Variety makes our diet interesting and enjoyable. Not only the wide choice of foods but also the ways to
prepare them allow for numerous variations. When grilling your food, using an open flame, frying or
smoking your food it is important that you pay attention to a few simple food handling and cooking tips.
Doing so will make your meal both enjoyable and safe to eat.
We have written previously about the importance of ensuring your food is fully cooked.
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Not only does cooking your food
properly help kill bacteria and improve biological safety, it also adds flavour; in fact, it is the browning process when
cooking meat, many vegetables and grains that adds taste to these foods. However, overcooking your food can raise
safety concerns. Achieving the right balance between undercooking and overcooking plays an important part of enjoying
your food and keeping you safe.
The good news is that getting it right is easier than you think; it’s really just common sense and applying the cooking
lessons that we learned when we were young: don’t char your meat when cooking or grilling it; don’t burn your toast or
other starchy foods; and make sure you use clean oil when frying your food. The science behind these rules is complex but you will find an overview in
the following sections:
Don’t Char Your Meat
Overcooking meat – including beef, pork, poultry and fish – can lead to the formation of some potentially harmful substances such as Nnitroso
compounds and heterocyclic amines, or HCAs for short. These compounds have been linked to adverse health effects in animal experiments (e.g. DNA
damage, cancer), so it is best to be careful and reduce your exposure. There are some simple tips to help you avoid HCAs and enjoy cooked meat
safely:
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Shorten time on the grill: Use a thermometer to gauge the meat temperature so it can be removed as soon as it’s ready to eat. According to
the UK Food Standards Agency, when cooking poultry, fish, minced/chopped meat such as burgers, and sausages, the centre of the meat
should reach a temperature of at least 70°C for two minutes before being removed.
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Marinate meat: Research indicates that marinating meat – in beer, red wine, teriyaki sauce, olive oil, or another marinade of your choice –
can help protect against and reduce the formation of hazardous compounds.
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Remove burnt meat: Be sure to remove and throw away charred portions of meat before eating, and avoid using gravy made from meat
drippings.
Don’t Burn Your Toast Or Other Starchy Foods
Overcooking should be avoided when cooking other foods as well. High temperature cooking of high starch foods such as breads, cereals, potatoes and
crackers naturally forms a compound called acrylamide, which has also been linked to adverse health effects in animal experiments (e.g. DNA damage,
cancer).
4,5
According to the World Health Organization, “the information available on acrylamide so far reinforces general advice on healthy eating,
including moderating consumption of fried and fatty foods.”
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Acrylamide formation can be reduced by the following measures
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:
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Avoiding excessive crisping or burning when frying foods;
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Boiling potatoes or microwaving whole potatoes with the skin on (“microwavebaked potatoes”);
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Toasting bread to a light brown colour rather than a dark brown colour. Avoid eating very brown areas altogether;
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Cooking cut potato products, such as frozen french fries or potato slices, to a golden yellow colour rather than a brown colour.
Use Clean Oil When Frying Food And Avoid Big Flames When Cooking
Frying food in overused cooking oil not only affects the taste of the food, but it also results in the production of chemicals called polycylic aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAHs).
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The European Food Safety Authority has identified PAHs as a health concern and encourages people to avoid it by cooking with
clean oil – which not only improves the taste but is also better for you.
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PAHs can also form during other cooking that involve high temperatures and
fats/oils, such as when meat is smoked or when naturally occurring oils in fish, meat, or sauces are heated. When fat and juices from meat drip on hot
surfaces where food is cooking, flames and smoke can rise up and allow the PAHs to stick to the surface of the meat. So make sure you use clean oil
(discard oil that gives off bad odour), trim the fat from your meat and avoid cooking with big flames and too much smoke.
Cooking your food should be fun and following these simple tips grilling, frying, cooking with a flame and smoking your food can be safer.
References
1. EUFIC Food Today n°14 (1999). A Safe Approach to Outdoor Eating. Available at:
www.eufic.org/article/en/artid/safeoutdoor
2. FSA (2002). Guide to Food Hygiene. Available at:
http://www.food.gov.uk/multimedia/pdfs/foodhygieneguide.pdf
3. Melo A et al. (2008). Effect of Beer/Red Wine Marinades on the Formation of Heterocyclic Aromatic Amines in PanFried Beef. J Agric Food
Chem 56(22):10625–10632.
4. US FDA (2008). Additional Information on Acrylamide, Diet, and Food Storage and Preparation. Available at:
5. European Commission website, Food and Feed Safety section. Food Contaminants Acrylamide. Available at:
http://ec.europa.eu/food/food/chemicalsafety/contaminants/acrylamide_en.htm
6. WHO website, Projects and Programmes, Food Safety section. Frequently asked questions acrylamide in food. Available at:
http://www.who.int/foodsafety/publications/chem/acrylamide_faqs/en/index.html
7. European Commission website, Food and Feed Safety section. Food Contaminants Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH). Available at:
http://ec.europa.eu/food/food/chemicalsafety/contaminants/pah_en.htm
8. EFSA (2007). Findings of the EFSA data collection on polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in food. Available at:
http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/33r.htm
Cooking with a grill, over an open flame, frying or smoking your food: Tips to help you
enjoy your food safely
Many different factors affect the type of food chosen and consumed, but the skill to prepare
appropriate food plays an important role. A lack of skills in preparing and cooking food could impact
on health as it can limit choices. Can building people’s confidence in cooking food make Europeans
healthier?
Food choice in Europe
Food choice is a complex process and the factors influencing it differ throughout Europe.
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Typically, many
sociocultural factors determine which foods are chosen, and which dietary patterns emerge from these
choices. Culturally speaking, food can express hospitality, celebration and sociability. For many people,
mealtimes are seen as an opportunity to come together, giving pleasure and playing an essential role, especially in Southern
Europe, in strengthening social ties.
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Tradition also plays a part in food choice and food behaviour, passed through
generations, sometimes linked to ethical or religious beliefs.
Practical factors also influence the decisions regarding which food to buy, prepare and eat, including preferred taste among
competing alternatives parallel to ‘best price’ or the available options. The ability to plan and prepare a meal, alongside skills
and confidence in cooking, is currently attracting attention.
Cooking skills: a factor in food choice and health
The ability to prepare food, follow a recipe and the facilities available, can impact on people’s food choices. If a person
becomes reliant on foods requiring minimal preparation, or food prepared for them, it puts a constraint on their choice such
that consumers will become increasingly disconnected from food preparation.
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Since nutrition is known to play a major role in
health, food preparation and cooking skills have the potential to affect one’s wellbeing and health.
Research has also focused on cooking skills as a factor in socioeconomic dietary differences. Studies in the UK and Ireland
have shown an association between occupation or socioeconomic status and skills or confidence to cook, and suggested that
the lack of confidence and poor cooking skills contributes towards the lower fruit and vegetable intake of low socioeconomic
groups.
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Other European studies suggest that interventions targeting cooking skills could be an effective strategy to promote
healthy eating.
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Several cookingbased interventions have targeted disadvantaged groups as a means of narrowing the gap in dietrelated
health. One intervention in Scotland used a practical food skills intervention study in socially deprived areas, and showed a
small but positive effect on improving food choice and confidence in food preparation, which might be a useful starting point to
initiate dietary change.
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Afterschool cooking clubs have also been used as a model for enhancing both cooking skills and
community cohesion.
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Do Europeans know how to cook?
In many European countries, food is an important part of culture, and traditional dishes are associated with many countries.
However, it is becoming of concern that young people across Europe are not acquiring the basic skills of cooking that enable
them to have autonomy over the foods they choose.
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This degradation of traditional cooking skills in an era of culinary
transition, appears to be occurring despite increasing exposure to raw produce. In the UK, 10% of people cite not knowing how
to cook as a factor limiting their food choice.
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In fact, in the UK, this is such a concern that even government strategy
highlighted a need to improve young people’s cooking abilities. Conversely, cooking appears to be very popular, as indicated
by the popularity of TV cooking shows, cookery books and magazines, but this interest does not mean that the viewing is
applied in the kitchen.
It has been suggested that the demise of cooking skills could be as a result of women in today’s society increasingly going out
to work, whereas they traditionally took most responsibility for foodrelated activities in the home. This highlights that there is
a deskilling of foodpreparation tasks. In addition, studies have shown that most people learned to cook from their mothers;
pressure on working mothers may mean that cooking skills are not passed on to children.
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This manifests as increased reliance
on convenience foods.
Recent years have seen an evolution in cooking, moving from almost entirely raw ingredients to convenience foods now widely
available.
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The choice to use convenience products depends on a number of factors, including social and economic factors as
well as culinary skills. However, cooking skills do not always guarantee that a meal will be prepared from ‘scratch’, as other
skills such as menu planning, knowledge and cooking facilities are also important. Moreover, some degree of skill may also be
needed to prepare some convenience foods. Food preparation skills today may be different to those used by previous
generations.
At a time of increased concern regarding food sustainability, food skills go beyond cooking and nutrition, with food choices
having implications for society.
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The rise of ready meals and convenience foods
One factor that has been explored is the increasing use of readymeals and convenience foods. This is particularly significant in
the UK where consumption of convenience foods is the highest in Europe and food is cooked less from raw ingredients.
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However, even in France, which is more strongly traditional regarding cooking meals from basic ingredients, with great
emphasis on structured mealtimes and the social aspects of eating, there appears to be some shift towards convenience foods,
especially among young adults.
Convenience can be defined in a number of ways: time saving is one element of convenience, but in terms of meals,
convenience can also mean minimising the physical and mental effort that is needed for food preparation. Technological
innovations such as the microwave, cultural changes with multicultural societies introducing new foods, the increase in single
households, a decrease in families eating together and more women pursuing paid work for longer hours all lean towards an
increasing demand for more convenience foods.
A study from Switzerland showed that in general most people use convenience foods to some extent. The term ‘homemade
meal’ has been reinterpreted to include using some convenience products, such as canned tomatoes, frozen vegetables or
dried pasta. One study reported that even when prepared at home, most evening meals include some processed foods, with
Can cooking skills be the key to health?
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36% of dishes purchased in their finished form.
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With the growth in use of readymeals, concerns have been raised about their healthfulness. Researchers in Switzerland
reported that in general people have negative images of readymeals regarding their nutritional and health value.
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Those who
consumed the most readymeals perceived convenience foods as more timesaving, healthful and better value for money than
consumers reporting low consumption of readymeals.
Cooking to control diet and health
Food prepared at home tends to be more nutritious than that prepared away from home, and healthier dietary variety can be
achieved by people who regularly cook from fresh or raw ingredients.
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Furthermore, cooking from scratch gives the consumer
maximum flexibility in the choice of ingredients, and thus allows public health guidelines (related to nutrients such as salt,
saturated fat and sugar) to be followed more rigorously, to help achieve a nutritionallybalanced diet.
Research shows that those individuals who report being more involved in food purchase and preparation or who cook more
often, are more likely to meet dietary guidelines.
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Moreover, a dislike of cooking is associated with lower fruit and vegetable
intake.
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Lack of confidence may also be significant. In one Australian study, significantly more, and a greater variety of
vegetables were bought and prepared regularly in households where the main ‘cook’ had confidence in how to prepare them.
The study also showed that confidence to cook was lower amongst low socioeconomic groups.
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Health implications of cooking and eating together
Eating and cooking together is far more common in France than in England.
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Having a regular meal pattern and not skipping
breakfast is also more likely in France. However, even in France some degree of destructuring of eating habits is emerging,
though not to the same extent as in England. These differences might, in part, explain the higher prevalence of obesity in
England than in France.
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Many studies have shown that having family meals and other aspects of meal structure, including eating dinner with others is
significantly associated with a more nutritionally adequate diet, with higher intakes of fruit, vegetables, grains and calciumrich
foods.
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Conversely, research has shown that eating food prepared away from the home and eating on the run is linked to a
poorer diet, with higher intakes of total fat and saturates.
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Conclusions
In an era where dietrelated diseases continue to spread in large parts of Europe, there is great need to improve public health.
Reviving cooking skills, as well as building confidence to prepare good food, may have an enormously positive impact on food
choice and dietary intake. Potential ideas are to more widely include cooking classes in school curricula and to establish
structures in the home, including single households, that make cooking a fun experience for all ages.
References
1. Pettinger C et al. (2006). Meal patterns in Southern France and Central England. Pub Health Nutr 9:10201026.
2. EnglerStringer R. (2010). Food, cooking skills and health. Can J Diet Pract Res 71:141145.
3. Winkler E & Turrell G. (2009). Confidence to cook vegetables and the buying habits of Australian households. J Am Diet
Assoc 109: 17591768.
4. van den Horst K et al. (2010). Readymeal consumption: associations with weight status and cooking skills. Pub Health
Nutr 14: 239245.
5. Wrieden WL et al. (2007). The impact of communitybased food skills intervention on cooking confidence, food
preparation methods and dietary choices. Pub Health Nutr 10:203211.
6. Gatenby LA et al. (2010). Cooking Communities: using multicultural afterschool cooking clubs. Nutr Bull 36:108112.
7. Caraher M. (1999). The state of cooking in England: the relationship of cooking skills to food choice. Br Food J 109:590
609.
8. Larson NI et al. (2006). Food preparation and purchasing roles among adolescents: Associations with sociodemographic
characteristics and diet quality. J Am Diet Assoc 106:211218.
9. Larson NI et al. (2006). Food preparation and purchasing roles among adolescents: associations with sociodemographic
characteristics and diet quality. J Am Diet Assoc 106:20012007.
10. Larson NI et al. (2007). Family meals during adolescence are associated with higher diet quality and healthful meal
patterns during young adulthood. J Am Diet Assoc 107:15021510.
11. Larson NI et al. (2009). Making time for meals: Meal structure and associations with dietary intake in young adults. J Am
Diet Assoc 109:7279.
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Over the last few decades a succession of high profile food scares has shaken consumer
confidence in the safety of food products. In the EU these food scares were the major driving force
in the establishment of food safety legislation and infrastructure in order to restore confidence in
the food supply chain, ‘from farm to fork’.
Food safety controls, systems and legislation have been put in place across the European Union (EU) which
aim to control both microbiological and chemical hazards in the supply chain and, thereby, minimise the risk
to consumers’ health.
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The EU has established a comprehensive food safety strategy which ensures that the traceability of food
must be established at all stages of production, processing and distribution. This requirement relies on a ‘onestep back and
onestep forward’ approach which implies that food business operators have in place a system enabling them to identify their
immediate supplier(s) and their immediate customer(s). The high standards apply to food produced inside the EU and to food
imports.
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The EU food strategy has three core elements; (i) food safety legislation, (ii) sound scientific advice on which to base
decisions, and (iii) enforcement and control.
Sound scientific advice on which to base decisions
Scientific advice from the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) underpins all EU food and feed policy and legislation.
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EFSA
provides advice when legislation is being drafted and when policymakers are dealing with a food safety scare. In deciding what
action to take, the European Commission applies the precautionary principle, i.e. it will act without waiting for scientific
certainty if the scientists say there is a potential danger.
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Food safety legislation
Food safety legislation in the EU is comprehensive and covers food, animal feed, and extends to food hygiene, and it applies
the same high standards across all EU countries.
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The general rules for all food and feed are supplemented by special
measures in areas where specific consumer protection is necessary, such as the use of pesticides, food supplements,
colourings, antibiotics or hormones. There are specific standards that apply to adding vitamins, minerals and similar
substances to foods. The legislation also extends to products in contact with foodstuffs, such as plastic packaging.
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In 2006, an important development in food safety legislation was the introduction of the ‘Hygiene Package.’ This term refers to
a group of EU regulations that represent a reorganisation of the regulatory framework for food hygiene and safety. These
regulations clearly place the responsibility for food safety and hygiene across the entire food chain on the food business
operator, whatever position they occupy in the food production chain. Policing of these obligations is carried out by a number
of government agencies (usually Food and Veterinary Offices) involved in various regulation and enforcement activities. The
Hygiene Package builds on general food law established by EC Regulation 178 of 2002.
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This regulation also provided the legal
basis for the Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed (RASFF). This system has been operating within the European Community
since 1979, but it was the publication of the General Food Law (Regulation No 178/2002) which gave the RASFF legal status.
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The RASFF is primarily a tool for exchange of information between the central competent authorities for the regulation of food
and feed in the member states in cases where a risk to human health has been identified and measures are needed, such as
withholding, recall, seizure or rejection of the products concerned.
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When it comes to food contaminants, EU legislation stipulates that food containing an unacceptable level of any contaminant
cannot be put on the market. There are also maximum levels set for some contaminants of greatest concern to EU consumers,
either due to their toxicity or their potential prevalence in the food chain. These include aflatoxins, heavy metals (such as lead
and mercury), dioxins and nitrates.
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Enforcement and control
The EU Commission enforces feed and food law by checking that legislation has been properly incorporated into national law
and implemented by all EU countries, and through onthespot inspections in the EU and outside.
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This work is carried out by
the Food & Veterinary Office (FVO) based at Grange in Ireland. The FVO may check individual food production plants, but its
main task is to check that both EU governments and those of other countries have the necessary procedures in place for
checking that their own food producers are sticking to the EU’s high food safety standards. The FVO also plays a key role in the
development of EU policy in the food safety, veterinary and plant health sectors.
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References
1. European Commission (2011). Food safety – From Farm to Fork Available at:
http://europa.eu/pol/food/index_en.htm
. Accessed on 24 March 2011.
2. European Commission (2007). 50 Years of Food Safety in the European Union. Luxembourg: Office for Official
Publications of the European Communities. Available at:
http://ec.europa.eu/food/food/docs/50years_foodsafety_en.pdf
. Accessed on 24 March 2011.
3. European Commission (2002). Regulation (EC) No 178/2002 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 28
January 2002 laying down the general principles and requirements of food law, establishing the European Food Safety
Authority and laying down procedures in matters of food safety. Available at:
lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:32002R0178:EN:NOT
4. European Commission (2009). The Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed (RASFF) Annual Report 2009. Available at:
http://ec.europa.eu/food/food/rapidalert/docs/report2009_en.pdf
. Accessed on 24 March 2011.
Food safety controls in the European Union
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