Division of photovoltaic systems by the connection
In terms of mode of operation, PV systems can be divided into:
- autonomous (also called off-grid, stand-alone)
- connected to the electrical network (on-grid)
- hybrid.
Autonomous systems (off-grid, stand-alone)
- they are usually installed in places where there is no available electrical distribution system (eg
cottages, traffic lights, telecommunications equipment, monitoring devices in the terrain, garden
lighting, illuminated signs)
- solar panels supply energy to the whole system and are used as a basis for supply
- battery supplies accumulated power for the appliance in case of the sudden consuming or when panels
do not produce enough energy, for example in the time of low light or in the night
- solar controller controls the battery charging and protects battery against the discharging
- voltage converter - converts 12V or 24 V DC (from battery) to 230 V AC.
A - PV panel,
B - inverter
C - controller,
D - battery
1
http://energyinformative.org/grid-tied-off-grid-and-
http://urobsisam.topky.sk/stavba-a-rekonstrukcia/instalacie-a-
hybrid-solar-systems/
rozvody/vsetko-o-vlastnej-fotovoltickej-elektrarni-1448.html
Connected to the electrical network (on-grid)
- they are applied in areas with a dense network of electrical wiring
a) all the produced energy can be supplied to the grid
A  PV panel,
B  strieda%0Å„,
C  napájací elektromer,
D  odbernż elektromer
E  verejná siee

2
http://www.solar-electric.sk/Grafika%20WEB%201_page4.htm
http://www.solarenvi.sk/s5article6p.html
b) the excess energy (the difference between production and consumption) can be supplied to the grid
http://www.solar-electric.sk/Grafika%20WEB%201_page4.htm
3
http://www.solarenvi.sk/s5article6p.html
Hybrid systems
- combination of off-grid and on-grid system
4
http://energyinformative.org/grid-tied-off-grid-and-hybrid-solar-systems/
http://www.solarenvi.sk/s5article5p.html
Technical solutions of PV power plants
- installation of photovoltaic power plants can be divided according to three basic indicators:
a) installed capacity
- small systems - to 25 kWp (for example on the roof of the house) - connection to the low
voltage network (1 kV)
- medium systems - from 50 kWp to 250 kWp (for example on the roofs of industrial
buildings) - connection to the medium voltage network (22 kV)
- large systems - from 500 kWp (free areas) - to the medium voltage network (22 kV)
- very large systems - from 5 MW (free areas) - to high voltage network (110 kV)
5
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0196890408004615
b) supporting structure
- fixed (static) systems
- trackers (1-axis, 2-axis)
Comparison of power
without and with trackers
Optimal orientation of panels
- SOUTH
Optimal inclination:
- depends on the season
The movement of the sun across the sky at 50 °
north latitude 6
http://solargis.info/doc/103
http://www.wholesalesolar.com/Information-SolarFolder/solar-panel-efficiency.html
Photovoltaic Geographical Information System
7
http://re.jrc.ec.europa.eu/pvgis/apps4/pvest.php
http://www.joyce-energie.cz/fotovoltaika/vypocet-vykonu-vasi-fve/
Photovoltaic Geographical Information System
8
http://re.jrc.ec.europa.eu/pvgis/apps4/pvest.php
http://www.joyce-energie.cz/fotovoltaika/vypocet-vykonu-vasi-fve/
c) location
- roofs of buildings
- integration into the building envelope
- free areas
9
http://www.pvresources.com/PVPowerPlants/Top50.aspx
Concentrated Photovoltaic Technology
- is when sunlight is concentrated into a small area of PV cells in order to generate
electricity, by using optics such us curved mirrors or lenses
http://www.ires.ma/sites/default/files/rencontresetdebats/pdf_cpv_storage_grid_sergio_asenjo_rev_1_0.pdf
10
http://rge360.com/cpv
11
Hybrid concentrated photovoltaic and thermal system
- it is a combination of CPV system in which solar energy is concentrated by lenses or
mirrors and so-called hybrid cell, which combines solar collectors for hot water and
photovoltaic panels for electricity. A significant efficiency was achieved (75%).
Currently, the company ZenithSolar installed the first systems in Kibbutz Yavne in central Israel.
12
http://www.ekobydleni.eu/solarni-energie/zenithsolar-solarni-system-s-nejvetsi-ucinnosti-na-svete
Evolution of global PV installed capacity
13
http://wacleantech.org/2013/08/solar-pv-capacity-expands-quickly-when-states-provide-the-right-incentives/
14
http://globalwarmingisreal.com/2012/09/24/why-germany-owns-13-of-the-worlds-photovoltaics/
http://cleantechnica.com/2013/05/13/european-global-solar-pv-2012-2017-epia-report/
Solar power starts to show up at scale
New installations totalling 30.2 GW in 2012 took global solar power generating capacity to 100 GW by year-end, a 43.3%
increase versus the end of 2011. Capacity has grown more than ten-fold over the past 5 years.
More than half of the growth in capacity was in Europe, led by Germany (7.6 GW) and Italy (3.4 GW). Germany remains the
world leader for cumulative installed capacity (32.6 GW), with Italy (16.2 GW) in second place.
China, already the leading manufacturer of solar PV, has started to develop its domestic solar market, adding 5 GW in 2012. The
US also saw strong growth in 2012, adding 3.3 GW.
Solar power generation enjoyed another year of very rapid growth in 2012, with a 58% increase. Its overall share of renewable
power remains low (8.9%), but 2012 confirmed the arrival of solar power at scale, contributing 24.4% of the growth of
renewable power in 2012.
15
http://www.bp.com/en/global/corporate/about-bp/statistical-review-of-world-energy-2013/review-by-energy-type/renewable-energy/solar-energy.html
http://i2.wp.com/cleantechnica.com/files/2013/05/cumulative-solar-PV-capacity-europe.png
16
17
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_photovoltaic_power_stations
18
http://c1cleantechnicacom.wpengine.netdna-cdn.com/files/2012/05/2012-05-25-Germany-PV-Solar-Record.jpg
19
http://www.statista.com/markets/5/energy-utilities/chart/1576/chinese-solar-photovoltaic-production-soars/
http://cleantechnica.com/2013/05/11/solar-
module-manufacturing-trends-in-2012/
20
http://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/chin
a-eu-reach-solar-module-trade-dispute-settlement
21
http://www.seia.org/policy/solar-technology/photovoltaic-solar-electric
22
http://www.pv-system-tech.com/market/market-situation-and-forecasts/
The price of solar photovoltaic cells has
dropped 99% in the past quarter century. So
in an increasing number of markets around the
country, solar is at or very close to grid parity.
23
http://theenergycollective.com/josephromm/285416/must-see-chart-cost-pv-cells-has-dropped-amazing-99-1977-bringing-solar-power-grid
Przyrost mocy zainstalowanej oraz dane sprzedażowe za rok 2012 w Polsce
24
http://gramwzielone.pl/energia-sloneczna/7243/polski-rynek-fotowoltaiczny-w-liczbach
 Panele PV na polskim rynku ze względu na kraj produkcji
25
http://gramwzielone.pl/energia-sloneczna/7243/polski-rynek-fotowoltaiczny-w-liczbach
5.2.2 The conversion of solar energy into electricity indirect form
(solar-thermal power plants)
Thermal solar tower
- solar towers use a circular array of the large mirrors (heliostats) that are rotated towards the
sun and they concentrate the rays into a focus of the central tower.
- absorbed heat is conveyed to the liquid from which the steam generator produces steam
driving the turbine, generating electricity.
- rotation is controlled by computer and 2-axial device ensures that the mirrors constantly direct
the rays into focus of the tower.
- circulating liquid in the absorber heat also the thermal reservoir from which heat is taken not
only for electricity but also for industrial applications.
- temperature range, which is achieved in an absorber is from 530 °C to 1480 °C
Schematic view of solar tower power plant
26
http://www.oze.stuba.sk/oze/slnecna-energia/
27
Solar power tower near Seville in Spain PS 20
- the PS20 plant generates 20 megawatts (MW) of electricity,
- at the PS20 plant each heliostat is 120 m2, which gives the entire heliostat field a massive
area of 155,000 m2.
- each heliostat tracks the sun throughout the day on two axes and concentrates the
radiation onto a receiver located on the upper part of the 162 m tower.
- the receiver converts 92% of received sunlight into steam which is piped down to a turbine
driven generator at the base of the tower.
28
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364032112002250
Linear parabolic mirrors
- the liquid (eg, oil) is flowing in pipes and heats to nearly 400 °C by using mirrors Sun,
- the liquid is pumped through a heat exchanger, the steam with high temperature drives a
turbine, the generator is producing an electricity.
- pipe at the focus of parabolic mirrors is made   of glass and the whole system is rotated
towards the sun
- as the heat transfer medium is used oil.
29
Solar Energy Generating Systems (SEGS) in California (Mojave Desert) - 354 MW
- the facilities have a total of 936 384 mirrors and cover more than (647.5 ha)
30
Parabolic mirrors
- these systems use a set of parabolic mirrors in the shape of plates (similar to satellite
antennas) that concentrate the solar radiation to the absorber which is placed at the focus of
plate.
- the liquid in the absorber is heated up to 1000 °C, which is used directly to generate
electricity in a small turbine (e.g. Stirling engine) attached to the absorber
- advantage of these devices is their modular character, allowing their use in remote locations.
- power of the unit is about 10-25 kWe, mirror diameter is about 10 m
- parabolic mirrors are the most efficient solar power generation equipments due to high
optical efficiency and low energy losses.
31
32
http://www1.eere.energy.gov/solar/sunshot/csp_sunshotrnd_anl.html
Solar chimney power plant
- principle of operation of solar chimney power plant is the heating of the air under
greenhouses (glass, polycarbonate, foil).
- sun-heated air creates air flow that rises through the chimney towards upward and rotates
the turbine at the bottom of the chimney
33
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0038092X09001200
http://www.cez.cz/edee/content/microsites/solarni/k23.htm
- in 1982 in Manzanares, about 150 km south of
Madrid was built solar chimney power plant
- on the area of   46 000 m2 was created low glazed
energy collector, based on the greenhouse
phenomenon.
- chimney height 195 m, diameter 10 m.
- power of the experimental plants was only 50 kW.
The project was completed in the year. 1989, when
the chimney was damaged in a storm.
Currently is under construction chimney power
Arizona
plant in Australia
- power: 200 MW
- height of chimney : 1000 meters
- diameter of chimney: 150 meters
- diameter of collector: 5000 meters
- power: 200 MW
34
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0038092X09001200
http://www.cez.cz/edee/content/microsites/solarni/k23.htm
5.2.3 The conversion of solar energy into thermal energy
Solar radiation incident on the collector absorber is transformed into heat, which
accumulates and transmits heat transfer liquid flowing in a stainless steel absorber collector.
Accumulated energy is passed through a heat transfer medium to heated water in the heat
exchanger. The expansion reservoir keeps uniform pressure and balances the changes in
fluid volume. Automatic operation provides electronic control that switch off and switch on
the circulation pump. During cloudy days the water is heated by the electric heater, boiler,
or other heat source.
1 solar collectors
2 reservoir with heat exchanger
3 expansion reservoir
4 circulation pump
5 regulation
35
6 boiler
36
http://www.mtecology.com/produkty/kolektory-sloneczne/
Kolektory płaskie czy próżniowe?
37
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NDCewYLq2lU
Jak dobrać odpowiedni zbiornik CWU
38
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KwIYRxceXgg
Montaż kolektorów słonecznych
39
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z8yOkoxZ8MQ
Sterowniki i regulatory solarne
40
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nVLoZgis9GY