WORD-FORMATION PROCESSES

Neologism - a new word in language.

Etymology - the study of the origin and history of a word.

• There are many different ways in which new words can enter the language.

• These processes have been at work in the language for some time and a lot of words in daily use today were, at once, considered barbaric misuses of the language.

• The constant revolution of new words and new uses of old words as a reassuring sign of vitality and creativeness in the way a language is shaped by the needs of its users.

COINAGE

Coinage - the invention of new words.

• one of the least common processes of word formation in English

• the most typical sources are invented trade names for commercial products that become general terms (usually without capital letters) for any version of that product

• older examples: aspirin, nylon, zipper

• recent examples: kleenex, teflon, xerox

• Polish ecamples: farelka, aragatka, adidasy, cpn, inka

• eponyms - new word based on the name of a person or a place

• e.g. hoover produced by William H. Hoover

• e.g. jeans from the Italian city where they was made

BORROWING Borrowing - the process of taking words from other languages. one of the most common source of new words in English English words borrowed from other languages: graffiti (Italian), alcohol (Arabic), yoghurt (Turkish), boss (Dutch), croissant (French), lilac (Persian), piano (Italian), pretzel (German), robot (Czech), babushka (Russian), yoga (Hindi) words borrowed from English language by other languages: suupaamaaketto (Japanese), rajio (Japanese), futbal (Hungarian), le weekend (French) Polish examples: zebra, UFO, WC, kartofel, ranczo Calque (loan translation) - a type of borrowing in which each element of a word is translated into the borrowing language, e.g. drapacz chur - skyscraper (English), samochód - auto + mobile (English), opera mydlana - soap opera (English), piłka nożna - football (English), loan-word - lehnwort (German)

COMPOUNDING Compounding - the process of combining two (or more) words to form a new word. very common in language like German and English less common in languages like French and Spanish English examples: bookcase, doorknob, fingerprint, sunburn, textbook, wallpaper, wastebasket, waterbed Polish examples: Bogusław, Bożydar, jadłodajnia, świniobicie, zlewozmywak, sokowirówka, żywopłot, powieściopisarz BLENDING Blending - the process of combining the beginning of one word and the end of another word to form a new word. English examples: workaholic (work + alcohol) telecast (television + broadcast) motel (motor + hotel) brunch (breakfast + lunch) to describe the mixing of languages people refer to: Franglais (French + English) Spanglish (Spanish + English) Polish examples: żelbeton, alkomat, bankomat

CLIPPING

Clipping - the process of reducing a word of more than one syllable to a shorter form.

• English examples:

• ad (advertisement), gas (gasoline), fan (fanatic), plane (aeroplane), flu (influenza), phone (telephone), pub (public house), fridge (refrigerator)

• names: Al, Ed, Liz, Mike, Ron, Sam, Sue, Tom

• educational environments words: chem, exam, info, doc, dorm, math, lab, phys-ed, poly-sci, prof

• Polish examples: foto, merc, spoko, wporzo, nara, komp

• hypocorisms - a word-formation process in which a longer word is reduced to a shorter form with -y or -ie at the end

• e.g. movie (moving picture), telly (television), Aussie (Australian), barbie (barbecue), bokie (bookmaker), brekky (breakfast), hankie (handkerchief)

BACKFORMATION

Backformation - the process of reducing a word (such as a noun) to a shorter version and using it as a new word (such as verb).

• English examples:

• to televise (television), to donate (donation), to babysit (babysitter), to liaise (liaison), to emote (emotion), to enthuse (enthusiasm)

• words in connection with jobs/ work: to work (worker), to edit (editor), to sculpt (sculptor)

• Polish examples: czołgać się (czołg), dźwigać (dźwig)

CONVERSION

Conversion (category change/ functional shift) - the process of changing the function of a word (such as a noun to a verb), as a way of forming new words.

• nouns becoming verbs: to bottle (the home-brew), to butter (the bread), to chair (the meeting)

• verbs becoming nouns: a guess, a must, a spy

• phrasal verbs becoming nouns: a printout (to print out), a takeover (to take over)

• verbs becoming adjectives: see-through (to see through), stand-up comedian (to stand up)

• adjectives becoming verbs or nouns: to dirty/ a dirty, to empty/ an empty, to total/ a total, to crazy/ a crazy, to nasty/ a nasty

• forms like `up' and `down' becoming verbs: `They up the prices.'

• nouns becoming verbs which have a negative sense: to doctor, to total, to run around

• compound nouns: carpool, mastermind, microwave, quarterback

ACRONYMS Acronyms - a new word formed from the initial letters of other words. e.g. CD (compact disk), VCR (video cassette recorder) acronyms which have kept their capital letters: NATO, NASA, UNESCO acronyms which have not kept capital letters: laser (light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation) radar (radio detecting and ranging) scuba (self-contained underwater breathing apparatus) zip code (zone improvement plan code) names for organizations: MAAD (mothers against drunk driving) WAR (women against rape) others: ATM (automatic teller machine) PIN (personal identification number)

DERIVATION Derivation - the process of forming new words by adding affixes. most common word-formation process to be found in the production of new English words Prefix - a bound morpheme added to the beginning of a word. e.g. unhappy, misrepresent, prejudge Suffix -a bound morpheme added to the end of a word. e.g. boyish, joyful, careless, terrorism, sadness Infixes - a morpheme that is inserted in the middle of a word. e.g. Hallebloodylujah!, Absogoddamlutely!, Unfuckinbelievable!

Analogy - a process of forming a new word to be similar in some way to and existing word.

---