ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING METHODOLOGY
Aims are long-term goals, described in very general terms:
practical aims - learners acquire habits and skills in using a foreign language, i.e. communicative competence
educational aims - learners develop their mental abilities and intelligence in the process of learning the foreign language
cultural aims - learners extend their knowledge of the world in which they live, and thus they acquire cultural competence
Specific objectives, or simply objectives, are descriptions of what is to be achieved in a course. They are more detailed descriptions of exactly what a learner is expected to be able to do at the end of a period of instruction.
Approach - a set of correlative assumptions dealing with the nature of language teaching and learning. An approach is axiomatic: it describes the nature of subject matter to be taught; it states a point of view, a philosophy, and a belief.
Method - an overall plan for the orderly presentation of language material, no part of which contradicts, and all parts are based on the selected approach. A method is procedural. Within one approach, there can be many methods.
Technique - a particular strategy, trick, or device used to accomplish an immediate objective. A technique is implementational - that which actually takes place in a classroom. Techniques must be consistent with a method, and therefore in harmony with an approach as well. Techniques depend on the teacher, his/her individual artistry, and on the composition of the class. A technique takes place in the classroom.
The arrangement of the above trio of terms is hierarchical. The organizational key is that techniques carry out a method which is consistent with an approach.
The Grammar-Translation Method (Classical Method)
The grammar-translation method is a method of foreign or second language teaching which makes use of translation and grammar study as the main teaching and learning activities:
long, elaborate explanations of grammar - deductive
tests are treated as exercises in grammatical analysis
focusing on the form and inflection of words
translating sentences from the target language into the mother one (the only drill)
The GTM was the traditional way Latin and Greek were taught in Europe from 1840s to 1940s. In the 19th century it began to be used to teach “modern” languages such as French, German and English, and it is still used in many countries today. A typical lesson would consist of the presentation of a grammatical rule, a study of lists of vocabulary (lists of isolated words), and a translation exercise. Because the GTM emphasizes reading rather than the ability to communicate in a language, there was a reaction to it on the 19th century, and there was later a greater emphasis on the teaching of spoken language. It requires few specialized on the part of teachers:
tests of grammar taught are easy constituents and can be objectively scored
classes are taught in mother tongue
no attention is given to pronunciation
reading before speaking
reading difficult classical texts began early
The Direct Method
The direct method is a method of foreign or second language teaching which has the following features:
only the target language should be used in class (lessons begin with a brief anecdote or dialogue)
only everyday vocabulary is taught
mother tongue is never used
meaning should be communicated “directly” by associating speech forms with actions, objects, mime, gestures, and situations
reading and writing should be taught only after speaking and listening
grammar should only be taught inductively, i.e. grammar rules should not be taught to the learners
One of the best known supporters of the method was Charles Berlitz (late 19th, early 20th century). Berlitz language schools:
known for small classes
individual attention
intensive study
private schools
Difficulties in use:
no scientific principles applied to the selection of study material and vocabulary
school cannot adjust (overcrowded classes)
excessive preoccupation with pronunciation and intonation
inexperienced TS
The Oral Approach And Situational Language Teaching
The oral approach and situational language teaching is a language teaching method developed by British language teaching specialists (H. Palmer and M. West) between 1940 and 1960. It is a grammar-based method in which principles of grammatical and lexical gradation are used and new teaching points presented and practiced through situations. Techniques derived from Situational Language Teaching are found in many widely used language teaching textbooks.
material taught orally before presented in written form
target language used in classrooms
language taught through situations
vocabulary selection
grammar simple forms should be taught before complex ones
speaking and listening before writing and reading (certain lexical and grammatical basis established)
The Audiolingual Method (Army Method - Americans)
The audiolingual method is a method of foreign and second language teaching which:
emphasizes the teaching of speaking and listening before reading and writing
uses dialogues to present materials and drills (more active, less intellectual, more practical, and more accessible for ordinary learners)
dependence on mimicry, memorization of set phrases and over learning
discourages use of mother tongue in the classroom
often makes use of contrastive analysis (in grammar)
The most important characteristics:
little grammar explanation
vocabulary learnt in context
use of tapes, visual aids
pronunciation and intonation are important
prevention of students' errors
The audiolingual method was prominent in the 1950s and 1960s, especially in the United States, and has been widely used in many other parts of the world. The theory behind the audiolingual method is the aural-oral approach to language teaching, which contains the following beliefs about language and language teaching:
speaking and listening are the most basic language skills
each language has its own unique structure and rule system
a language is learned through forming habits
These ideas were based partly on the theory of structural linguistics (Bloomfield, Sapir) and partly on behaviorism (Skinner).
Communicative Language Teaching
The objective of communicative language teaching is communicative competence. Communicative competence is the ability not only to apply the grammatical rules of a language on order to form grammatically correct sentences, but also to know when and where to use these sentences and to whom. Communicative competence includes:
knowledge of the grammar and vocabulary of the language
knowledge of rules of speaking (e.g. knowing how to begin and end conversations, knowing what topics may be talked about in different types of speech events, knowing which address forms should be used with different persons one speaks to and in different situations)
knowing how to use and respond to different types of speech acts, such as: request, apology, thank, and invitation
knowing how to use language appropriately
The syllabus underlying communicative language teaching is notional or notional-functional syllabus.
Communicative language teaching is an approach to foreign or second language teaching which emphasizes that the goal of language learning is communicative competence. Learners know the aim and objectives of all exercises and activities, all learners are involved actively in classroom situational work (requesting, describing) - according to their knowledge, ability and skill. This method uses pictures, diagrams, there is a variety of means of learning. There is development of learners' self-sufficiency, security, cooperation, and initiative. The communicative approach has been developed particularly by British applied linguistics as a reaction away from grammar-based approach such as the audiolingual method. Teaching materials used with a communicative approach often:
teach the language needed to express and understand different kinds of functions such as requesting, describing, expressing likes and dislikes, etc.
are based on a notional syllabus or some other communicatively organized syllabus
emphasize the processes of communication, such as using language appropriately in different types of situations, using language to perform different kinds of tasks, e.g. to solve puzzles, to get information, etc., using language for social interaction with other people
Total Physical Response (TPR)
This method is also known as Learning Another Language Through Actions and was originally introduced by James Asher (1974). It is a language teaching method in which items are presented in the foreign language as orders, commands, and instructions requiring a physical response from the learner (e.g. opening a window or standing up). This is thought to lead to more meaningful and effective learning. This model allows a wide initial tolerance for errors. After the learners have achieved a certain ability to understand and to make themselves understood, the teacher can begin to narrow his tolerance for errors. The syllabus is sentence-based, primarily lexical and grammatical. Teaching may proceed without materials. Materials play a primary supplementary role (word charts, slides, pictures) and are teacher-produced:
improving listening comprehension by making learners not only react orally, but also physically to commands, orders in foreign language (physical ability increases the storage capacity)
based on observation how children learn their first language
listening is developed far in advance of speaking
understanding should be developed through movements of the student's body
teacher should force students to speak, they should reach a point of readiness to speak
a wide initial tolerance for errors that can create a climate without stress, its goal is spontaneous communication, later the tolerance is narrowed
the method seems to be effective in the beginning levels of language proficiency
Three principles:
comprehension rather than production
“here and now” principle
to carry out commands, orders, instructions
The Silent Way
The silent way is a method of foreign language teaching developed by Caleb Gattegno which makes use of gestures, mime, visual aid, wall charts, and in particular Cuisiniere rods (wooden sticks of different lengths and colours) that the teacher uses to help the students to talk and to introduce vocabulary and syntax. The method takes its name from the relative silence of the teacher using these techniques. The learning hypothesis underlying Gateggno's work could be stated as follows:
learning is facilitated if the learner discovers or creates rather than remembers and repeats what is to be learned
learning is facilitated by accompanying (mediating) physical objectives
learning is facilitated by problem solving involving the material to be learned
General characteristics:
teacher is silent most of the time and students are silent too
this forces students to work out language problems - discovery learning procedures (rather than remembering and repeating)
students develop also independence, autonomy and responsibility
it also makes use of gestures, visual aids, mimic, etc.
Criticism: the teacher is too distant, he doesn't create communicative atmosphere; languages need more guidance and correction.
The Natural Approach
The natural approach is a method of second language teaching proposed by S. Krashen and T. Terrell. There are 2 distinct mental processes in second language development: acquisition process and learning process. The goal is to develop basic personal communication skills (everyday language situations).
Three stages:
the pre-speaking stage - teacher only talks, gives commands, it resembles TPR
the early speech production stage - marked with errors, teacher doesn't correct them
the speech emergence stage - promotes fluency through different activity games, role, plays, discussion; errors are not corrected
Its principles:
emphasize natural communication rather than formal grammar study
are tolerant of learners' errors
emphasize the informal acquisition of language rules
Criticism: what about students whose speech never emerges? what about slow and fast movers?
Suggestopedia
Suggestopedia is a method of foreign language teaching developed by Bulgarian doctor and psychiatrists Georgi Lazanov, who claimed about link between perception and learning, perceiving on paraconscious level. It makes use of dialogues, situations and translations to present and practice language, and in particular, makes use of music, visual images, and relaxation exercises to make learning more comfortable and effective. Suggestopedia is said to be a pedagogical application of “suggestology”, the influence of suggestion on human behavior. Suggestopedic texts have a rational structure and logical development. They are rich in cultural content and try to avoid all causes of anxiety, and attempt to bring out the “creative child” in each student.
Suggestopedia course:
4-5 weeks; 5 days a week; 3-5 hours a day
lesson lasts 4-5 hours - the first session every day is always carryover from the previous day and warm up
the material is written dialogues
presentation of text to classical music - active concert (material gains access to the long-term memory blank)
the activation phrase - reading before sleeping and after waking up; activation - different activities that emphasize communication (active concert - students actively follow the text; passive concert - students just listen)
the role of teacher is to bring a tension-free and joyful atmosphere
it makes use of dialogues, situation and translation to present and practice language
suggestopedia is a pedagogical application of “suggestology” - the influence of suggestion on human behavior
active concert → activation phrase → passive concert → adaptation phrase
Teacher:
situational language teaching - context setter, error corrector
audiolingual - ideal language model, drill leader, commander of classroom activity
natural - actor and props user
suggestopedia - auto-hypnotist, authority figure, commander and action monitor
TPR - commander and action monitor
communicative - task designer, classroom colleague to the learners
Learners:
silent way - active role in learning, developing responsibility
situational - imitator and memorizer
audiolingual - patterns practicer
TPR - performer, order taker
communicative - improviser, negotiator
suggestopedia - relaxer, true believer
Language Teaching And Some Developments In Linguistics
Traditional Grammar
Traditional grammar is a type of grammar that is usually based on earlier grammars of Latin or Greek and applied to some other language, often inappropriately. For example, some grammarians stated that English had six cases, because Latin has six cases. These grammars were often notional and prescriptive in their approach. It is a collection of grammatical explanations and rules, that with many variations and modifications have been used by foreign language teachers for the past 200 years. Although there has been a trend towards using grammars which incorporate more modern approaches to language description and language teaching, some schools still use traditional grammars.
Structural Linguistics
Structural linguistics is an approach to linguistics which stresses the importance of language as a system and which investigates the place that linguistic units such as sounds, words, sentences have within this system. In its widest sense, the term has been used by various groups of linguists, including those of the Prague School, but most often it is used to refer to a group of American linguists such as Bloomfield and Fries, who published mainly in the 1930s and 1950s. The work of these linguists was based on the theory of behaviorism and had a considerable influence on some language teaching methods. The structural linguists identify phonemes, morphemes, syntax. American structuralists stressed 4 major ways of signalizing meaning:
word order
word form
function words
intonation patterns
Two major categories of parts of speech:
form-class words
function words
Generative Transformational Grammar
Generative transformational grammar is a theory of grammar that was proposed by the American linguist Chomsky in 1957. It has since been developed by him and many other linguists. Chomsky attempted to provide a model for the description of all languages. A generative transformational grammar tries to show, with a system of rules, the knowledge which a native speaker of a language uses in forming grammatical sentences. So language is based on a system of rules, makes infinite use of finite means. “Generate” - through a rule of substitution, it's possible to generate sentence patterns that would cover the whole language. “Transformational” - a rule that rearranges various elements in a sentence when that sentence is changed from simple to a more complicated one. When students know the basic system of a language, it is easier to form and understand an infinite number of sentences. This theory is primarily referred to native speakers.
Cultural competence (language reflects the culture if its speakers):
implies mastery of the norms of society, the unspoken rules of conduct, values and orientations
ability to recognize the culturally signification facts
7 categories of culture reaching:
the sense of culturally conditioned behavior - people act the way they do, because their society allows them
interaction of language and society (sex, age, social class affect the way people behave and speak)
knowledge how to behave in common situations
knowledge of the cultural connotations of words and phrases
ability to evaluate statements about culture
researching another culture (from library, mass media, personal observation)
development of empathy towards other societies
The learner is required to learn 6 aspects of culture:
places (sense of geography)
way of life (thinking, value, living)
society (identifying basic social, professional, economic differences)
history
institutions
art, music, literature
8 approaches to teaching culture:
an authentic class environment
providing cultural information (short slices of life)
problem solving activities
behavioral and interactive aspects (role-play in restaurants)
cognitive approach (learning through reading, discussion)
real life exposure to the target culture
the role of literature
additional devices and real-world resources
A cultural pattern - cluster of interrelated cultural orientations are made up of interrelated cultural behaviors which are influenced by values that are shared by a cultural group.
Literature texts should be used in classes, because of many reasons:
it's an authentic material, not written for the specific purpose of teaching the language
it's cultural environment (characters from many backgrounds, feelings, thoughts)
language enrichment
the selection of literature depends on group of students (age, level, cultural background)
presentation of literature has many typical features: it provides information, explanation and even translation
Language testing
Functions of language tests:
diagnostic function - a test measure pupil's progress and effectiveness of teacher's instruction
systematic work - thanks to testing pupils get used to working systematically at the target language (develop skills and habits in using them)
educational function - make pupils concentrate their attention on certain material or language skill and mastering it successfully
2 basic types of testing:
regular - frequent, short tests to measure pupils' achievements or assigning marks for their work at a given lesson or topic
final - oral, written, oral and written at the end of a course
Language Aptitude Test is a test which measures a person's aptitude for second or foreign language learning and which can be used to identify those learners who are most likely to succeed. An aptitude test usually consists of several different tests which measure such abilities as:
sound coding ability - the ability to identify and remember new sounds in a foreign language
grammatical coding ability - the ability to identify the grammatical functions of different parts of sentences
inductive learning ability - the ability to work out meanings without explanation in a new language
memorization - the ability to remember words, rules, etc. in a new language
Achievement Test is a test which measures how much of language someone has learned with reference to a particular course of study or programme of institution. The difference between this and a more general type of test (proficiency test) is that the latter is not linked to any particular course of instruction. The test helps the teacher judge the success of his/her teaching and identify the weaknesses of his/her students.
Proficiency Test might use similar test items (like achievement test), but would not be linked to any particular textbook or language syllabus.
Diagnostic Test is a test which is designed to show what skills or knowledge a learner knows and does not know e.g. a diagnostic pronunciation test may be used to measure the learners' pronunciation of English sounds. Diagnostic test may be used to find out how much a learner knows before the beginning of a language course.
Placement Test is a test which is designed to place students at an appropriate level in a programme or course. The term “placement test” does not refer to what a test contains or how it is constructed, but to the purpose for which it is used. Various types of tests or testing procedures (e.g. dictation, interview, grammar test) can be used for placement purposes.
Cloze test - words are removed from a reading passage at regular intervals, leaving blanks (e.g. every 5th word), it measures reading comprehension, it can be used to judge the difficulty of reading materials. The reader must guess either exact word that was used in the original text or any word that is appropriate or acceptable in the context.
Test evaluation:
piloting the test (as a trial)
item difficulty - proportion of correct responses to a test item
item discrimination - how well the item performs in separating better learners from the poorer ones
test revision - more than 60% correct words
The construction of the test:
statement of the problem
contents (depend on the material, skills)
format and timing
instructions (brief, unambiguous)
criteria levels of performance
scoring procedures
The following general principles must be observed when constructing a language test:
the principle of validity - i.e. making sure that the measurements and assessments we obtain reflect what we want them to reflect
the principle of scope - i.e. making sure that we measure or assess all the varied components of foreign language competence and skills
the principle of efficiency - i.e. obtaining the best assessments within limits of time and resources available for the construction and administration of the assessments
the principle of reliability - i.e. a measure of degree to which a test gives consistent results
Different types of test items:
alternate response item e.g. true/false, yes/no, A/B
fixed response item/close-ended response e.g. multiple choice
free response item/open-ended response
structured response item - some control or guidance is given for answer
Different types of tests:
true/false test - acceptance or rejection of a statement or utterance heard or read
multiple choice test
fill-in-the-blank test
matching test
Curriculum And Syllabus Design
Two meanings of word curriculum:
the curriculum is an educational programme that states:
the educational purpose of the programme (the ends)
the content, teaching procedures and learning experiences which will be necessary to achieve this purpose (the means)
some means for assessing whether or not the educational ends have been achieved
the curriculum is another term for syllabus
Curriculum is an official document setting as a framework or a set of guidelines for the teaching of a subject area in a broad and varied context. It states the scope and the goals, the rationale and guiding principles of a teaching programme in a very broad sense.
Syllabus is a more particularized document that addresses a specific group of learners and teachers, a particular course of study or a particular series of textbooks.
Language teaching syllabuses may be based on:
grammatical items and vocabulary (structural syllabus)
the language needed for different types of situations (situational syllabus)
the meanings and communicative functions which the learner needs to express in the target language (notional syllabus)
Syllabus is used in communicative language teaching
notions - concepts and meanings a learner needs to communicate (time, quantity, duration, location)
Policy decision making:
curriculum planning
ends/means specification
programme implementation
classroom implementation
Functionally based syllabus:
functional approach doesn't deny the importance of mastering the grammatical system of language
the term “functional” refers to an approach to syllabus design, not to a method of language teaching
this approach restructures presentation of the target language according to communicative features (asking for information, giving direction, etc.)
it takes into consideration students' needs
at the center of the learning process is the learner
a spiral or cyclic approach - material studied previously is integrated with the new learning
Classroom Management - ways in which student's behaviour, movement, interaction is organized and controlled by the teacher to enable teaching to take place most effectively.
A lesson plan is a description or outline of:
the objectives a teacher has set for a lesson
the activities and procedures the teacher will use to achieve them and the order to be followed
the materials and resources which will be used
background information (who, age, level, books, etc.)
basic data (name, date, time of the lesson)
the teaching point (topic of the lesson)
justification:
pre-assessment activity
relationship to current unit
pre-entry performance
performance objectives
criterion level
material
procedures
assignment
Textbook Design And Evaluation
The basic characteristics of any school textbook must be presented in terms of its structure and functions. This approach has been defined as the structural-functional approach. Its main premise is that the text book is considered to be complex structure of components (parts, elements) that have specific didactic function.
Texts:
basic
supplementary (optional material)
explanatory (vocabulary)
Extra-textual components:
organisational component (e.g. questions, assignments) used to stimulate and direct the pupils in the educational process and to form habits for individual work with textbooks
orientational component (e.g. table of contents)
illustrational components (e.g. photographs, maps and drawings)
Four functions of a foreign language textbook:
The informational function rests in learning information on language and speech elements, situations of language use, spheres of social life, culture and background.
The motivational function helps stimulate the learners' language activities, forms their interests towards the learning subject, and forms a foreign language atmosphere.
The communicative function helps develop the main forms of language skills, and enables learners to communicate in the respective foreign language.
The feedback function aims at the execution of assessment and self-assessment of the learners' progress as the condition for the functioning of feedback mechanism. This function exerts influence on the success in the learners' progress towards set aims and stimulates learning.
A language packet - a unit of foreign language materials ( which might be written or supplied on audio or video tape, or might be a mixture of audio, video and written materials) compiled for the language learner to work on individually or in group work.
Textbook analysis is the systematic analysis of a textbook with the aim of identifying the relative effectiveness of various aspects of textbook materials through a system of objective criteria.
Functions of textbook evaluation:
corrective function
selective function
commercial function
administrative function
Methods of textbook evaluation:
methods of theoretical analysis
empirical analytical methods
statistical (quantitative) methods
Computers In Teaching
Computers perform complex tasks in a very short time.
3 stages:
a) behavioural stage: (1960s - 1970s) drill-and-practice method was used, repetitive language skills, computer viewed as a mechanical tutor that never grew tired
b) communicative stage: (1970s - 1980s) computers should focus more on using forms than on the forms themselves; response to behaviourist stage
c) integrative stage: integrates individual skills of language and technology more fully into language teaching
Computers:
offer interactive learning
personalized instruction, considerable flexibility in handling different types of material
cannot effectively conduct a free dialogue
CAI - Computer Assisted Instruction - use of a computer in a teaching programme (to check their progress, to indicate correctness of answer).
CALL - Computer Assisted Language Learning
Advantages:
users can work independently
programs respect the individuality of the learners (they can make frequent choices with many options)
learners can analyse patterns in language
they are more interesting
adjusted to the learners' levels
unlimited types of activities
providing with computer literacy
learners are not corrected, judged, watched
learners have privacy
computers have no “days off”
computer is patient
Limitations:
wasting time by identifying letters on the keyboard
learners work in isolation, no communication with others
mainly reading and writing skills
computers don't provide real communicative exchanges
tiring to read from the screen
don't provide a sense of cooperation
false conversation can frustrate the learner
Teaching Vocabulary
Teaching Vocabulary:
words we teach in the foreign language
may be more than a single word or multi-word idioms ( the previous express a single idea)
one item has more than one meaning( often) - the importance of meaning in the context
Conceptual Meaning:
polysemy - meanings are related “head of a pin”, “head of organisms”
homonymy - meanings are not related but have the same form
Sense Relations:
synonymy
antonymy
hyponymy - cat, dog, goat are hyponyms of “animals”, animal is superordinate
Affective Meaning:
connotation - reflects speaker's attitude and emotions
intrinsic connotation - naïve - negative connotation
speaker's attitude - the same item used in different context
socio-cultural associations
Style - level of formality ( slang, colloquial, formal, frozen)
Register - variety of language defined by the topic e.g. language of medicine
Dialect - differences in geographical variations and according to social class a speaker belongs to
Word difficulties:
pronunciation
spelling
length, complexity
grammar
meaning
range, connotation, idiomaticity
Criteria of selection:
frequency
students' needs ( curiosity)
expediency ( language usefulness and necessary for particular purposes)
students' language - be aware of false friends
world building teach -teacher
topic areas - association is better
cross reference ( teaching words connected with one thing, teacher can present words in relation to the thing
related structures - many structures demand their own vocabulary “have got” demands vocabulary of personal possessions
Active vocabulary (productive) - it can be used appropriately by learners in speech and writing, students understand and use the vocabulary.
Passive vocabulary (receptive) - they can only be recognised and used in context.
Visual techniques:
using flashcards
using photographs and pictures
using blackboard drawings
using word pictures
using realia
labelling pictures/objects
using mime and gesture
performing actions
Types of dictionaries:
bilingual
monolingual
pictorial
thesauri
Revising vocabulary:
“odd one out” - which word doesn't fit
spider games - organising words according to categories
filling in different gaps
substitution techniques (e.g. with a synonym)
filling blanks
cloze tests - filling in the gapped text with appropriate expressions
matching synonyms, antonyms
labelling pictures
miming
noughts and crosses
single word dictation ( and trying to find connection between them
connections - making sentences from words
communicative crosswords
sophisticated hangman - 1 point for a correct letter, 5 for a word, 15 for a connection word
pelmanism - matching and putting the pairs aside
word association
draw the word
Teaching Grammar
What a teacher needs to know to teach grammar:
pattern and form ( e.g. have, past participle)
lexical restrictions ( since/for)
concept/function or meaning ( experiences) when we use it
common problems ( confusion with sentences)
AUDIOLINGUAL METHOD
Not many structures but lots of model sentences were presented to greatest benefit of younger rather than adult learners. This method used repetition and pattern drilling
CONTRASTIVE ANALYSYS THEORY
Potential problem areas can be predicted by analysing differences between grammars which need to be studied and compared in order to improve language teaching
COGNITIVE APPROACH/THEORIES
This approach advocates cognitive i.e. conscious awareness of the structure of the target language. The conscious study of grammatical rules will ensure practical command of the language in question. It is better to teach rules than structures.
COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING
CLT suggests that grammar is one element language speakers use to express meanings and it should taught meaningfully rather than through repetition and meaningless drills. Items should be taught in context and the hole context has to be presented.
SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITUION THEORY
Both adults and children can acquire foreign language rules unconsciously from input if the conditions of learning are right, that is if the input is at the right level and if it is comprehensible, if there is an emphasis on meaning, if the environment is anxiety-free and if the learner is allowed a “silent period” - they will speak when ready, after enough input.
Ways of teaching grammar:
Convert grammar teaching:
It relates to the way in which grammatical rules are not openly stated but hidden from students. i.e. new grammatical points or structures are introduced or practiced but students' attention is attracted to the activity they are performing or the text they are reading, not to the grammar itself.
Overt grammar teaching:
It means that learners are openly provided with grammatical information - rules and explanations, the grammar of the foreign language is taught explicitly.
Discovery techniques:
Learners are presented with samples and examples of language and requested to work out how it works
Language functions:
It is believed that language is used to do things, that is perform certain actions like inviting, apologising, introducing, suggesting, expressing likes, and so on instead of teaching grammar, functions should be taught, which are, on the other hand, composed of grammatical elements. So the best solution seems to teach a grammatical structure and then get students to use it as part of functional conversation.
Drills:
the aim of a drill is to give students rapid practice in using a structural item
advantage: any mistakes
disadvantage: not very creative
they are mechanical activities used for practicing a specific language item in a controlled way
There are various types of drills:
repetition drill - repetition after the model sentence exactly the same structure or intonation; it is completely mechanical and can be done absent-mindedly
simple substitution drill - model sentence is given and some other word(s) to substitute in a given place in the model sentence, students are required to substitute a single item only
variable substitution drill - both the model sentence and the prompts are given, students are required to carry out desired changes not simply substituting items but also adopt form where necessary
progressive substitution drill - teacher gives the model sentence and than prompts which need to be used in different parts of the newly formed sentence, this requires thinking and alteration of other words as well.
response practice - question - answer activities
transformational drill/conversion - they are used to practice changes, changing affirmative sentences into questions or into negatives, indirect statements into direct, active voice into passive etc.
sentence modifications:
expansion - given a sentence and an additional word, it has to be inserted into the sentence in the proper place
deletion - some elements are deleted from the sentence
completion - completing a sentence
Interaction activities
Students exchange information in an interesting way. Information known to one student can be slightly different from the partner's, so they must ask questions and exchange information
Games:
useful for grammar work
they also help teacher to create context in which the language is useful and meaningful
Types of grammar practice, from accuracy to frequency
awareness: students have been introduced to the structure and they do a task that focuses their attention on its form or meaning. Students are given extracts from newspapers and they are asked to find and underline all the examples of a certain tense.
controlled drills: learners produce examples of structures which are however predetermined by the teacher or textbook e.g. they have to write or say statements about John modelled on the example: John drinks tea bud doesn't drink coffee.
like: ice cream/cake
speak: English/Italian
enjoy: playing football/chess
meaningful drills; consistent with truth (about the children's likes and dislikes), choice of the vocabulary is limited
guided meaningful practice: learners form sentences of their own according to a set pattern, but vocabulary is up to them e.g. If I had a million dollars, I would...
(structure based) free sentence composition: they are provided with a visual or situational cue a picture that they should describe using appropriate tense
(structure based) discourse composition: learners hold discussion or write a passage according to given structure (task) e.g. they are directed to include modals
free discourse: no specific directions to use structure
Teaching Pronunciation
What to teach:
- individual sounds (with phonemic distinctions) bit - bet
- diphthongs - hear , boy
- consonants clusters - school, train
- linkage of sounds
- stress patterns
- sentences stress and rhythm
- intonation
How to teach sounds:
- say the sound alone
- say the sound in the word
- contrast it with other sounds
- write words on the board
- explain how to make the sound
- get students to repeat the sound in chorus
- get individual students to repeat the sound
Practicing of individual sounds:
- the adoption of minimal pairs (pairs of words that only differ in one feature)
- use of missing words
- making sentence
- games
The Listening Skills:
- passive or receptive skill
- it comes first
- through active listening students acquiring vocabulary and syntax and better pronunciation
Sub-skills of listening:
- ability to follow the general trend of what is said
- ability to understand specific details
- ability to check a specific preknowledge against what is said
- ability to understand the speaker's attitude
Real-life listening:
a) "casual listening" (with no particular purpose)
b) "focused listening" (with concentrating)
What makes real life listening difficult:
- trouble with sounds
- trying to understand every word
- speed
- one hearing seems not enough
- difficulty in keeping up
- tiredness
Why it is difficult to understand a native speaker:
- listener's limited vocabulary
- different intonation, stress, grammatical patterns
- different to infer the meaning of a word from a context
- different sound system
- presence of a weak and strong forms of pronunciation
- the speed
- the elaborate and difficult language
Listening for comprehension:
1. Listening and making no response
a) following a written test
b) listening to a familiar text e.g. songs
c) listening aided by visuals (pictures, diagrams)
d) informal teacher - talk
e) entertainment
f) stories
g) songs
h) films and TV programmes
2. Listening and making short responses:
- physical movements
- constructing models
a) obeying instructions (picture dictation)
b) ticking off items
c) true/false exercises
d) detecting mistakes
e) aural cloze (like a cloze text, with a written or without written text)
f) guessing definitions
g) noting specific information
h) pictures (identifying and ordering altering and marking)
i) maps
j) ground plans
k) grids - rectangles marked off into squares to display different kinds of information
l) family tree
m) graphs
3. Listening and making longer responses
a) repetition and dictation
b) paraphrasing
c) translating
d) answering questions
e) foreseeing
f) filling blanks/gaps
g) summarizing
4. Listening as the basis for study and discussion
a) problem solving
b) jigsaw listening
c) interpretative listening
d) evaluative and stylistic analysis (to analyze style and its influence)
The Speaking Skills:
Features of spoken language:
- processing conditions (in producing and understanding)
- reciprocity (there must be speaker and listener)
- facilitation (making things easier)
*simplification of messages during conversation
* ellipsis - leaving things out
* formulating expression - to keep the conversation going
* fillers and hesitation devices - to organize thoughts
- compensation (correction and alteration), reformulation
* self-correction
* false starts
* repetition
* rephrasing
Routines:
- conventional ways of presenting information which can either focus on information or interaction
* story telling
* greetings
* giving instructions
2 types:
1) informational routines - description of people, places, facts
2) interaction routines - relationship between two people, speaking is more important, less predictable
Genre - a type of discourse, both written or spoken e.g. lectures, conversations, speeches, notices etc. each of whoch has its typical, distinctive features - it's similar to routines, certain types of discourse follow certain patterns, yet it is longer than routines (conversations, monologues)
The text (oral or written) produced by learners and its context can be discussed in terms of:
a) field - referred to what the text is about
b) tenor - relationship between text receiver and text producer
c) mode - written or spoken i.e. the role assigned to language
Negotiation skills
- to ensure better or proper understanding of their utterances and intended meaning
a) negotiation of meaning
b) management of interaction
Different activity:
- role play
- simulation
- discussion
- problem solving
The Reading Skills
Purpose of teaching reading skills:
Importance to realize the difference between teaching reading skills and teaching "texts"
Teaching reading skills - aims at preparing students to be able to read other texts
Teaching texts - aims at understanding only the text being read in class, memorizing the content, students are to understand the text and structures presented in it.
Efficiency - balancing the effort exercised with the results achieved:
Transfer of skills:
Global approach
- to get the gist of a text, the overall meaning of the text (they should use what they know o understand unknown elements)
Text selection
2 kinds of texts:
a) presentation text - non-authentic text, short, simple to present structures, allow 100 % comprehension without too much difficulty
b) skills-practice text - to practice reading skills, usually authentic but if not, teacher should use simplified authentic texts; most skills are practiced on real authentic texts
Reading techniques:
1. skimming - to get the gist of
2. scanning - quickly going through the text to find specific information
3. contextual guessing - guessing the meaning of unknown word from the surroundings context
4. cloze exercise - blank filling
5. outlining - note taking
6. paraphrasing
7. jigsaw reading/scrambled stories - reordering
8. information transfer - e.g. drawing a route map
9. making inferences - reading between lines
10. extensive reading - for pleasure, long texts, individual global understanding
11. intensive reading - short texts to extract specific information
12. passage competition - finishing a reading passage
Different types of reading tasks:
- re-reading - focusing on meaning, developing expectations about text, proving reason for reading text
- while-reading - getting meaning of text by using appropriate strategies and skills
- post-reading - feedback on reading, integrating with other skills
Various types of texts:
- specially written
- simplified authentic texts
- authentic texts
The Writing Skills
Teaching of this skill should proceed through controlled, guided to free writing
Function of writing:
- reinforcing and consolidating what has been learnt orally 9 store in learners` minds more easily)
- needed for correspondence notes, essays and in situation where oral communication doesn't seem to be appropriate
- provides" a means of individual and sometimes quite personal expressions"
Kinds of writing:
> notation - graphic representation of spoken utterance
> spelling - when "recognizable units of the foreign language are involved"
> writing practice - more advanced form of writing - the written representation of combinations of words which might be spoken in specific circumstances
> composition - ideas are expressed in a coherent and cohesive way using specialized vocabulary and structure appropriate to the piece of writing.
Why we teach writing:
- course validity - every skill should be taught
- skills training - for professional purposes
- study skills - ability to make notes
- memory - for visual learners
- accuracy - for practicing using structures
- rounding up - gathering activities
- transfer of skills
Problems with teaching writing:
a) strong correlation between writing skills in L1 and L, who are not good writers and may have problems (or they can improve in both)
b) correction is time consuming
c) students unwillingness
d) negative feedback may discourage the students
e) solitary activity
Stages in process writing:
- generating ideas (by brainstorming, using visuals etc.)
- focusing - deciding what you want to say
- structuring - ordering information
- drafting - ways of beginning and ending different stories
- evaluating - establishing criteria
- re-viewing
Approaches To Teaching Writing:
1. The Controlled-To-Free Approach
Students work on a given material and perform strictly prescribed operations on it. With controlled composition it's hardy to make mistakes and teacher doesn't waste time in correcting them. Free compositions are practiced where they are not restricted and are able to express their own ideas and they are practiced when they reach certain level of proficiency
- stresses grammar, syntax and mechanics
- stresses accuracy rather than fluency or originality
2. The Free-Writing Approach
- fluency is stressed, not worrying about the form
- accuracy, organization and mechanics follow fluently
- audience (reader) and content is very important
3. The Paragraph-Pattern Approach
- places emphasis on organization rather on accuracy of fluency
4. The Grammar-Syntax-Organization Approach
- attention to organization as well as grammar and syntax
5. The Communicative Approach
- stresses the purpose of the writing and the audience for it (writing is a truly communicative act when a writer writes for a real reader) - they respond ( rewrite in a different form, summarize, make comments but not correct)
6. The Process Approach
- stresses of process of writing itself not the product
- writers think how to begin and organize the task, not about the audience and purpose
Stages in process writing:
- generating ideas (by brainstorming, using visuals etc.)
- focusing - deciding what you want to say (techniques: loop writing - getting students to write a paragraph and a sentence which summarizes the paragraph, the sentence becomes the 1st sentence of the next paragraph)
- structuring - ordering information
- drafting - ways of beginning and ending different stories
- evaluating - establishing criteria
- re-viewing
Controlled writing
- the outcome is wholly predictable (result)
- at this stage writing is supposed to help students to learn by writing new words and structures which is hopeful in focusing on the material that is being learnt
Guided writing
- freer type of writing activity in which students go beyond basic skills of sentence and produce paragraphs. To enhance the process, teacher can guide the writing through giving short model text of doing "oral preparation for the writing"
Parallel writing
- students are requested to make changes in given passages or write in accordance with the suggested outline, they produce their own writing in a similar manner
Free writing
- equivalent of free conversation among the writing skills
- can take form of descriptive, narrative, persuasive or argumentative passage, a letter etc.
17