LECTURE 13
The Verb Phrase in subordinate clauses
1. Expressing future in some adverbial clauses:
after when, while, whether, whatever the Present Simple is used with reference to the future time, e.g.:
When she comes, I'll ask her a favour.,
Whatever they say, I'll try to solve the mistery.,
will/won't may occur in such types of clauses (especially if-clauses) when it denotes volition, e.g.:
If you will help us, we can finish early. (= if you're willing to help us),
when the modals express timeless and habitual prediction, e.g.:
If sugar will dissolve in a hot liquid, the chemical will do so too.,
when the modals express the present predictability of the occurrence or nonoccurrence of a future event, e.g.:
If you won't arrive before 6, I can't meet you.
2. Hypothetical past:
verbs in the hypothetical conditional clauses are backshifted, e.g.:
We have no money. We won't go on holidays. = If we had no money, we would go on holidays.
3. The present subjunctive:
after the verbs, adjectives & nouns expressing a necessity, plan or intention, the present subjunctive may be used, e.g.:
We insisted that he leave at once.,
They expressed the wish that she accept the award.
4. "Putative" should:
used (especially in British English) in that-clause to refer to a possibly existing or coming into existence situation, e.g.:
I'm surprised that you should feel lonely. (=that you feel lonely).
5. The perfect (aspect):
with since-clauses, e.g.:
Since I have left college, I have seen that film just one. (Past Simple is more common in informal speech in both American English & British English: Since I left college, I have seen that film just once.),
with other clauses: after/before, e.g.:
We want to sleep after/when we returned/had returned from the gym.
6. Direct and Indirect Speech:
Direct Speech refers to exact words someone has produced,
Indirect Speech reports what someone has said, e.g.:
We have been watching this film already for over 2h. = They said they had been watching that film already for over 2h.
7. Free Indirect Speech:
is used to report speech or the stream of thought (especially in fiction); however the reporting clause is omitted and the verbs backshifted.
8. Free Direct Speech:
is used in fiction to represent a person's stream of thoughts; in writing they are shown inside quotation marks.
9. Transferred negation:
takes place when the negative form is transferred to a subordinate clause although semantically it does not belong there, e.g.:
I don't think it's a good idea. (= I think it isn't a good idea.).
10. Wh-clauses:
clauses that include wh- words, e.g.: where, who, when, what,
wh- words can be used in the main and subordinate clauses,
in the main clauses they are usually used in questions; in contrast to yes/no questions, wh- questions are specific - they question some particular constituent and therefore they are called constituent questions,
in wh- questions we have two complementiser positions:
"lower" position: daughter of S and sister of S; in subordinate clauses this position is filled by that/whether and subordinating conjunctions,
"higher" position: daughter of S and sister of S; this position is occupied by wh- expressions, e.g.:
Vince is taking what to Athens?
S
NP VP
N VP PP
Vince Vgrp NP P NP
AUX V what to N
is taking Athens
What is Vince taking to Athens?
S
Compl. S
is S
NP VP
N VP PP
Vince Vgrp NP P NP
AUX V 0 to N
Athens
11. Echo questions:
are questions asked about something that was already said, e.g.:
What did he do?/He did what?,
where, when, how, why - are generally regarded as AdvPs although they don't only stand in place of AdvPs but also PPs, APs and clauses.
12. Relative clauses:
are wh- clauses which aren't interrogative but whose function is to modify categories, e.g.: NPs:
The place where you left your wallet.,
The usher who I showed my ticket to.,
such wh- expressions are traditionally referred to as relative pronouns,
relative clauses are represented as a sister of NOM within a higher NOM; they are usually NOM-modifiers,
it is usually possible to omit the fronted wh- form in a relative clause (ellipsis), e.g.:
The usher I showed my ticket to.,
the fronted wh- form cannot be omitted when:
it functions as a subject,
other material has been fronted with it.
13. Restrictive and non-restrictive/appositive clauses:
in text, non-restrictive clauses are marked off by commas, e.g.:
The dogs which have rabies are dangerous./The dogs, which have rabies, are dangerous.,
non-restrictive relative clauses serve to add extra information,
they must be represented as a sister of a NP within a higher NP.
14. Concluding...
noun-complement clauses: modifiers of N (within NOM),
restrictive relative clauses: modifiers of NOM (within NOM),
non-restrictive clauses: modifiers of NP (within NP).