LECTURE 4
1. VERB PHRASE - must contain the Verb Group (Vgrp), which consists of a LEXICAL VERB and is optionally proceeded by AUXILIARY VERBS.
VP
Vgrp
AUX V
2. Functional relations between the Verb Group and other constituents:
Verbs are sub-categorized in terms of their complementation types:
(MONO)TRANSITIVE Vgrp - [trans] - require a single NP to complement it, e.g.: Phil dreads affectionate cats. When the form of a NP is determined by its complement, it is said to be governed by that other constituent (the Verb Phrase in this case):
(MONO)TRANSITIVE = S - Vgrp - dO
INTRANSITIVE Vgrp - [intrans] - do not require any further constituents in a sister in the Verb Phrase, e.g.: Cats disappeared.
INTRANSITIVE = S - Vgrp
DI-TRANSITIVE Vgrp - [ditrans] - require two NPs as their complementation, e.g.: Mike has sent his sister some flowers. The first complement NP functions as the INDIRECT OBJECT (iO), and the second complement NP - as the DIRECT OBJECT (dO):
Phil gave his cousin the cat. - the first complement functions as the Indirect Object and the second as the Direct Object of the Di-transitive verb,
in such VPs the Indirect Object corresponds to a Prepositional Phrase (PP) in a position following the Direct Object - we can write this sentence in that way: Phil gave the cat to his cousin.,
DI-TRANSITIVE = S - Vgrp - iO - dO / S - Vgrp - dO - iO (preceded by to/for)
INTENSIVE Vgrp - [intens] - require a single complement: AP, NP or PP, e.g.: Phil was free.:
the complement of the Intensive Vgrp functions as PREDICATIVE,
predicatives are used to attribute properties to the things but they do not themselves refer to things. Subject-Predicatives (sPs) attribute properties to Subject,
Intensive verbs only take Predicatives that they can be complemented by APs,
when a verb is complemented just by an AP, it is a good indication that the Vgrp is Intensive,
the most popular Intensive Verbs: be, become, seem, appear, turn, remain, look, taste, fell, smell, sound,
INTENSTIVE = S - Vgrp - sP
COMPLEX TRANSITIVE Vgrp - [complex] - take two complements: a Direct Object (dO) - NP and an Object-Predicative (oP) - AP, NP or PP, e.g.: Phil's cousin found the cats extremely affectionate.
COMPLEX TRANSITIVE = S - Vgrp - dO - oP
PREPOSITIONAL Vgrp - [prep] - must be complemented by a PP; they need to be distinguished from (Intransitive) verbs with optional modification by PP from the verbs which can only be complemented by PPs:
the PP that complements a (Prepositional) Vgrp is called PREPOSITIONAL COMPLEMENT,
examples of Prepositional Verbs: glance, refer, reply, look, e.g: She is looking at the window.
PREPOSITIONAL = S - Vgrp - PC
3. ADJUNCT ADVERBIAL - (aA) - is a sister of VP (Verb Phrase):
VP
VP Adjunct Adverbial (aA)
Vgrp complement(s)
4. As Adjunct Adverbials can function:
PPs - they express means, purpose, manner, reason, place, time; they tend to answer questions like: Where? Why? When? How? What for? How long? How often? How many times?, e.g.:
Phil dreads affectionate cats like a maniac.
optional modification (PP),
AdvPs - many adverbs cannot identified by -ly inflection, e.g.: how, where, why, when and adverbs relating to time, e.g.: here, there, now, then, again, yet, still, already, seldom, often, ever, never, e.g.:
Phil dreads affectionate cats again.
optional modification (AdvP),
certain NPs, such as: home, last year, yesterday, tonight, tomorrow, the day before yesterday, the day after tomorrow, this afternoon.
5. COMPLEMENTS - (of the Vgrp) - sisters of the Vgrp:
Phil dreads affectionate cats in the spring.
complement of the Vgrp
6. PRO-FORMS - expressions that are used to avoid repeating the material or to replace it (pronouns are pro-forms), e.g.:
Phil got rid of the cats and Ben did so with his.
pro-forms
7. The mobility of adverbials:
adverbials can appear in all sorts of positions in the sentence,
the fact that you can move a PP around a sentence is a sign that it is functioning as an adverbial and not as the complement of the Vgrp, e.g.:
Phil dreads affectionate cats like a maniac. = S - Vgrp - dO - aA
Like a maniac, Phil dreads affectionate cats. = aA - S - Vgrp - dO
Phil, like a maniac, dreads affectionate cats. = S - aA - Vgrp - dO
8. Phrasal Verbs:
must be distinguished from PPs:
He called up the street. He called up the boss.
PPs transitive Phrasal Verb followed by a NP as its dO
examples of Phrasal Verbs: transitive: call off, look up, put down, hand down, hand over,
transitive and intransitive: give up, give in, drink up.
9. PARTICLE - a preposition which appears in the Phrasal Verb. Thus a Phrasal Verb consists of Verb + PARTICLE:
a characteristic of Particles is that they can appear in a position after the Direct Object (dO), e.g.:
He called the boss up. - only the Particle of a Phrasal Verb can move over the NP in this way.
10. ELLIPSIS - the omission from sentences of the required elements capable of being understood in the context of their use:
Ellipsis creates acceptable, but grammatically incomplete sentences.
11. SENTENCE ADVERBIAL - [S-adverbials] - sister of the sentence:
Sentence Adverbial provides some comments by the speaker/writer about the fact they are reporting or about how they feel - they are expressing what they have to say,
Sentence Adverbials are very loosely associated with the sentence which is shown by commas in writing and a distinct intonation in speaking, e.g.:
Buster admitted everything frankly. / Buster admitted everything, frankly.
Mildred interfered between you and me. / Mildred interfered, between me and you.
S-adverbials can also occur at the beginning of the sentence, e.g.:
Frankly, Buster admitted everything.
Between me and you, Mildred interfered.
S-adverbials refer to the rest of a sentence as a whole:
S
S AdvP
NP VP frankly
Buster admitted
everything
other AdvPs and PPs can only function as S-adverbials, e.g.: unfortunately, admittedly, certainly, of course, perhaps, possibly,
there are also Conjunct Adverbials which are a type of S-adverbials and indicate the kind of relation between the sentence they modify and the surrounding discourse:
AdvPs: nevertheless, therefore, furthermore, thus, however, incidentally.
PPs: on the contrary, by contrast, in other words, for a start, in short, in conclusion, on the other hand.