LECTURE 14
Syntactic and semantic functions of subordinate clauses
1. Functions:
subject, e.g.: That there is no life on Mars doesn't surprise me.,
object, e.g.: I know that it's uninhabited.,
complement, e.g.: The truth is that the planet with life on it hasn't been discovered yet.,
adverbial, e.g.: When you change your mind, give me a call.
2. Functional categories of subordinate clause:
nominal (clauses) - may function as subject, object, complement; at the semantic level, they are abstract (they refer to facts, events, ideas),
adverbial (clauses) - function mainly as adjuncts,
relative (clauses) - typically restrictive/non-restrictive modifiers of NP, e.g.: a planet which is inhabited,
comparative (clauses) - modify nouns and verbs; they appear with their correlative elements, e.g.: as ... as ..., more ... than ... .
3. Wh- interrogative clauses:
also function as subject, object, complement,
they leave a gap of unknown element, represented by wh- element, e.g.:
I know that Max will be there./Do you know who will be there?,
an infinitive wh- clause can be formed with all wh- words, e.g.:
I don't know what to say.
4. Yes/no questions: (alternative interrogative clauses):
are introduced by subordinators if/whether, e.g.:
Do you know if/whether they are open on Fridays?,
I asked them if they wanted to go out or stay in.
5. Exclamative clauses:
subordinate exclamative clauses normally function as extraposed subject, direct object, prepositional complement, e.g.:
It's astonishing what she can do./What she can do is astonishing.,
We admired what she did.,
I read on account of what an impression you had made.
6. Ambiguity in exclamative clauses: I told her how late she was.:
exclamatory interpretation: I told her she was very late.,
interrogative interpretation: I told her the extent to which she was late.
7. Nominal relative clauses:
introduced by wh- element,
they can refer to concrete as well as abstract entities; like NPs, they may display number concord with the verb of the sentence, e.g.:
Whatever book you see is yours to take.,
they have the same range of functions as NPs,
to- infinitive clauses may be nominal relative clauses functioning as subject complement and prepositional complement, e.g.:
That's where to go for your next vacation.,
The book is on how to use a computer.
8. Nominal to- infinitive clauses: function as:
subject, e.g.: To stay here longer is out of the question.,
direct object, e.g.: I like to cook.,
subject complement, e.g.: The best excuse is to say that you can't.,
appositive, e.g.: Your ambition, to become a farmer, requires energy. (commas),
adjectival complementation, e.g.: I'm glad to meet you.,
extraposition is typical for to- infinitive clauses: It's out of the question to stay here longer.
9. Nominal -ing clauses:
may function as subject, direct object, subject complement, appositive (e.g.: My present job, learning grammar, takes some of my free time.) and adjectival complementation (e.g.: We're busy learning grammar.),
the -ing participle is a nominal -ing clause - is called gerund.
10. Bare infinitive clauses:
typically function as subject or subject complement, e.g.:
Turn off the tap was all I did.
11. Verbless clauses:
proverbs, e.g.: home sweet home.
12. Adverbial clauses:
clauses of time:
finite - are introduced by subordinators: after, as soon as, once, since, until, when, while,
-ing - are introduced by: once, till, until, when, while, etc.,
durative - express duration of time together with outcome, e.g.:
She lived to be 100.,
clauses of place:
introduced by where (specific) and wherever (non-specific), e.g.:
Wherever you go, I'll follow you.,
conditional clauses:
typically convey a direct condition (if ... than ...); the most direct coordinators are if/unless,
a direct condition may be open (= neutral) or hypothetical,
concessive clauses:
introduced by: although, while, whereas,
may introduce -ing, -ed and verbless clauses,
indicate that the situation in the matrix clause is contrary to what one may expect, e.g.:
No goals were scored, although it was an exciting game.,
clauses of contrast:
introduced by subordinators that introduce concessive clauses: whereas, while, whilst, e.g.:
Mr Tom teaches physics, while Mr Corby teaches Maths.,
clauses of exception:
introduced by: but, that, except (that), only, save (that),
clauses of reason:
convey the meanings of cause/effect, reason/consequence, motivation/result, circumstance/consequence,
introduced by since and because, e.g.:
She watered the flowers because they are dry.,
clauses of purpose:
introduced by: in order to, so as to,
they are usually infinitival; finite clauses of purpose are introduced by: so that, so, in order that, e.g.:
Students should take notes so as to make revision easier.,
clauses of result:
introduced by subordinators: so that, so, e.g.:
We paid him immediately, so that she left contended.,
clauses of similarity and comparison:
clauses of similarity are introduced by: as, like (commonly premodified by: just, exactly), e.g.:
Please do it exactly as I said.,
clauses of comparison are introduced by: as if, as though, like, e.g.:
She looks as if she is getting better.,
clauses of proportion:
express proportionality or degree between two situations,
introduced by: (so) as, the ... the ... + comparative forms, e.g.:
As he grew disheartened, (so) his work deteriorated.,
The more she thought about it, the less she liked it.,
clauses of preference:
usually non-finite; introduced by subordinators: rather than, sooner than, e.g.:
Rather than go there by car, I'd take the slowest train.,
clauses of comment:
occur initially, medially, finally (in speech they have distinctive intonations), e.g.:
I'm working the night shift, as you know.,
There were no other applicants, I believe, for that job.
13. The subject of non-finite and verbless adverbial clauses:
are called "absolute" clauses - they have an overt subject but aren't introduced by a subordinator; they are formal and infrequent, e.g.:
Lunch finished, the guests retired to the lounge.,
when the subject is absent, the "attachment rule" for identifying the subject is applied, e.g.:
The pears, when (they are) ripe, are picked up and sorted.
14. Supplementive clauses:
adverbial participle and verbless clauses without a subordinator; they imply accompanying circumstances to situations described in the main clause, e.g.:
Reaching the river, we put up our tents.
15. Comperative clauses:
compare a preposition expressed in the main clause with the preposition expressed in the subordinate clause, e.g.:
Jane is healthier than her sister (is).,
there are also comparative constructions that express the contrasting notions of sufficiency and excess, mainly with enough and too followed by a to- infinitive clause, e.g.:
She's old enough to understand that.,
She's too young to understand that.
16. UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR - the system of categories, operations, and principles shared by all human languages and considered to be innate (the set of rules that is thought to be able to describe all languages).
17. GENERATIVE GRAMMAR - a type of grammar which describes a language by giving a set of rules which can be used to produce all the possible sentences in that language.