Osoby zakładające działalność gospodarczą w Wielkiej Brytanii mają do dyspozycji następujące formy prawne:
- samozatrudnienie (selfemployment),
- spółki zwykłe powstające w wyniku zawarcia umowy między wspólnikami (partnerships), których poszczególne typy konstrukcją przypominają spółkę cywilną i spółki osobowe prawa handlowego zdefiniowane w prawie polskim;
- spółki korporacyjne powstające w wyniku tzw. procedury inkorporacyjnej (companies), które przypominają spółki kapitałowe prawa handlowego zdefiniowane w prawie polskim.
Najbardziej odpowiednią formą prawną dla podjęcia działalności gospodarczej w mniejszym rozmiarze wydaje się być samozatrudnienie czyli samodzielna działalność gospodarcza. W Wielkiej Brytanii osoby fizyczne podejmujące samodzielną działalność gospodarczą mają obowiązek dokonania rejestracji w lokalnym urzędzie skarbowym (HM Revenue & Customs), tj. zgłoszenia przyjazdu do Wielkiej Brytanii i zgłoszenia samozatrudnienia.
Kolejnym krokiem dla osób podlegającym brytyjskiemu prawu w zakresie ubezpieczeń społecznych (zob. poniżej) jest wystąpienie o przyznanie numeru ubezpieczenia społecznego do lokalnego oddziału Departamentu Pracy i Emerytur.
Osoby podejmujące działalność gospodarczą w szeroko rozumianym sektorze budownictwa są zobowiązane zgłaszając samozatrudnienie i przyjazd do Wielkiej Brytanii uzyskać również tzw. tymczasową kartę CIS-4 (Constructions Industry Scheme). Po otrzymaniu numeru ubezpieczenia społecznego osoby te występują o stałą kartę CIS-4.
Osoby samozatrudnione, po przekroczeniu ustalonego progu obrotów rocznych, powinny się również zarejestrować jako płatnicy VAT. Do sytuacji takiej dochodzi jednak stosunkowo rzadko, ponieważ limit ten jest relatywnie wysoki (w 2005 r. wynosił 60 000 funtów).
Kwestie opodatkowania podatkiem dochodowym osób fizycznych prowadzących działalność gospodarczą jednocześnie w Polsce i w Wielkiej Brytanii reguluje umowa z dnia 16 grudnia 1976 r. między rządem RP a rządem Wielkiej Brytanii w sprawie zapobieżenia podwójnemu opodatkowaniu w zakresie podatków od dochodu i zysków majątkowych (Dz. U. z 1978 r. Nr 7, poz. 20). Umowa ta przewiduje zasadę tzw. odliczenia proporcjonalnego. Oznacza to, iż dochody osiągnięte z działalności gospodarczej związanej z posiadaniem stałej placówki w Wielkiej Brytanii podlegają opodatkowaniu również w Polsce, jednak podatek zapłacony w Wielkiej Brytanii może zostać odliczony od podatku dochodowego od osób fizycznych należnego w Polsce.
Zasady ubezpieczenia społecznego osób przemieszczających się w ramach Unii Europejskiej określa akt prawa wspólnotowego, tj. Rozporządzenie Rady (EWG) z dnia 14 czerwca 1971 r. w sprawie stosowania systemów zabezpieczenia społecznego do pracowników najemnych, osób prowadzących działalność na własny rachunek i do członków ich rodzin przemieszczających się we Wspólnocie. Zgodnie z tym rozporządzeniem, osoba prowadząca działalność na własny rachunek na terytorium dwóch lub więcej państw członkowskich podlega ustawodawstwu tego państwa, na terytorium którego zamieszkuje, jeżeli wykonuje jakąkolwiek część swojej działalności na terytorium tego państwa.
Osoby prowadzące działalność gospodarczą jedynie w Wielkiej Brytanii są zobowiązane do opłacania w tym kraju składek na ubezpieczenie społeczne. W Wielkiej Brytanii wszyscy płatnicy składek podzieleni są na sześć grup. Osoby samozatrudnione kwalifikują się, w zależności od wysokości rocznych dochodów netto, do jednej lub dwóch spośród tych sześciu grup. Wszystkie osoby prowadzące samodzielną działalność gospodarczą opłacają składkę w grupie drugiej (Class 2), natomiast składka dla grupy czwartej (Class 4), obowiązuje tych samozatrudnionych, których roczny dochód netto przekracza kwotę 4.745 funtów.
W celu podjęcia działalności w mniejszym zakresie można również rozważyć utworzenie spółki zwykłej (partnership) przypominającej polską spółkę cywilną. Spółka ta nie posiada osobowości prawnej i nie podlega rejestracji. Jej wspólnicy powinni się natomiast zarejestrować jako osoby samozatrudnione Pozostałe typy spółek podlegają wpisowi do rejestru spółek prowadzonego przez brytyjski urząd rejestrowy Companies House. Urząd ten zajmuje się rejestracją i gromadzeniem informacji o spółkach z obszaru Anglii, Walii i Szkocji. Oddzielne rejestry spółek prowadzone są na terenie Północnej Irlandii, wyspy Man oraz wysp na Kanale La Manche: Alderney, Guernsey i Sark oraz Jersey.
Zakres informacji i dokumentów, których przekazanie jest niezbędne do dokonania rejestracji, zależy od typu zakładanej spółki. Rejestracja, jak również wszelkie zmiany danych objętych rejestracją podlegają opłatom (lista aktualnych i inne informacje na temat rejestracji są dostępne na stronie www.companieshouse.gov.uk).
Wielka Brytania nie wprowadziła ograniczeń (okresów przejściowych) w zakresie podejmowania pracy przez obywateli tzw. „nowych” państw członkowskich, dlatego też przedsiębiorca prowadzący działalność gospodarczą w Wielkiej Brytanii może zatrudniać zarówno pracowników brytyjskich, jak i polskich. Osoby podejmujące pracę w Wielkiej Brytanii mają jednak obowiązek zarejestrowania się w Wydziale ds. Rejestracji Pracowników brytyjskiego Ministerstwa Spraw Wewnętrznych.
W Wielkiej Brytanii nie ma również ograniczeń w nabywaniu nieruchomości przez osoby zagraniczne, budynki wykorzystywane do prowadzenia działalności gospodarczej muszą natomiast uzyskać certyfikat stwierdzający prawidłowe zabezpieczenie przeciwpożarowe.
Najprostszą formą prowadzenia samodzielnej działalności gospodarczej w mniejszym zakresie wspólnie przez kilka osób jest spółka cywilna (GbR). Spółka może powstać nawet bez pisemnej umowy między wspólnikami i wówczas zastosowanie znajdują odpowiednie przepisy ustawowe. Charakter i wartość udziałów wnoszonych przez poszczególnych wspólników zależy od ich wzajemnych ustaleń. Do prowadzenia spraw spółki są upoważnieni wszyscy i wszyscy oni odpowiadają za zobowiązania zaciągnięte w związku ze wspólną działalnością całym swoim majątkiem. Każdy ze wspólników musi zarejestrować prowadzoną działalność gospodarczą w urzędzie ds. gospodarczych. Jeżeli wspólnicy w obrocie gospodarczym zamierzają się posługiwać własną nazwą, nazwa ta powinna zawierać imiona i nazwiska wszystkich wspólników.
Można także rozważyć utworzenie spółki osobowej prawa handlowego (spółki jawnej lub spółki komandytowej). W przypadku tych spółek nie jest wymagane zgromadzenie kapitału minimalnego, procedura ich utworzenia jest jednak bardziej skomplikowana i kosztowna, ponieważ wymaga dokonania wpisu w rejestrze handlowym i rejestracji w tzw. sądzie rejestrowym (Amtsgericht
Podstawy prawne DZIAŁALNOŚCI GOSPODARCZEJ W WIELKIEJ Brytanii
Brytyjski system prawny opiera się w głównej mierze na zasadach prawa precedensowego (common law). Reguły słuszności będące rezultatem precedensów sądowych oraz orzecznictwa mają zastosowanie również w zakresie prawa handlowego.
Polacy i polskie podmioty gospodarcze mają możliwość bycia traktowanym na równi z obywatelami innych państw Europejskiego Obszaru Gospodarczego (European Economic Area - EEA) przy podejmowaniu i prowadzeniu działalności gospodarczej na terenie państw członkowskich, w tym także Wielkiej Brytanii.
Jednocześnie w ZK nie ma ograniczeń, co do transferu zysków i kapitału, czy też zaciągania kredytów przez firmy obce. Nie ma też wymogu posiadania specjalnych licencji czy zezwoleń z wyjątkiem:
świadczenia usług w zakresie bankowości, ubezpieczeń i doradztwa inwestycyjnego,
handlu/wytwarzania pewnych kategorii lekarstw, trucizn, chemikalii podwójnego zastosowania, win i alkoholi mocnych.
Nie ma również ograniczeń w nabywaniu nieruchomości przez osoby zagraniczne - budynki wykorzystywane do prowadzenia działalności gospodarczej muszą uzyskać certyfikat stwierdzający prawidłowe zabezpieczenie przeciwpożarowe.
Instytucją odpowiedzialną za rejestrację podmiotów gospodarczych na terenie Wielkiej Brytanii a także udzielającą informacji dot. podejmowania działalności gospodarczej oraz listy wymaganych dokumentów jest brytyjski Urząd Rejestrowy (Companies House):
Companies House
PO BOX 29019
21 Bloomsbury Street
London WC1B 3XD
tel.: +44 (0) 870 333 3636
fax: +44 (0) 29 2038 0900
Web: http://www.companieshouse.gov.uk
Formy prowadzenia działalności gospodarczej
1. Rodzaje przedsiębiorstw
Prawo spółek (company law) nie dyskryminuje firm zagranicznych prowadzących swoją działalność na rynku brytyjskim. Mają one do wyboru różne formy organizacyjno-prawne, spółki zwykłe (partnerships) i spółki typu korporacyjnego (companies).
Kryterium różnicowania kategorii spółek jest sposób ich powstania:
powstałe w wyniku zawarcia umowy,
powstałe w następstwie procedury inkorporacyjnej.
spółka zwykła (partnership)
Powstaje jako rezultat zawarcia umowy i jest określana jako specyficzna relacja pomiędzy wspólnikami (partners), której celem jest osiąganie zysku. Konstrukcja spółki zwykłej wywodzi się z prawa precedensowego, nie posiada ona osobowości prawnej z wyjątkiem spółek utworzonych na terenie Szkocji. Liczba wspólników jest zazwyczaj ograniczona do 20-stu i są oni solidarnie odpowiedzialni za zobowiązania spółki.
Spółka zwykła z ograniczoną odpowiedzialnością części wspólników (limited partnership) opiera się na prawie stanowionym - Partnership Act 1890 i Limited Partnership Act 1907 i podlega obowiązkowi rejestracji. Występują w niej dwie kategorie wspólników:
general partners - są odpowiedzialni za prowadzenie spółki i jej zobowiązania bez ograniczeń,
limited partners - nie uczestniczą w zarządzaniu spółką, a ich odpowiedzialność jest ograniczona do wysokości wkładów kapitałowych.
spółki korporacyjne
Spółki tego typu są tworzone na podstawie Aktu Królewskiego (incorporated by Royal Charter) lub parlamentarnego (Companies Act 1989) i uzyskują osobowość prawną poprzez wpis do rejestru prowadzonego przez Companies House.
Popularną formą jest spółka z ograniczoną odpowiedzialnością (limited company) do wysokości udziałów (najczęściej spotykana) lub gwarancji. W przypadku likwidacji spółki lub jej niewypłacalności udziałowcy (members) są zobowiązani do uzupełnienia funduszów spółki poprzez wniesienie należnych i niewpłaconych dotychczas udziałów.
W sytuacji, gdy osoby trzecie nie są zapraszane do obejmowania udziałów w spółce (rezygnacja z oferty publicznej), wówczas powstaje prywatna spółka z ograniczoną odpowiedzialnością (private limited company).
Kolejną odmianą spółki z ograniczoną odpowiedzialnością jest public limited company - plc. Może ona gromadzić kapitał w drodze emisji udziałów/akcji, które następnie mogą być przedmiotem notowań giełdowych. Minimalna suma kapitału zakładowego/akcyjnego wynosi 50.000 funtów.
oddziały firmy macierzystej
W sytuacji, gdy zagraniczna firma prowadzi działalność handlową poprzez bezpośrednią obecność na rynku brytyjskim określane jest to wówczas jako oddział (branch).
Oddział wyposażony jest w uprawnienia decyzyjne w imieniu firmy macierzystej.
Rejestracja
Informacje ogólne
Brytyjski urząd rejestrowy Companies House zajmuje się rejestracją i zbieraniem informacji o spółkach prawa handlowego z terenu Anglii, Walii i Szkocji. Instytucja ta działa jako wyodrębniona agencja rządowa (executive agency) w ramach Ministerstwa Handlu i Przemysłu (Department of Trade and Industry). Główna siedziba Companies House zlokalizowana jest w Cardiff. Urząd posiada również biura w Londynie i Edynburgu oraz lokalne oddziały w Leeds, Birmingham, Manchester i Glasgow. Spółki prawa handlowego posiadające adres rejestrowy na terenie Anglii i Walii mają obowiązek rejestrowania się w Cardiff, zaś spółki z terenu Szkocji w Edynburgu.
Na mocy prawa firmy muszą przekazywać do urzędu rejestrowego informacje o wszelkich zachodzących w nich zmianach (zmiana: nazwy, statusu [np. przekształcenie ze spółki z o.o. w spółkę akcyjną], składu zarządu spółki itp.) oraz przesyłać w określonych terminach sprawozdania finansowe. Do Companies House przekazywane są ponadto informacje nt. likwidacji bądź bankructwa firmy, a także takie fakty jak np. ustanowienie zarządu komisarycznego w danej spółce.
Podstawowe dane o zarejestrowanych firmach (np. data i nr rejestracji, kiedy firma przekazała ostatnie sprawozdanie finansowe, czy nie prowadzone jest przeciwko niej postępowanie upadłościowe) Companies House udostępnia nieodpłatnie. Fotokopie złożonych tam dokumentów udostępnia się natomiast odpłatnie. Informacje nt. zarejestrowanych tam spółek można uzyskać osobiście kontaktując się z jednym z biur bądź oddziałów Companies House, telefonicznie, listownie (fax`em) bądź przy pomocy internetu. Istnieje możliwość wykupienia dostępu do zawartych w Companies House danych w formie bądź aktualizowanych co miesiąc nośników elektronicznych (płyty CD) bądź dostępu do bazy danych poprzez internet.
Niezależnie od Companies House oddzielne rejestry firm prowadzone są na terenie Północnej Irlandii, wyspy Man oraz wysp na Kanale La Manche: Alderney, Guernsey i Sark oraz Jersey.
Polskie firmy i instytucje zainteresowane informacjami nt. brytyjskich spółek prawa handlowego mogą bezpośrednio zwracać się do wyżej wymienionych instytucji z prośbą o udostępnienie fotokopii przechowywanych tam dokumentów. Płatność za usługę może być dokonana za pomocą przekazu bankowego, czekiem lub kartą kredytową.
Rejestracja spółek
W celu zarejestrowania spółki z ograniczoną odpowiedzialnością jej założyciele zobowiązani są do przedłożenia w Companies House następujących dokumentów:
Memorandum of Association - spełnia jednocześnie rolę umowy założycielskiej i statutu spółki. Zawiera informacje określające: nazwę, miejsce zarejestrowanej siedziby, cele i zakres działalności, oświadczenie o ograniczonej odpowiedzialności, sumę kapitału i jego podział na stałe części oraz ewentualnie oświadczenie o przyjęciu formy public limited company.
Articles of Association - określają prawa udziałowców/ akcjonariuszy, zasady przekazywania udziałów/akcji i ich nowych emisji, procedurę zwoływania i prowadzenia walnego zgromadzenia, kompetencje zarządu, zasady wypłaty dywidend oraz tworzenia rezerw.
Potwierdzeniem dokonania rejestracji jest wydanie przez Companies House tzw. Certificate of Incorporation. Spółka, która w rezultacie inkorporacji nabyła osobowość prawną jest zobowiązana do przekazywania do Companies House sprawozdań rocznych (annual return), w którym zamieszczane są następujące informacje: adres zarejestrowanej siedziby spółki, wartość i struktura kapitału, adresy członków zarządu i udziałowców/ akcjonariuszy, rachunek wyników (zysków i strat), bilans, weryfikacja audytorska, sprawozdanie zarządu, stosowane metody amortyzacji majątku spółki, system wynagradzania zarządu i pracowników zarabiających powyżej 30.000 funtów rocznie, dotacje na rzecz partii politycznych i organizacji charytatywnych przekraczające kwotę 200 funtów, średni poziom zatrudnienia - w tym liczba osób niepełnosprawnych (dotyczy spółek zatrudniających powyżej 250 osób), zasady przepływu informacji i konsultacji z pracownikami. Bilans roczny spółki powinien zawierać m.in. dane o podejmowanych projektach inwestycyjnych, wartość i strukturę aktywów, udziały w innych spółkach powyżej 5% - w tym posiadane przez członków zarządu. Zgodnie z zaleceniami Companies House nowo-powstałe firmy mają obowiązek przedłożyć swoje pierwsze sprawozdanie finansowe przed upływem 22 miesięcy od daty rejestracji, niezależnie od momentu rozpoczęcia faktycznej działalności. To pierwsze sprawozdanie finansowe musi rozpoczynać się z dniem rejestracji i nie może przekraczać okresu 18 miesięcy.
System rejestracji spółek stosuje w szerokim zakresie zasadę jawności i dostępności dokumentacji przechowywanej w Companies House, a ponadto sama spółka jest zobowiązana do udostępniania zainteresowanym określonych informacji o sobie - w niektórych przypadkach dostępność pewnych informacji może zostać ograniczona jedynie do udziałowców/akcjonariuszy.
W przypadku spółek z ograniczoną odpowiedzialnością wszystkie listowniki, formularze rachunków i broszury spółki muszą zawierać jej nazwę, numer rejestracyjny i określenie miejsca zarejestrowanej siedziby.
Prowadzenie działalności gospodarczej w Wielkiej Brytanii
Po przystąpieniu Polski do Unii Europejskiej Polacy i polskie podmioty gospodarcze mają możliwość bycia traktowanymi na równi z innymi obywatelami Wspólnoty przy podejmowaniu i prowadzeniu działalności gospodarczej na terenie państw członkowskich, w tym także Wielkiej Brytanii.Rynek brytyjski jest szczególnie atrakcyjny dla polskich obywateli i przedsiębiorstw, głównie ze względu na fakt, iż Wielka Brytania nie wprowadziła znaczących ograniczeń w przepływie siły roboczej i w zakresie swobody świadczenia usług.
Formy prowadzenia działalności gospodarczej
Firmy zagraniczne prowadzące swoją działalność na rynku brytyjskim mają do wyboru różne formy organizacyjno-prawne: spółki zwykłe (partnerships) i spółki typu korporacyjnego (companies).
W ramach spółek zwykłych wyróżniamy: spółkę zwykłą i spółkę zwykłą z ograniczoną odpowiedzialnością części wspólników. Spółka zwykła (partnership) powstaje jako rezultat zawarcia umowy i jest określana jako specyficzna relacja pomiędzy wspólnikami (partners), której celem jest osiąganie zysku. Nie posiada ona osobowości prawnej z wyjątkiem spółek utworzonych na terenie Szkocji. Liczba wspólników jest zazwyczaj ograniczona do 20-stu i są oni solidarnie odpowiedzialni za zobowiązania spółki. Spółka zwykła z ograniczoną odpowiedzialnością części wspólników (limited partnership) opiera się na prawie stanowionym - Partnership Act 1890 i Limited Partnership Act 1907 i podlega obowiązkowi rejestracji. Występują w niej dwie kategorie wspólników: general partners, którzy są odpowiedzialni za prowadzenie spółki i jej zobowiązania bez ograniczeń oraz limited partners, którzy nie uczestniczą w zarządzaniu spółką, a ich odpowiedzialność jest ograniczona do wysokości wkładów kapitałowych.
Spółki korporacyjne są tworzone na podstawie Aktu Królewskiego (incorporated by Royal Charter) lub parlamentarnego (Companies Act 1989) i uzyskują osobowość prawną poprzez wpis do rejestru prowadzonego przez Companies House. Popularną formą jest spółka z ograniczoną odpowiedzialnością (limited company) do wysokości udziałów (najczęściej spotykana) lub gwarancji.
W sytuacji, gdy osoby trzecie nie są zapraszane do obejmowania udziałów w spółce (rezygnacja z oferty publicznej), wówczas powstaje prywatna spółka z ograniczoną odpowiedzialnością (private limited company). Kolejną odmianą spółki z ograniczoną odpowiedzialnością jest public limited company - plc. Może ona gromadzić kapitał w drodze emisji udziałów/akcji, które następnie mogą być przedmiotem notowań giełdowych. Minimalna suma kapitału zakładowego/akcyjnego wynosi 50.000 funtów.W sytuacji, gdy zagraniczna firma prowadzi działalność handlową poprzez bezpośrednią obecność na rynku brytyjskim określane jest to wówczas jako oddział (branch).Oddział wyposażony jest w uprawnienia decyzyjne w imieniu firmy macierzystej.
Rejestracja
Instytucją odpowiedzialną za rejestrację podmiotów gospodarczych na terenie Wielkiej Brytanii a także udzielającą informacji dot. podejmowania działalności gospodarczej oraz listy wymaganych dokumentów jest Brytyjski Urząd Rejestrowy (Companies House). Instytucja ta działa jako wyodrębniona agencja rządowa (executive agency) w ramach Ministerstwa Handlu i Przemysłu (Department of Trade and Industry). Główna siedziba Companies House zlokalizowana jest w Cardiff. Urząd posiada również biura w Londynie i Edynburgu oraz lokalne oddziały w Leeds, Birmingham, Manchester i Glasgow. Spółki prawa handlowego posiadające adres rejestrowy na terenie Anglii i Walii mają obowiązek rejestrowania się w Cardiff, zaś spółki z terenu Szkocji w Edynburgu. Potwierdzeniem dokonania rejestracji jest wydanie przez Companies House tzw. Certificate of Incorporation.
Utworzenie oddziału wymaga rejestracji wg jednej z dwóch przewidzianych prawem procedur. Firmy macierzyste inkorporowane na terenie Irlandii Północnej lub Gibraltaru mogą dokonywać w Wlk. Brytanii wyłącznie rejestracji tzw. place of business, zaś firmy macierzyste inkorporowane poza Irlandią Północną lub Gibraltarem rejestrują oddział lub place of business. W okresie 1 miesiąca od utworzenia oddziału lub place of business należy dostarczyć do Companies House następującą dokumentację: nazwisko i adres przynajmniej jednej osoby zamieszkałej w Wlk. Brytanii i uprawnionej do określonych czynności prawnych w imieniu firmy macierzystej, poświadczoną kopię dokumentów określających status firmy macierzystej - akt założycielski (wraz z tłumaczeniem na język angielski) oraz informacje o członkach zarządu firmy macierzystej.Po zaakceptowaniu przez Companies House złożonej dokumentacji wysyłany jest list, w którym stwierdza się fakt rejestracji podając jej numer i datę. Po tym fakcie zarówno oddział jak i place of business zaczynają funkcjonowanie wg tych samych zasad jak firmy brytyjskie.
:: Rodzaje działalności handlowej w Wielkiej Brytanii
Rozpoczęcie działalności w Wielkiej Brytanii jest szybkie i stosunkowo proste. Jednakże bardzo ważne jest wybór formy prawnej działalności. Warto się zastanowić jaką forma prawna pasuje do twojej działalności oraz gdzie zarejestrować firmę. Od tego będą zależeć twoje podatki czy też obowiązki w stosunku do Companies House czy też Ireland Revenue. Od tej decyzji będzie zależeć jakie dokumenty musisz przechowywać. Wybór formy prawnej wpłynie na rodzaj twojej odpowiedzialności co do decyzji firmy - odpowiedzialność całym majątkiem czy też odpowiedzialność do wniesionego wkładu. Od formy prawnej będzie zależała możliwość pozyskania innego kapitału. Prawo angielskie oferuje przedsiębiorcom różne formy prawne. Najpopularniejszą formą prawną jest firma LTD - odpowiednik polskiej spółki z o. o., PLC - odpowiednik polskiej spółki akcyjnej, LLP - limited liability partnership, self employer - odpowiednik działalności jednoosowbowej, partnership - spółka cywilana. Jeżeli nie jesteś pewien, która forma prawna pasuje do Twojej działalności ABS udzieli ci profesjonalnej rady |
Self Employed |
LTD - Prywatna Spółka z ograniczoną odpowiedzialnością |
LLP - Spółka Partnerska z ograniczoną odpowiedzialnością |
PLC- SpółkaPubliczna z ograniczoną odpowiedzialnością |
Memorandum of association
The memorandum of association of a UK company sets out the company's name, the proposed location of its registered office (i.e. 'England and Wales', 'Wales' or 'Scotland') in the UK, the objects of the company, a statement regarding the liability of its members and details of its share capital, if any, (or in the case of a UK company limited by guarantee, the amount which members will contribute in a winding up). Also, in the case of a UK company having a share capital, the memorandum must show the name of each initial member/shareholder (also called 'subscribers') and the number of shares each takes.
Articles of association
The articles of association (often just called 'articles') of a UK company contain the rules for its internal regulation and management. The articles deal with such things as meeting procedure, powers of directors, members' rights, procedure for paying dividends, winding up etc.
The articles can often be quite lengthy (for example they could typically comprise over 100 numbered paragraphs spanning, say 30 pages). However, the UK Companies Act 1985 contains a mechanism intended to simplify the task of preparing articles of association - various standard articles of association documents have been enacted. These are contained in regulations made under the Act - The Companies (Tables A to F) Regulations 1985. The most commonly used of these standard articles of association documents is known as 'Table A' (which is intended for use in the case of companies limited by shares). Table A may, if desired by the person(s) forming the company, be incorporated by reference (in whole or in part) into the company's own articles, thereby reducing the length of the document to be prepared.
Every UK company limited by shares (which is a far more common type of company than the company limited by guarantee or the unlimited company) is deemed to have articles of association in the form of Table A except in so far as articles are registered (i.e. lodged at Companies House) which exclude or modify Table A - section 8 of the Companies Act 1985.
It is common for UK companies to adopt the provisions of Table A in a modified format as experience has shown that Table A is rarely ideal in its unmodified form.
Contents |
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(also Inc in US_en)
Publicly tradeable shares
The owners are _not_ liable for legal actions and debts the company may face
Managed by a CEO elected by a Board of Directors (Board) which in turn is elected by the share holders in scheduled meetings.
Extra share holder meetings can usually be called up if enough share holders deem it necessary for some reason
Usually listed in one or many w:Stock exchanges
Rules of stock exchanges define some minimums to capital, cash flow and market value for PLCs to be viable for trading
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Non-publicly tradeable shares
The owners are _not_ liable for legal actions and debts the company may face
Managed by a CEO elected by a Board of Directors (Board) which in turn is elected by the share holders in scheduled meetings.
Extra share holder meetings can usually be called up if enough share holders deem it necessary for some reason
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Formed by two or more persons
The owners are all liable for legal actions and debts the company may face _personally_
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Like a General Partnership exept for the fact that there is/are so called silent partners who just invest capital into the business and are not liable for legal actions and debts the company may face
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A sole trader is liable for legal actions and debts personally
I think these last ones are not so commonplace
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There are two kinds of Co-operatives,
those owned collectively by the customers
those owned and managed collectively by the Workforce
A. ESTABLISHMENT OF A COMPANY
1. Types of company
The two most commonly used forms of company in England and Wales are:
- Public limited companies (Plc);
- Private limited companies (Ltd).
These are limited companies with a capital divided into shares. Public limited
companies have the right to offer shares to the public at large and be quoted on the
Stock Exchange. They must however have a minimum capital of £50,000. Normally
foreign investors choose to establish private limited companies.
Although public limited companies and private limited companies are the principal forms
of business organisation used in England and Wales, mention should also be made of
general partnerships which do not confer limited liability and (unlike in many North
American jurisdictions) do not have legal personality; limited partnerships which, whilst
again not having legal personality, confer limited liability on all partners other than the
general partner; unlimited companies, which have distinct legal personality but do not
confer limited liability; and companies limited by guarantee which are normally used for
activities of a co-operative, mutual or charitable nature. It is also now possible to set up
in England a European Economic Interest Grouping ("EEIG"). Due to its rather limited
role as essentially a means of non-profit making co-operation between businesses, very
few EEIG's have been set up to date in England and Wales.
In general, the mere fact that the shares in an English company are held by a foreign
entity has little impact if any on the rules applicable to its establishment.
2. Establishment of a Private Limited Company
2.1 Basic requirements
A foreign investor wishing to set up a private limited company in England or
Wales must comply with the requirements of the 1985 Companies Act (as
amended in 1989). The basic requirements for a private limited company are:
(a) Name
The name of the company must be approved by the Companies Registry.
It must include the word "Limited" or the initials "Ltd" which indicates that
the liability of the shareholders is limited.
The Registrar of Companies will not allow a company to be registered
with the same name as another company. Also, certain names which
suggest, for example that the business of the company is international or
that the company is involved in a particular sector can only be used if
certain requirements are satisfied.
If the proposed name is accepted by the Registrar of Companies, this will
prevent any other company from registering under, or changing its name
to that name. It should be noted, however, that the mere fact of securing
the registration of a company name will not be a defence to an action
brought by a third party who trades in similar products under a
confusingly similar name. In order to ensure a more complete protection
of the name under which the new company is to trade, consideration
should be given to taking the additional step of registering the name as a
trademark in the UK.
(b) Registered Office
Every company must establish a registered office in England and Wales.
This is the official address of the company and does not necessarily have
to be situated at the place where the company's commercial activities are
carried on. All official documents - for example writs or notices from tax
authorities will be sent to the company at its registered office. For this
reason, many companies establish a registered office at the offices of
their lawyers or accountants.
(c) Objects
The Memorandum of Association of the company (see below) must
include an "objects clause" which defines the scope of the activities
which may be carried on by the company. Although changes to the law
in 1989 made in possible to adopt an objects clause stating that a
company would be a "general commercial company" it is nevertheless
still preferable to include a properly drafted objects clause defining with
precision all the anticipated activities of the company.
(d) Share Capital
In the case of private limited companies, English law imposes no
minimum capital requirements.
English law distinguishes between authorised share capital and issued
share capital. In essence, the authorised share capital represents the
financial limit up to which the board of directors of the company is
permitted to issue shares. The issued share capital represents the total
amount of shares which have in fact been issued by the company. When
all shares comprised in the authorised share capital of the company have
been issued, it is necessary to increase the authorised share capital if
further shares are to be issued. There is no obligation to issue all the
authorised share capital of company and it is therefore often convenient
in the case of a wholly owned subsidiary to establish the company with a
large authorised share capital. In this way, a decision to issue more
shares can be taken simply by the board.
English law allows a fairly wide degree of flexibility regarding the structure
of a company's share capital. It is, for example, possible to provide for
several different classes of share with different rights and to provide that
certain shares may have more or less favourable dividend or voting
rights.
Share capital may be issued fully, partly or even nil paid.
(e) Shareholders
An English company may have only one shareholder. Shareholders may
be individuals or companies and there are no nationality or geographical
restrictions.
(f) Directors
Every company must have at least one director. The directors of an
English company do not have to be British and board meetings do not
have to be held in the UK. However, if board meetings are regularly held
in a country outside the UK, rules applicable in that country may subject
the company to taxation there.
A director does not have to be a shareholder and may be a company or
an individual.
(g) Company Secretary
Every company must have a company secretary. The role of the
company secretary is to ensure compliance with all legal and regulatory
requirements. For this reason, a firm of lawyers or accountants is often
appointed as company secretary. It is the company secretary who, for
example, is responsible for calling and minuting board and members'
meetings and for dealing with all filing requirements.
(h) Auditors
Every company which trades and makes accounting transactions must
appoint qualified auditors. The auditors certify the annual accounts of the
company which must be filed at Companies House. Simplified
accounting and exemption from audit requirements are available to
certain small and medium-sized companies.
2.2 Constitutional documentation
(a) Memorandum of Association
Under the Companies Act, the Memorandum of Association of the
company must lay down:
- the name of the company;
- its place of registration (England or Wales)
- the company's objects clause (see above);
- the fact that the liability of the shareholders is limited;
- the amount of authorised share capital (see above).
(b) Articles of Association
The Articles of Association constitute an agreement between the
company and its shareholders and govern the internal organisation of the
company and deal with such matters as board and shareholders
meetings, appointment and powers of directors, voting rights and share
transfers. Any restrictions on directors' powers in the Articles will not
however normally bind third parties.
3. How to set a company up
There are essentially two ways of setting up a company in England and Wales:
- a new "tailor-made" company may be specially incorporated by filing the
necessary documentation at the Companies Registry;
- a pre-existing "off-the-shelf" company may be modified to suit the particular
requirements in question.
The advantage of using an off-the-shelf company is that the company is already
constituted and immediately available to trade. However, the Companies Registry has
established a procedure whereby a new company can be registered in one day. Using
the special procedure to obtain a rapid registration may, however, work out slightly more
expensive than using an off-the-shelf company. If an off-the-shelf company is used, the
company will probably need to pass resolutions which change the company from
standard form to a form more appropriate to the particular business which the company
will conduct. These will include, for example:
- changing the name of the company;
- changing the objects clause of the company;
- changing of the Articles of Association (for example to provide a simpler
procedure for holding general and board meetings in the case of a wholly-owned
subsidiary).
The registered number of a company never changes. Conversely, every time the name
of a company is changed, a new certificate is issued by Companies House and the new
name may not be used until this has been done. Again, by a special procedure,
company name changes may now be effected and the new certificate obtained within
one day.
4. The first board meeting
In accordance with the powers delegated to them by the Articles of Association, the
directors of a newly established company will hold their first board meeting to set up the
basic organisational framework of the company. In particular, they will:
- decide from which date the company's financial year is to run ("accounting
reference date");
- appoint a firm of chartered accounts as auditors;
- choose a bank where the company will hold its account and decide who will be
authorised to operate the account on behalf of the company;
- deal with formalities for registration with the local VAT office.
Company (law)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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In law, a company refers to a legal entity formed which has a separate legal identity from its members, and is ordinarily incorporated to undertake commercial business. Although some jurisdictions refer to unincorporated entities as companies, in most jurisdictions the term refers only to incorporated entities. It has been judicially remarked that "the word company has no strictly legal meaning",[1] but is taken to mean a specific form of entity created under the laws of the relevant jurisdiction. Because of the limited liability of the members of the company for the company's debts and the separate personality and tax treatment of the company, it has become the most popular form of business vehicle in most countries in the world.
Lacking a concise definition of their own, companies are often defined by reference to what they are not. Companies are separate and distinct from:
trusts, although conceptually trustees managing a trust fund for the benefit of beneficiaries is in many ways similar to the directors managing the company's assets for the benefit of the shareholders.
unincorporated associations of persons, or clubs
Modern companies are generally formed for one of three purposes:
non-profit companies, formed for social, charitable or quasi-charitable purposes to provide the sponsors with the benefit of limited liability and to form an administratively convenient mechanisms for the administration of the organization.
small business companies, usually formed by either sole traders or partners to take advantage of limited liability and (sometimes) as a means of tax avoidance, whilst still retaining overall control in the hands of the founders.
public investment companies, formed to enable members of the public to invest in a business or enterprise without actually becoming involved in the running of it (which is left to the board of directors).
However, companies have a number of other uses. They are not normally subject to rules against mortmain or perpetuity, and may have perpetual existence. Companies are often used in tax structuring. Companies, being commercial entities, are often easier to utilise in financing arrangements than partnerships and individuals.[2] Companies have an inherent flexibility which can let them grow; there is no legal reason why a company initially formed by a sole proprietor cannot eventually grow to be a publicly listed company, but a partnership will generally always be limited as to the maximum number of partners.[3]
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History
Although some forms of companies are thought to have existed during Ancient Rome and Ancient Greece, the closest recognizable ancestors of the modern company did not appear until the second millennium. The first recognizable commercial associations were medieval guilds, where guild members agreed to abide by guild rules, but did not participate in ventures for common profit. The earliest forms of joint commercial enterprise under the lex mercatoria were in fact partnerships.
But with the expansion of international trade, Royal charters were increasingly granted in Europe (notably in England and Holland) to merchant adventurers. The Royal charters usually conferred special privileges on the trading company (including, usually, some form of monopoly). Originally, traders in these entities traded stock on their own account, but later the members came to operate on joint account and with joint stock, and the new Joint stock company was born.[4]
Early companies were purely economic ventures; it was only belatedly realized that an incidental benefit of holding joint stock was that the company's stock could not be seized for the debts of any individual member.[5]
The development of company law in Europe was hampered by two notorious "bubbles" (the South Sea Bubble in England and the Tulip Bulb Bubble in Holland) in the 17th century, which set the development of companies in the two leading jurisdictions back by over a century in popular estimation.
But companies, almost inevitably, returned to the forefront of commerce, although in England to circumvent the Bubble Act 1720 investors had reverted to trading the stock of unincorporated associations, until it was repealed in 1825. However, the cumbersome process of obtaining Royal charters was simply insufficient to keep up with demand. In England there was a lively trade in the charters of defunct companies. However, prevarication amongst the legislation meant that in England it was not until the Joint Stock Companies Act 1844 that the first equivalent of modern companies, formed by registration, appeared. That legislation shortly preceded the railway boom, and from there the numbers of companies formed soared.
The last significant development in the history of companies was the decision of the House of Lords in Salomon v. Salomon & Co. where the House of Lords confirmed the separate legal personality of the company, and that the liabilities of the company were separate and distinct from those of its owners.
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Types
There are various types of company that can be formed in different jurisdictions, but the most common forms of company are:
a company limited by guarantee. Commonly used where companies are formed for non-commercial purposes, such as clubs or charities. The members guarantee the payment of certain (usually nominal) amounts if the company goes into insolvent liquidation, but otherwise they have no economic rights in relation to the company.
a company limited by guarantee with a share capital. A hybrid entity, usually used where the company is formed for non-commercial purposes, but the activities of the company are partly funded by investors who expect a return.
The foregoing types of company are generally formed by registration under applicable companies legislation. Less commonly seen types of companies are:
charter corporations. Prior to the passing of modern companies legislation, these were the only types of companies. Now they are relatively rare, except for very old companies that still survive (of which there are still many, particularly many British banks), or modern societies that fulfil a quasi regulatory function (for example, the Bank of England is a corporation formed by a modern charter).
statutory companies. Relatively rare today, certain companies have been formed by a private statute passed in the relevant jurisdiction.
In legal parlance, the owners of a company are normally referred to as the "members". In a company limited by shares, this will be the shareholders. In a company limited by guarantee, this will be the guarantors.
Some offshore jurisdictions have created special forms of offshore company in a bid to attract business for their jurisdictions. Examples include "segregated portfolio companies" and restricted purpose companies.
There are however, many, many sub-categories of types of company which can be formed in various jurisdictions in the world.
Companies are also sometimes distinguished for legal and regulatory purposes between public companies and private companies. Public companies are companies whose shares can be publicly traded, often (although not always) on a regulated stock exchange. Private companies do not have publicly traded shares, and often contain restrictions on transfers of shares. In some jurisdictions, private companies have maximum numbers of shareholders.
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Corporate constitution
In almost every jurisdiction in the world, a company must have a corporate constitution, which defines the existence of the company and regulates the structure and control of the company.
By convention, most common law jurisdictions divide the corporate constitution into two separate documents:
In many countries, only the primary document is filed, and the secondary document remains private. In other countries, both documents are filed. Some countries provide statutory forms of basic corporate constitution which a company may adopt (for example, Table A in the United Kingdom).
In civil law jurisdictions, the company's constitution is normally consolidated into a single document, often called the charter.
It is quite common for members of a company to supplement the corporate constitution with additional arrangements, such as shareholders' agreements, whereby they agree to exercise their membership rights in a certain way. Conceptually a shareholders' agreement fulfills many of the same functions as the corporate constitution, but because it is a contract, it will not normally bind new members of the company unless they accede to it somehow.[7] One benefit of shareholders' agreement is that they will usually be confidential, as most jurisdictions do not require shareholders' agreements to be publicly filed.
Another common method of supplementing the corporate constitution is by means of voting trusts, although these are relatively uncommon outside of the United States and certain offshore jurisdictions.
Some jurisdictions consider the company seal to be a party of the "constitution" (in the loose sense of the word) of the company, but the requirement for a seal has been abrogated by legislation in most countries.
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Shares and share capital
Companies generally raise capital for their business ventures either by debt or equity. Capital raised by way of equity is usually raised by issued shares (sometimes called "stock" (not to be confused with stock-in-trade)) or warrants.
A share is an item of property, and can be sold or transferred. Holding a share makes the holder a member of the company, and entitles them to enforce the provisions of the company's constitution against the company and against other members. Shares also normally have a nominal or par value, which is the limit of the shareholder's liability to contribute to the debts of the company on an insolvent liquidation.
Shares usually confer a number of rights on the holder. These will normally include:
voting rights
rights to dividends declared by the company
rights to any return of capital either upon redemption of the share, or upon the liquidation of the company
in some countries, shareholders have preemption rights, whereby they have a preferential right to participate in future share issues by the company
Many companies have different classes of shares, offering different rights to the shareholders. For example, a company might issue both ordinary shares and preference shares, with the two types having different voting and/or economic rights. For example, a company might provide that preference shareholders shall each receive a cumulative preferred dividend of a certain amount per annum, but the ordinary shareholders shall receive everything else.
The total number of issued shares in a company is said to represent its capital. Many jurisdictions regulate the minimum amount of capital which a company may have, although some countries only prescribe minimum amounts of capital for companies engaging in certain types of business (e.g. banking, insurance etc.).
Similarly, most jurisdictions regulate the maintenance of capital, and prevent companies returning funds to shareholders by way of distribution when this might leave the company financially exposed.
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Corporate personality
One of the key legal features of companies are their separate legal personality. However, the separate legal personality was not confirmed under English law until 1895 by the House of Lords in Salomon v. Salomon & Co. [1897] AC 22. However, it is now largely accepted throughout the world that companies are legally separate and distinct entities.
Separate legal personality often has unintended consequences, particularly in relation to smaller, family companies.
In B v B [1978] Fam 181 it was held that a discovery order obtained by a wife against her husband was not effective against the husband's company as it was not named in the order and was separate and distinct from him.[8]
In Macaura v Northern Assurance Co Ltd [1925] AC 619 a claim under an insurance policy failed where the insured had transferred timber from his name into the name of a company wholly owned by him, and it was subsequently destroyed in a fire; as the property now belonged to the company and not to him, he no longer had an "insurable interest" in it and his claim failed.
However, separate legal personality does allow corporate groups a great deal of flexibility in relation to tax planning, and also enables multinational companies to manage the liability of their overseas operations (see Adams v Cape Industries plc [1990] Ch 433).
There are certain specific situations where courts are generally prepared to "pierce the corporate veil": to look directly at, and impose liability directly on the individuals behind the company. The most commonly cited examples are:
where the company is a mere façade
where the company is effectively just the agent of its members or controllers
where the company is engaged in fraud or other criminal wrongdoing
where the natural interpretation of a contract or statute is as a reference to the corporate group and not the individual company
where permitted by statute (for example, many jurisdictions provide for shareholder liability where a company breaches environmental protection laws)
in many jurisdictions, where a company continues to trade despite inevitable bankruptcy, the directors can be forced to account for trading losses personally
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Capacity and powers
Historically, because companies are artificial persons created by operation of law, the law prescribed what the company could and could not do. Usually this was an expression of the commercial purpose which the company was formed for, and came to referred to as the company's objects, and the extent of the objects are referred to as the company's capacity. If an activity fell outside of the company's capacity it was said to be ultra vires and void.
By way of distinction, the organs of the company were expressed to have various corporate powers. If the objects were the things that the company was able to do, then the powers were the means by which it could them. Usually expressions of powers were limited to methods of raising capital, although from earlier times distinctions between objects and powers have caused lawyers difficulty.[10]
Most jurisdictions have now modified the position by statute, and companies generally have capacity to do all the things that a natural person could do, and power to do it in any way that a natural person could do it.
However, references to corporate capacity and powers have not quite been consigned to the dustbin of legal history. In many jurisdictions, directors can still be liable to their shareholders if they cause the company to engage in businesses outside of its objects, even if the transactions are still valid as between the company and the third party. And many jurisdictions also still permit transactions to be challenged for lack of "corporate benefit", where the relevant transaction has no prospect of being for the commercial benefit of the company or its shareholders.
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Officers and agents
As artificial persons, companies can only act through human agents. As was once memorably remarked, "It has no soul to damn and no body to kick."[11]
The main agent who deals with the company's management and business is the board of directors, but in many jurisdictions other officers can be appointed too. The board of directors is normally elected by the members, and the other officers are normally appointed by the board. These agents enter into contracts on behalf of the company with third parties.
Although the company's agents owe duties to the company (and, indirectly, to the shareholders) to exercise those powers for a proper purpose, generally speaking third parties' rights are not impugned if it transpires that the officers were acting improperly. Third parties are entitled to rely on the ostensible authority of agents held out by the company to act on its behalf. A line of common law cases reaching back to Royal British Bank v Turquand established in common law that third parties were entitled to assume that the internal management of the company was being conducted properly, and the rule has now been codified into statute in most countries.
Accordingly, companies will normally be liable for all the act and omissions of their officers and agents. This will include almost all torts, but the law relating to crimes committed by companies is complex, and varies significantly between countries.
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Members' rights and majority rule
Members of a company generally have rights against each other and against the company, as framed under the company's constitution. In relation to the exercise of their rights, minority shareholders usually have to accept that, because of the limits of their voting rights, they cannot direct the overall control of the company and must accept the will of the majority (often expressed as majority rule). However, majority rule can be iniquitous, particularly where there is one controlling shareholder.
Accordingly, a number of exceptions have developed in law in relation to the general principle of majority rule.
members always retain their personal right to sue if the company's affairs are not conducted in accordance with the company's constitution
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Director's duties
In most jurisdictions, directors owe strict duties of good faith, as well as duties of care and skill, to safeguard the interests of the company and the members.
The standard of skill and care that a director owes is usually described as acquiring and maintaining sufficient knowledge and understanding of the company's business to enable him to properly discharge his duties.
Directors are also strictly charged to exercise their powers only for a proper purpose. For instance, were a director to issue a large number of new shares, not for the purposes of raising capital but in order to defeat a potential takeover bid, that would be an improper purpose.[13]
Directors also owe strict duties not to permit any conflict of interest or conflict with their duty to act in the best interests of the company. This rule is so strictly enforced that, even where the conflict of interest or conflict of duty is purely hypothetical, the directors can be forced to disgorge all personal gains arising from it. In Aberdeen Ry v Blaikie (1854) 1 Macq HL 461 Lord Cranworth stated in his judgment that:
"A corporate body can only act by agents, and it is, of course, the duty of those agents so to act as best to promote the interests of the corporation whose affairs they are conducting. Such agents have duties to discharge of a fiduciary nature towards their principal. And it is a rule of universal application that no one, having such duties to discharge, shall be allowed to enter into engagements in which he has, or can have, a personal interest conflicting or which possibly may conflict, with the interests of those whom he is bound to protect... So strictly is this principle adhered to that no question is allowed to be raised as to the fairness or unfairness of the contract entered into..." (emphasis added)
However, in many jurisdictions the members of the company are permitted to ratify transactions which would otherwise fall foul of this principle. It is also largely accepted in most jurisdictions that this principle should be capable of being abrogated in the company's constitution.
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Liquidations
Liquidation is the normal means by which a company's existence is brought to an end. It is also referred to (either alternatively or concurrently) in some jurisdictions as winding up and/or dissolution.
Liquidations generally come in two forms, either compulsory liquidations (sometimes called creditors' liquidations) and voluntary liquidations (sometimes called members' liquidations, although a voluntary liquidation where the company is insolvent will also be controlled by the creditors, and is properly referred to as a creditors' voluntary liquidation).
As its names imply, applications for compulsory liquidation are normally made by creditors of the company when the company is unable to pay its debts. However, in some jurisdictions, regulators have the power to apply for the liquidation of the company on the grounds of public good, i.e. where the company is believed to have engaged in unlawful conduct, or conduct which is otherwise harmful to the public at large.
Voluntary liquidations occur when the company's members decide voluntarily to wind up the affairs of the company. This may be because they believe that the company will soon become insolvent, or it may be on economic grounds if they believe that the purpose for which the company was formed is now at an end, or that the company is not providing an adequate return on assets and should be broken up and sold off.
Some jurisdictions also permit companies to be wound up on "just and equitable" grounds.[14] Generally, applications for just and equitable winding-up are brought by a member of the company who alleges that the affairs of the company are being conducted in a prejudicial manner, and asking the court to bring an end to the company's existence. For obvious reasons, in most countries, the courts have been reluctant to wind up a company solely on the basis of the disappointment of one member, regardless of how well-founded that member's complaints are. Accordingly, most jurisdictions which permit just and equitable winding up also permit the court to impose other remedies, such as requiring the majority shareholder(s) to buy out the disappointed minority shareholder at a fair value.
Where a company goes into liquidation, normally a liquidator is appointed to gather in all the company's assets and settle all claims against the company. If there is any surplus after paying off all the creditors of the company, this surplus is then distributed to the members.
Common types
The law of business organizations originally derived from the common law of England, but has evolved significantly in the Twentieth Century. In common law countries today, the most commonly addressed forms are:
The sole proprietorship - this is, however, a single-person operation, and therefore not truly any kind of "organization".
The partnership, sometimes called a "general partnership".
The limited partnership (LP).
The limited liability partnership (LLP).
The corporation (Inc.,Co.,Corp.).
The limited liability company (LLC,Ltd.).
Less commonly used business forms include the limited liability limited partnership (LLLP), and the limited company (LC). The proprietary limited company is a statutory business form unique to Australia.
Other types of business organizations, such as cooperatives, credit unions and publicly-owned enterprises, can be established with purposes that parallel, supersede, or even replace the profit maximization mandate of business corporations.
Other business forms are available in civil law countries, such as the German Gesellschaft mit beschränkter Haftung (GmbH) and Aktiengesellschaft (AG); and the S.A., a form used in a number of countries which translates from various languages into the equivalent of anonymous society or anonymous company.
A limited liability company (denoted by L.L.C. or LLC in the US) is a legal form of business company offering limited liability to its owners. In that respect, it is similar to a corporation, and is often a more flexible form of ownership, especially suitable for smaller companies with a limited number of owners. Unlike a regular corporation, however, a limited liability company is typically treated as a partnership for tax purposes, thereby avoiding double taxation. It is often incorrectly called a "limited liability corporation" (instead of company).
Advantages and Disadvantages of an LLC (Limited Liability Company).
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Advantages of an LLC
No requirement of an annual general meeting for shareholders (in some states, such as Tennessee and Minnesota, this statement is not correct).
No loss of power to a board of directors (although an operating agreement may provide for centralization of management power in a board or similar body).* Corporations are enduring legal business entities, with lives that extend beyond the illness or even death of their owners, thus avoiding problematic business termination or sole proprietor death. Planning for the death of an owner of an LLC is rather more difficult.
Corporations can raise capital through stock sales.
Much less administrative paperwork and recordkeeping.
Pass-through taxation (i.e., no double taxation).
Limited liability (meaning that the owners of the LLC, called "members," are protected from liability for acts and debts of the LLC).
Using default tax classification, profits taxed personally (at the member level, not at the LLC level).
Check-the-box taxation. An LLC can elect to be taxed as a sole proprietor, partnership, S-corp or corporation, providing much flexibility.
Can be set up with just one natural person involved (but then, single shareholder corporations are allowed in many states).
Membership interests of LLCs can be assigned, and the economic benefits of those interests can be separated and assigned, providing the assignee with the economic benefits of distributions of profits/losses (like a partnership), without transferring the title to the membership interest (i.e., See VA and Delaware LLC Acts).
LLCs in some states are treated as entities separate from their Members (See VA LLC Act), whereas in other jurisdictions case law has developed deciding LLCs are not considered to have separate juridical standing from their members (See recent D.C. decisions).
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Disadvantages of an LLC
Many states, including Alabama, California, Kentucky, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, and Texas, levy a franchise tax or capital values tax on LLCs. In essence, this franchise or business privilege tax is the "fee" the LLC pays the state for the benefit of limited liability. The franchise tax can be an amount based on revenue, an amount based on profits, or an amount based on the number of owners or the amount of capital employed in the state, or some combination of those factors.
It may be more difficult to raise capital for an LLC, as investors may be more comfortable investing funds in the better-understood corporate form with a view toward an eventual IPO.
The possible lack of any operating agreement requirement can cause problems
Some people, such as new businessmen, may not be familiar with the governance of LLCs. Unlike corporations, they are not required to have a board of directors or officers.
United Kingdom and Ireland
In the United Kingdom and Ireland, a limited liability company is called a private limited company by shares and is designated as "Limited" or "Ltd." Formerly, all limited companies, both public corporations and private limited liability companies, were designated as Limited; now, public companies are designated as public limited company (plc) and private companies as Limited. However, limited liability companies are taxed at corporate rates, and dividends to shareholders are further taxed.
In 2002, the UK legislated limited liability partnerships ("LLPs") into existence, which more closely proximate LLCs in the USA. Member partners are taxed at the partner level, yet the LLP provides limited liability from LLP liabilities for the member partners.
Limited liability partnership
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A limited liability partnership (LLP) is a form of business organization combining elements of partnerships and corporations. In an LLP, all partners have a form of limited liability, similar to that of the shareholders of a corporation. However, the partners have the right to manage the business directly, and (in many areas) a different level of tax liability than in a corporation.
Limited liability partnerships are distinct from limited partnerships, in that limited liability is granted to all partners, not to a subset of non-managing "limited partners." As a result the LLP is more suited for businesses where all investors wish to take an active role in management. However, some US states have combined the two forms to create limited liability limited partnerships.
Although found in many business fields, the LLP is an especially popular form of organization among professionals, particularly lawyers, accountants and architects. In some U.S. states (including California and New York), LLPs can only be formed for such professional uses.
United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom LLPs are governed by the Limited Liability Partnerships Act 2000. An LLP has full limited liability status for all kinds of debts and liabilities of the LLP. In the UK LLPs have a separate legal personality from the individual partners
Limited partnership
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The limited partnership in the UK
In the United Kingdom limited partnerships are governed by the Limited Partnership Act 1907. However, English law and Scottish law are distinct on partnerships.
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English Law
In English law a distinction should be drawn between a limited partnership and a limited liability partnership. The former are associations of single traders similar to ordinary general partnerships where one or more of the partners has a limited liability in the event of bankruptcy of one of the partners or a law suit being filed. However in English law there must always be at least one general partner who has unlimited liability in a limited partnership. Limited partnerships are not legally separate entities: the partners are jointly and severally liable and any law suits filed are filed against the partners by name.
Limited liability partnerships are a separate class of organisation which are much closer to companies in conception than partnerships.
There has been discussion over whether partnerships operating under English law should be made separate legal entities in the same way as limited liability partnerships are. The Law Commission report on partnership law LC283 suggests that creation of separate legal personality should be left as an option for the partners to decide upon when a partnership is formed. There are concerns that automatically making partnerships separate legal entities would restrict their ability to trade in some European countries and also expose them to different tax regimes than expected.
A limited partnership is a form of partnership similar to a general partnership, except that in addition to one or more general partners (GPs), there are one or more limited partners (LPs)
The general partners
The GPs are, in all major respects, in the same legal position as partners in a conventional firm, i.e. they have management control, share the profits of the firm in predefined proportions, and have joint and several liability for the debts of the partnership. As in a general partnership, the GPs have apparent authority as agents of the firm to bind all the other partners in contracts with third parties. The GPs pay the LPs the equivalent of a dividend on their investment. The nature and extent of this payment will usually be defined in the partnership agreement.
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The limited partners
Like shareholders in a corporation, the LPs have limited liability, i.e. they are only liable on debts incurred by the firm to the extent of their registered investment, and they have no management authority. When the partnership is being constituted or the composition of the firm is changing, LPs are generally required to file documents with the relevant state registration office. LPs must also explicitly disclose their LP status when dealing with other parties, so that such parties are on notice that the individual negotiating with them carries limited liability. It is customary that the notepaper, other documentation, and electronic materials issued to the public by the firm will carry a clear statement identifying the legal nature of the firm and listing the partners separately as general and limited. Hence, unlike the GPs, the LPs do not have inherent agency authority to bind the firm unless they are subsequently held out as agents and so create an agency by estoppel or acts of ratification by the firm create ostensible authority.
The limited liability enjoyed by LPs is contingent upon their refraining from taking any active role in the management of the firm. If LPs do assume a management role, they become GPs, and thus lose their limited liability protection and acquire the status of an agent.
Public limited company
The initials PLC after a UK or Irish company name indicate that it is a public limited company, a type of limited company whose shares may be offered for sale to the public.
The designation plc, Plc or PLC (either form is acceptable) was introduced in the UK by the Companies Act 1980, and in the Republic of Ireland by the Companies (Amendment) Act 1983. In the Republic of Ireland, the initials "CPT" (for the Irish cuideachta phoiblí theoranta) may be used instead, but this is rarely the case. Welsh companies may use the letters "ccc" (for cwmni cyfyngedig cyhoeddus) in similar fashion. Certain public limited companies incorporated under special legislation (mainly nationalised concerns) are exempt from carrying the letters PLC, CCC, or CPT.
When a new company is incorporated in either England and Wales or Scotland, it must be registered with Companies House, which is an Executive Agency of the Department of Trade and Industry. In the Republic of Ireland, the equivalent body is the Companies Registration Office, Ireland. Northern Ireland also has a Registrar of Companies.
Internationally, PLC status is roughly equivalent to AG, S.A., N.V. and Corporation.
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Requirements
When forming (or creating) a PLC there must be:
at least £50,000-worth (Republic of Ireland: €38,092.14) of share capital of which at least 25% must have been paid for.
two shareholders
two directors, one of whom may also be the company secretary
a certificate of entitlement (the trading certificate) to do business and borrow capital
While it is not compulsory for a PLC to "float" its shares (some PLCs retain ownership of all their shares, maintaining the PLC designation for the extra financial status), many do so, and their shares are usually traded on either the London Stock Exchange or the Alternative Investments Market (AIM). Irish public limited companies usually trade on the Irish Stock Exchange, though many also list on the LSE, or more rarely, the AIM.
Name |
Country |
Type |
||
sp.j. |
spółka jawna (general partnership), that is, all the owners are fully liable for the debts (liable even by their own possessions) |
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sp.k. |
spółka komandytowa (limited partnership), that is a partnership with at least one general partner and one limited partner called a sleeping partner or a silent partner |
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sp.p. |
spółka partnerska (professional partnership), that is a partnership of partners, who perform free professions. |
|||
S.K.A. |
spółka komandytowo akcyjna, that is the mix of (1) limited partnership and (2) public limited company, plc |
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EZIG |
Europejskie Zgrupowanie Interesów Gospdoarczych (European Economic Interest Grouping, EEIG) |
|||
SE |
spółka europejska (European company, Societas Europaea - from the Latin language), that is a pan-European company under EU law |
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spółdzielnia |
spółdzielnia(co-operatives) (co-op) |
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spółdzielnia europejska |
spółdzielnia europejska (European Cooperative Society, ECS), that is a pan-European company under EU law, from Latin Societas Cooperativa Europaea, SCE (co-op) |
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ESP |
europejska spółka prywatna (European private company, EPC), that is a pan-European company under EU law, from Latin Europaea Societas Privatus, not in force yet, now there are only consultations on introducing it |
|||
Poland |
Spółka z ograniczoną odpowiedzialnością, limited liability |