there is an English song or an English play/fairy tale played at the back - so they listen and acquire the language unconsciously, not thinking about it.

SCAFFOLDING - A METHOD OF UNSTRESSFUL AND NATURAL CORRECTION WHEN AFTER A CHILD/PUPIL MISPRONOUNCE A WORD A PARENT/CARRER OR A TEACHER REPEATS IT MANY TIMES IN A CORRECT FORM IN DIFFERENT SENTENCES - THUS A CHILD NOT ONLY GETS INFO ON THE WORD'S PRONOUNCIATION BUT ON ITS USE IN CONTEXT.

SCAFFOLDING AND RECIPROCAL TEACHING AS TECHNIQUES OF FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING :

Scaffolding as a teaching strategy is widely used in the field of teaching as second language. As a teacher, s/he cannot teach without using some of the techniques of scaffolding. The theoretical basis and foundation for scaffolding is Vygotsky's Zone of Proximal Development. Vygotsky describes it as "the distance between the actual development level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers" (Vygotsky, 1978). By focusing on the basic skills instilled or taught to the students previously, with the foresight and knowledge of what the students need to get to the next level, the teacher can theoretically build a specific scaffold for the students to give them just enough support so they can accomplish the task by themselves. Most often, it will involve designing practice of English at the skill level of the student so that s/he will feel as if they can accomplish the task without getting frustrated, nor achieve the goal too easily.

Scaffolding, like its namesake, is a “temporary framework” that “supports students as they develop knew skills” (Starr, 2000). The scaffolding provided by the more knowledgeable persons is progressively withdrawn with the increase of the learners' competence. Finally the students can complete the task or master the concepts independently.

The effective strategies to access the zone of proximal development are scaffolding and reciprocal teaching. Scaffolding requires the teacher to provide students the opportunity to extend their current skills and knowledge. The teacher must engage students' interest, simplify tasks so they are manageable, and motivate students to pursue the instructional goal. In addition, the teacher must look for discrepancies between students' efforts and the solution, control for frustration and risk, and model an idealized version of the act (Hausfather, 1996). Reciprocal teaching allows for the creation of a dialogue between students and teachers. This two way communication becomes an instructional strategy by encouraging students to go beyond answering questions and engage in the discourse.

SCAFFOLDING INSTRUCTION describes specialized teaching strategies geared to support learning when students are first introduced to a new subject. Scaffolding gives students a context, motivation, or foundation from which to understand the new information that will be introduced during the coming lesson.

Scaffolding techniques should be considered fundamental to good, solid teaching for all students, not just those with learning disabilities or second language learners. In order for learning to progress, scaffolds should be gradually removed as instruction continues, so that students will eventually be able to demonstrate comprehension independently.

Scaffolding instruction includes a wide variety of strategies, including:

• activating prior knowledge

• offering a motivational context to pique student interest or curiosity in the subject at hand

• breaking a complex task into easier, more "doable" steps to facilitate student achievement

• showing students an example of the desired outcome before they complete the task

• modeling the thought process for students through "think aloud" talk

• offering hints or partial solutions to problems

• using verbal cues to prompt student answers

• teaching students chants or mnemonic devices to ease memorization of key facts or procedures

• facilitating student engagement and participation

• displaying a historical timeline to offer a context for learning

• using graphic organizers to offer a visual framework for assimilating new information

• teaching key vocabulary terms before reading

• guiding the students in making predictions for what they expect will occur in a story, experiment, or other course of action

• asking questions while reading to encourage deeper investigation of concepts

• suggesting possible strategies for the students to use during independent practice

• modeling an activity for the students before they are asked to complete the same or similar activity

• asking students to contribute their own experiences that relate to the subject at hand

ACTIVATING PRIOR KNOWLEDGE:

Definition: Activating Prior Knowledge refers to the practice of beginning a lesson by bringing up topics with which the students already have some familiarity. By putting the upcoming lesson material into a familiar context for the students, the teacher is giving them a context into which they can then assimilate the new information and understanding.

This discussion can also be used to gauge the level of prior knowledge of the students which can inform how to proceed with your instruction.

Activating Prior Knowledge can be included as part of the Anticipatory Set.

Examples: As the teacher began her lesson on Marine Life, she briefly discussed Shamu, the orca at Sea World, since she knew that all of the students had visited Sea World before. The students then had a basic image in their minds of underwater life before she introduced them to the new types of marine life in the Oceanography unit.

ANTICIPATORY SETS

Definition: To write an effective lesson plan, you must define the Anticipatory Set. This is the second step of a lesson plan and should be written after the Register phase and before the Direct Instruction/Presentation.

In the Anticipatory Set section, you outline what you will say and/or present to your students before the direct instruction of the lesson begins.

The purpose of the Anticipatory Set is to:

• Provide continuity from previous lessons, if applicable

• Allude to familiar concepts and vocabulary as a reminder and refresher

• Tell the students briefly what the lesson will be about

• Gauge the students' level of collective background knowledge of the subject to help inform your instruction

• Activate the students' existing knowledge base

• Whet the class's appetite for the subject at hand

• Briefly expose the students to the lesson's objectives and how you will get them to the end result

To write your Anticipatory Set, consider the following questions:

• How can I involve as many as students as possible, piquing their interests for the subject matter to come?

• How should I inform my students of the lesson's context and objective, in kid-friendly language?

• What do the students need to know before they can delve into the lesson plan itself and direct instruction?

Anticipatory Sets are more than just words and discussion with your students. You can also engage in a brief activity or question-and-answer session to start the lesson plan off in a participatory and active manner. Examples:

• Remind the children of animals and plants they have studied earlier in the year.

• Ask the class to raise their hands to contribute to a discussion of what they already know about plants. Write a list on the blackboard of the characteristics they name, while prompting them and offering ideas and comments as needed. Repeat the process for a discussion of the properties of animals. Point out major similarities and differences.

• Tell the children that it is important to learn about plants and animals because we share the earth with them and depend upon each other for survival.

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