LECTURE 10
1. Prepositions:
are closed class of items connecting two units in a sentence and specifying relationship between them (Greenbaum & Quirk).
2. Two groups of prepositions:
SIMPLE (monosyllabic & polysyllabic) prepositions, e.g.: in, with, at/within, inside, except, etc.,
COMPLEX (combination of prepositions and other words) prepositions, e.g.: away from, devoid of/in front of, as a result of, etc.
3. Recognizing prepositions:
typically, words are analysed as prepositions if they have complements in the form of NPs (PP = P + NP), e.g.:
Below the horizon. (prep),
He went below. (prep),
Since Easter. (prep),
Since she left town. (not a prep - followed by a clause),
Out the window. (sometimes Am. E. prep),
Out of the window. (not a prep - followed by PP),
prepositions do not inflect.
4. Function: depend of nouns and verbs:
a bottle (n) of milk,
He resigned (v) from the post.,
We are (v = to be) from Poland.
5. Prepositions vs. subordinators:
subordinating conjunctions: after, since, till, although, because, if, unless, That, whether, etc.,
they are subordinators when they function as markers of subordination: I'm not sure whether they have received my appeal. - subordinate clause,
they are not markers of subordination when they act as independent adjuncts of time and reason: They stayed up late that evening after the others had left./They complained because we didn't finish the job.
6. Prepositions vs. adverbs:
examples:
She went aboard the liner. (prep),
She went aboard. (adv.),
adverbs do not normally function as complements to to be:
The cat was on the doormat.,
The cat was patiently. - incorrect,
there is an inconsistency between categorizing words such as aboard, outside, etc. as adverbs and the traditional definition of adverbs,
so, it has been proposed to get rid of the complication and not regard them as PP = P + NP; they should be called prepositions even when they occur alone in a phrase/sentence.
7. Prepositions vs. adjectives:
adjectives are gradable and prepositions are not gradable,
APs may appear as complements to such verbs as: be, become, appear, seem, feel:
He became very skillful.,
She feels happy.
8. Prepositions vs. verbs:
verbs usually function as predicator in clause structure: We took him by surprise..We followed the guide.,
sometimes, verbs take on properties of prepositions: Following (= after) the meeting, there will be a reception.
9. Preposition stranding:
in certain clause constructions, the complement of a preposition may be fronted, e.g.:
From where did you get it? - Where did you get if from?,
I can't find the book to which (formal) she was referring. - I can't find the book which she was referring to.,
sometimes preposition stranding is impossible, e.g.:
This is the cafe which the key to was stolen. (wrong) - This is the cafe to which the key was stolen.
10. Structure of PPs:
prepositions are head of PPs and take various dependents (both complements and modifiers),
COMPLEMENTS:
NP: I'm looking for my glasses.,
PP: I stayed until after lunch.,
AdvP: I hadn't seen him till recently.,
Clause: Workers agreed on how to choose their leader.,
prepositions with no complements: aboard, upstairs.
11. Fossilization:
some V + preposition combinations are fossilized, i.e. they do not permit any variation in their relative positions, do not allow any departure from the fixed order, e.g.:
Come across. - wrong,
The notes across which I came. - correct.
12. Idioms:
are combinations of words whose meaning cannot be derived from the meaning of their components: pass away, fall out, put up with.
13. Negation:
is marked by individual words: not, no, never or by affixation within the word (irregular),
positive and negative contrast in a grammatical system is referred to as POSITIVE POLARITY and NEGATIVE POLARITY,
positive and negative clauses differ in the way they combine with other expressions in the structure of larger units,
not even - can be added after a negative clause: I haven't read your book, (not) even the introduction.,
the connective adjuncts: neither... nor... (for a negative pair) & so... (for a positive pair), e.g.:
I have read the book, and so have the students.,
I haven't read the book and neither have the students.
14. Confirmatory tags:
auxiliary verb + personal pronoun, e.g.: They have read the book, haven't they? (reversed polarity in question tags).
15. Subclausal negation:
works below the level of the clause,
affixal negation: the form is generally positive but the negative meaning is carried by the prefixes like: dis, in, un, etc., i.e.: dislike, inattentive, unwilling.
16. Clausal negation:
VERBAL NEGATION is marked by not following an auxiliary verb: She didn't tell me anything.,
NON-VERBAL NEGATION: the negative element in this case is carried in words like: nothing, noone, never, seldom, hardly, etc., i.e.: She told me nothing./Not everybody agrees with you.
17. Non-verbal negators:
ABSOLUTE NEGATORS, e.g.: no, none, nobody, neither, nor, never,
APPROXIMATE NEGATORS, e.g.: few, hardly, rarely, barely.
18. Non-affirmative items:
any - is excluded from positive sentences and has negative orientation; it is also used in interrogative clauses: I didn't see anyone.,
*not polarity sensitive: Anyone can be admitted.
19. Scope of negation:
it usually starts with the negative word itself, so where we put the negative may affect the meaning, e.g.:
I haven't got Andrew's address.,
I offered no advice.