LECTURE 2

1. Functions: subject and predicate:

• SUBJECT - is used to mention something/somebody,

• PREDICATE - is used to say something true or false about the subject, e.g.:

• Ducks paddle.

• The ducks are paddling away.

• Those gigantic ducks were paddling away furiously.

• the above sentences were divided into two constituents, the first of which is traditionally said to function as a subject and the other as a predicate.

• the general structure of those sentences is identical. They only differ at lower/more detailed level in the hierarchical structure.

2. How do I recognize a subject?:

• turn the sentence into YES/NO question - the phrase functioning as a subject is the one that changes position, e.g.:

The ducks are paddling away. -> Are the ducks paddling away?

• to make the question test work for other sentences, sometimes it is necessary to use the auxiliary verb for question and negation in the affirmative sentence, e.g.:

My nephew usually works hard. -> Does my nephew usually work hard?

3. What kinds of phrases function as subject and predicate:

• subject always centres on the same category of word - a NOUN, e.g.: subjects are NOUN PHRASES = NPs (the single words that can replace noun phrases are noun and pronouns),

• predicates always centres on the same category of word - a VERB, e.g.: predicates are VERB PHRASES = VPs,

• it is important to know that it doesn't mean that all noun phrases (NPs) function as subject, e.g.: Children watch Tom and Jerry eagerly. -> Tom and Jerry is not a subject in that sentence.

4. There is a MUTUAL DEPENDENCY between subject and predicate:

• a NP only functions as a subject in the presence of a VP,

• a VP only functions as a predicate in the presence of a NP,

• the two of them are required to form a complete and a well-formed sentence.

5. Other main functions:

• HEAD - a lexical or phrasal element that is essential in forming a phrase,

• MODIFIER - a phrasal element not selected by the verb functions as modifier to the head phrase,

• COMPLEMENT - a phrasal element that the head must combine with or a head select,

• in English complements typically follow their heads and modifiers can precede or follow their heads, e.g.:

beside a stream:

• beside is a head,

• a is a modifier,

• stream is a complement.